y^- ^^A-

Jr^ . '

.•'■«,' ^ ,^.-*-

'^

>:s«r

•^-'t

X J

ID^ An Extra Number of the Journal (No. 3) was published in May.

T Vol. II. No. 4.] JUNE, 1879. [ Price 3s.

Journal

OF THE

Royal
Microscopical Society;

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

AND OTHER INFORMATION AS TO

INVERTEBRATA AND CRYPTOGAMIA,
EMBRYOLOGY, HISTOLOGY, MICROSCOPY, &c.

Edited, under the direction of the Publication Committee, by

FRANK CRISP, LL.B., B.A., F.L.S.,

ONE OF THE SECRETARIES OF THE SOCIETY.

WILLIAMS & NORGATE,

LONDON AND EDINBURGH.

4^

FRINTBD BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS,]

JOUKNAL

or THE

EOYAL MICEOSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

VOL. II. No. 4.

CONTENTS.

Tbansactions of the Society — paou
XIX. On the Development and Eetrogression op the Fat-
cell. By George Hoggan, M.B,, and Frances Eliza-
beth Hoggan, M.D 353

XX. On some ^Supplications op Osmic Acid to Microscopic

Purposes. By T. Jeffery Parker, B.Sc, F.R.M.S. .. 381

XXI. Is NOT THE ROTIFEROTTS GeNUS PeDALION OP HuDSON
SYNONYMOUS WITH HeXARTHRA OP LUDWIG ScHMARDA ?

By Julien Deby, F.R.M.S 384

XXII. Note on M. Deby's Paper. By C. T. Hudson, LL.D.,

V.P.E.M.S 386

XXIII. An Illuminating Traverse-Lens. By Robert B.

Tolles, of Boston, Mass., U.S 388

XXIV. On the Occurrence op Recent Hbteropora. By

Arthur Wm. Waters, F.G.S. (Plate XV.) .. ..390

XXV. Note on Homogeneous Immersion Object-glasses. By

F. H. Wenham, F.R.M.S 394

Notes and Memoranda .. .. .. .. .. .. 395

Zoology.

Primitive Stripe in the Chick 395

Evolution of the Male and Female Genital Glands of Mammalia ,. . . 397

Natural Science Prizes of the Brussels Academy 397

Cells and Nuclei 397

Invertebrates of Kerguelen's Land 398

Blood-cells of the Acephala 398

Later Stages in the Development of Fresh-water Mussels 399

Locomotion of the Terrestrial Gasteropoda 399

Auditory Organs of the Heteropoda 401

Peculiarity in Littorina 401

Structure and Physiology of the Octopus 402

Neomerda and the other Amphineura 404

Anatomy of Chiton 404

Phenomena which precede the Segmentation of the Ovum in Helix aspersa .. 405

Liver and Digestion of the Cephalopodous Mollusca .. . . 405

New Tunicata 407

Gall-making Aphides 407

Buzzing of Insects 408

Larval Cases of Phryganeidx 408

Development of the Silkworm 409

Venomous Caterpillars 411

Abortion of the Hairs on the Legs of certain Caddis-Jlies 412

Comparative Embryology of the Insecta 413

Tracheal System of Glomeris " 414

Structure of the Hydrachnida 415

Acarina found parasitic in the Cellular Tissues and Air-sacs of Birds .. 415

Notes and Memoranda — continued. pagb

On some Genera of Acarina ^17

Parasitic Chyletidx 418

Intimate Structure of the Central Nervous System of Decapodous Crustacea 419

Functions of the Ganglionic Chain in the Decapodous Crustacea .. .. 419

Male Organs of the Decapodous Crustacea 420

Central Nervous System of the Crayfish 422

Heart of the Crayfish and Lobster 423

New Branchiopoda off the French Coasts 424

On the Crustacea of the Mozambique 425

Pneumonia produced by a Filarian Worm 425

On Sagitella ( Wagtier) 425

Embryogeny of Asteriscus verrunulaius 428

On the Skeleton of the Asteriadse 428

Besearches into the Hydrozoa 430

Spongicola fistidaris, a Eydroid inhabiting Sponges 431

Deep-sea Si phonophora ^ 432

Histological Characters and Development of Myriothela 432

Structure of the Aplysinidse 434

Structure of Spongelia 436

Evolution of the Infusoria from the Lower Protozoa 438

Acinetx and Vorticellse 438

Besearches on (he Acinetse 438

The Noctilucse 440

Flagellum of Euglena viridis 441

Botany.

Chemical Composition and Function of Leaves 442

Fermentation in the Tissues of Plants 442

Assimilation of Soda by Plants 443

Nutrition of Phanerogamic Parasites 444

Polyembryony, true and false, and its relation to Parthenogenesis . . . . 444

Luerssen's Handbook of Cryptogamic Botany 445

Anomalies in the Development of the Lowest Organisms 446

Influence of Light on the Movements of Mobile Spores 447

Entophytic and Entozoic {parasitic) Species of Cryptogams 448

Germination of the Schizssacem 451

Belationship of Oidium albicans and Mycoderma vini 453

Alcoholic Fermentation 453

Experimental Besearches on a Leptothrix 454

Sexuality of the Ascomycetes 454

Polymorphism of Agaricus melleus , 455

Conidia of Fistulina hepatica 456

Morphology and Biology of the Phycochromacese 456

Halosphxra, a 7iew Genus of Unicellular Algx 458

Black Mildew of Walls 459

MiOEOSCOPT.

Employment of Wet Collodion for Microscopic Sections 460

Method of Preserving the more delicate and perishable Animal Tissues . . 461

Preparation and Preservation of the Lower Organisms 462

Another Method of Preserving Bacteria, &c 464

Mounting Noctiluca miliaris 464

Searching for Trichinse 465

Method of Studying the Structure of Vegdahle Matter 465

Tldn Stages 465

Contrivance for Holding Objects beneath the Stage 466

New Microtome 466

Electrical Mounting Table 469

English Microscope for Students of Mineralogif and Petrology 470

Female Microscopical Society 472

Oblique Illumination 473

Limits of Accuracy in Measurements with the Microscope 473

Boyal Society Conversazione 473

Bibliography .. .. ,. .. ., .. .. .. 474

Peoobbdings op the Society .. .. .. .. ., .. 488

HENRY CROUCH'S

FIEST-CLASS MICEOSCOPES

(JACKSON MODEL),

OBJECTIVES, AND ACCESSORIES.

Catalogue, fully Illustrated, on Amplication.

HENRY CROUCH, 66, Barbican, London, E.G.

jOTji;..H..Mic.t;oc vcj..li.pi.x;a[ .

i»i.->,/\V',v,...„.&.i

D e"veJopm erit & R.etT^ogvres ft ion of One H'sLtCelJ

UR It M C Sf ^ 'OL I HI

■i*^ I

h -<■■■■

/v- c^i^**'

^, ^

W--' %^^
r

/1r

-, ,|

«^

^ ?^

^^I'^B- ; '^-^'■" ■%.

DevelopiTiei^t ^cReti^ogressioii of the Fat CelJ

LIBRARY
JOURNAL BOTANICAJL

OF THE "JARDJEN

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

JUNE, 1879.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

XIX, — On the Development and Betrogression of the Fat-cell.
By George Hoggan, M.B., and Fkances Elizabeth Hoggan, M.D.

(Bead 12th March, 1870.)

Plates XIII. and XIV.

Part I. — Development of the Fat cell.

If in the animal body there be one element whose simple struc-
ture and generally accessible position would lead us to expect that
its life-history could easily be traced, and that consequently a
general unanimity of opinion regarding it must necessarily exist

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLxVTES.
Plate XIII. — Development of Fat-cells.

Fig. 1. — First deposition of fat in wandering cells retracted into a globular
form, from broad ligament of pregnant mouse, a. First appearance of fat in a
cell as two minute oil-globules, h, c, d, e, f. Cells in which gradual increase of
contained fat can be traced towards the capillary, g. Cells similar to a in which
no fat has as yet been deposited. All the above cells lie beneath the endothelium
and in the matrix of the membrane, h. A wandering cell with constricted
nucleus lying in one of the h.des iu the membrane, and therefore on the free
surface; it is evidently only a younger form of '/ and h. i,j. Still younger spe-
cimens of wandering cells lying on the free surface of the membrane ; i has two
nuclti. k. Nuch i of the endothelium covering both surfaces of the membrane.

Fig. 2. — Eelation of fat - tracts to wandering cells, from mesentery of rat.
d, e. Members of a shoal of wandering cells lying on free surface of endothelium.
a. A member of (he same kind of cells, but lying beneath the surface of the
endothelium, h, c. Cells similar to the above, but further advanced, lying also
underneath the endothelium and becoming fat-cells ; b has already" two fot-
globules within it, and has atttched itself to the group of fat-cells of which / is
a fully developed specimen. Only the cell-markings of the upper surfi ce endo-
thelium are drawn, except at a, where the dotted line marks the low" surface
cell-markings.

Fig. 3. — First depositicm of fat in wandering cells fixed in their branhed con-
dition, from the broad ligament of a pregnant mouse. All these cells lie in the
matrix of the membrane. Nuclei of endothelium not inserted.

Fig. 4.— Fat-cells developing centrally as regards the blood-vessel, from the
broad ligament of a pregnant rat. g, g. Fat beginning to be deposited in cells
close to the blood-vessel, a, a. Cells fully distended with fat, lying farther away
from bldoil-vessel ; in these cells the fat has been slowly and steadily accumu-
lating. 6, 6. Cells containing many fat-globules, the result of rapid deposition.

Fig. 5. — From the mesentery of a rat found starving, to which plenty of rich

VOL. n. '^ 2 A

354 Transactions of the Society.

amongst observers, we might certainly suppose that the fat-cell was
that element.

Instead of this unanimity, however, we find the most opposite
opinions held at the present day as to its origin alone, while about
its disappearance, so far as we can discover, nothing really definite
is known. We therefore propose in this paper to trace the life-
history of the fat-cell from its origin in the wandering cell, its
development, its decline, and its final disappearance from the stage
under the same form in which it made its first appearance there.

food was given, and the animal killed twenty hours afterwards. Tissue treated
■with silver, osmic acid, and logwood solutions, b, c, d. Cells in which many-
globules of fat have been deposited rapidly. These cells were probably previously
fot-cells from -which the fat had been absorbed, as seen in Figs. 9 and 10.
/■, q. Cells from which fat had not only been absorbed, but whose protoplasm had
been disintegrating by granular exodus, as seen in Figs. 10, 12, and 13. The
return of nutriment sent the granules back to the cell, where they now
stain so intensely as in most cases to hide the nucleus. In g the nucleus is
visible, and although stained as deeply as the nuclei of the neighbouring cells, it
appears almost colourless as compared with the intense blue of the clustering
granules round it. a. Vein, h, h. Nuclei of the endothelium.

Fig. 6. — Margin of a group of fully developed fat-cells, as they are generally
seen, from the mesentery of a guinea-pig, treated with silver and logwood solu-
tions and mounted in varnish, showing the effect of compression in making them
assume a polyhedral shape, a, a. Fat-cells whose free borders still retain the
circular form. 6, h. Fat-cells assuming tlie polyhedral form through pressure of
neighbouring fat-cells. This is the form in which they are found in nine cases
out of ten.

Fig. 7. — Fat becoming absorbed from fat-cells. From the omentum of a
young man who died of cancer and much emaciated. More than one-half of the
contained fat has been absorbed from the cells.

Fig. 8. — Fat-absorption in a further advanced stage than Fig. 7, from the
subcutaneous tissue of a young man who died of Eastern leprosy, much emaciated.
Tissue treated with osmic acid and picro-carinine. Some of these cells still retain
the angular form they possessed when fully distended with fat and compressed
by neighbouring fat-cells.

Plate XIV.

Fig. 9. — Still further advanced stage of fat-absorption, from the broad liga-
ment of a pregnant mouse, found almost dead from starvation. In this specimen
the first stage of retrogression — that of fat-absorption — is seen completed, a, a.
Monoglobular fat-cells, once fully distended, by fat now undergoing absorption.
b, b. Multiglobular fat-cells undergoing fat-absorption in tire multighjbnlar con-
dition, c, c. Fat-cells from which all the fat has been absorbed, d, d. Nuclei of
the surface endothelium, e, e. Edge of dense tract of exhausted fat-cells lying
along lines of great blood-vessels. /. Capillary blood-vessel. No difference is
traceable between the fat-cells in man and those of the smaller mammals.

Fig. 10. — From the same preparation as Fig. 9, showing the commencement of
the second stage in retrogression of the fat-cell, when the cell-substance breaks up
and moves off in the form of granules, h. Group^^of exhausted fat-cells from which
all the fat has become absorbed, a. General b1-eak up of one of the cells of the
group ; the granules are seen passing away from it in every possible direction.
6, c. Similar cells, in which the break-up is even further advanced. /. Spindle-
shaped cell belonging to a capillary now broken up. A. Nuclei of surface
endothelium.

Fig. 11. — From the same animal as Fig. 5, where fat has been deposited
in cells similar to those seen in group h. Fig. 10. These cells had undergone
granular change but not exodus, so that the newly formed fat-globules appear

Development, &g., of the Fat-cell. Bij G. and F. E. Eoggan. 355

This task proves much simpler than might have been expected,
considering the opposite opinions held on the subject, partly owing
to the modifications we have introduced into methods of preparation
of tissues for examination, and partly because we find that the
opposite opinions referred to are due principally to the fact that
observers have regarded the same cell element from difierent points
of view, in difierent shapes, and under different aliases ; so that,
while those who have examined it from the front have insisted that
the fat was first developed in a flat or round cell, those who have

iuiLedded in a granular matrix, unlilje that in Fig. 5, which is transparent and
had not retrograded so far as in this figure, a, a. Exhausted and granular fat-
cells in which fat has been re-deposited, h. Similar cell, from which some of
the fat has been extruded, but its protoplasm, having been previously fixed by
silver and osmic acid, has not contracted, c. Granular cells which had under-
gone exodus, but to which the granules have returned, d. Wandering cell.
Preparation stained with logwood.

Fig. 12. — Preparation from a rat which died of old age, showing a mass of
fat-eells undergoing granular exodus and moving off f*t )«ass6'from the bed where
they had been formed, a. Wandering cell. h. Exhausted fat-cells which have
not undergone granular exodus, c, c. Fat-cells undeigoing granular exodus and
moving off en masse. Preparation treated with silver, osmic acid, and picro-
carmine.

Fig. 13. — From the same prep;iration as Figs. 9 and 10 ; .shows the end of the
second stage of retrogression of the fat-cell, u, a. Fat-cells in a further advanced
stage of exodus than those in Figs. 10 and 12. b. Cell in the last stage of granular
exodus, nucleus and cell-outline again becoming distinct, d, d. Group of cells in
a branched condition, and still containing a few granules. They appear to be
the wandering c( lis, resulting from original fat-cells, lying in the same position
as the group c. f. Spiudle-sliaped cells, resulting from the break-up of capillaries
that were distributed to the now absorbed fat-tract, q. Large blood-vessel, now
contracted and about to break up into spindle-cells, h. Nuclei of suiface
endothelium.

FiG. 14. — From the same animal as Fig. 12 ; shows different stages in retro-
gression of fat-cells, where the granules have returned, consequently upon some
short return of nutrition, c, e. Cells in a fat-tract which have not yet undergone
granular break-up. c, c. Cells undergoing granular exodus. 6, h. Cells which have
undergone granular exodus, but to which the granules have returned, a. A cell
midway in condition between b and c, and which is assuming the branched or
wandering condition. /. Nuclei of surface endothelimn. d. Capillary of fat-
tract. Preparation treated with silver, osmic acid, and logwood.

Fig. 15.— From mesentery of young rat weaned natundly by its mother about
a week previously, consequently upon which, although well supplied with food, it
had become very lean, and showed granular cells in tl.e branched or wandering
condition, a, a. Branched granular cells lying alongside a blood-vessel, to be
compared with the ordinary branched cells, b, b, commonly called connective-
tissue cells, but virtually wandering cells.

Fig. 16. — From the same animal us Fig. 15, showing granular cells a, a, lying
amidst a group of ordinnry wandering cells b, b, in a natural hole of the broad
ligament of the liver, and, therefore, on its free surface, which they have
probably reached as seen in Fig. 15. These cells are now in the condition of
cell h. Fig. 1, with which v/e commenced, and in the same preparation differei\t
stages of the granular cells may be traced, until they end in the ordinary
wandering cell.

All these drawings have been made by the camera lucida, under the same
power of 800 diameters, reduced afterwards one-half except Figs. 9 and 11
reduced to one-third. When not otherwise stated, the tissues have been fixed
by silver, stained by pyrogallate of iron, and mounted in glycerine.

2 A 2

356 Transactions of the Society.

seen it edgeways have as stoutly maintained that it was developed
from a branclied or spindle cell.

Thus it is that Flemming, whose researches, published nine
years ago, are prolably the most extensive on this subject, not only
insists that fat-cells are developed from the branched fixed cells of
the connective tissue alone, but he emphasizes this opinion by
declaring that he commenced his investigations in the full belief
that fat-cells were developed from wandering cells, and that his
investigations forced him to give up this his original idea. Klein
also, whose opinions on this question are probably the latest that
have appeared in English, does not seem to have worked out the
question for himself, but accepts and teaches Flemming's conclu-
sions, with the exception of the one where Flemming holds that the
fat-cells are developed from the adventitia of blood-vessels.

He also specially refers his readers to the branched cells of the
fossa infraorbitalis of rabbits as the most suitable in which to
study the development of fat-cells, and states " that he thinks it
unnecessary to warn his readers agamst the possible assumption
that the lymph-corpuscles are the elements which become converted
into fat-cells."

Ivanvier, in his ' Traite d'Histologie,' now being published,
states distinctly that fat-ceUs are developed from round cells
(corps globuleux), and gives drawings which are characteristically
clear and trustworthy. He states that he is entirely opposed to
Flemming's ideas, and holds that the round cells from which fat-cells
are developed are special in their character even from their origin.
Of other observers we may briefly note that EoUett holds the
opinion that fat-cells are developed from small round granular cells.
Virchow and Frey say that in the embryo they are developed from
round cells, but they agree with Von Wittich and Foerster that in
the intermuscular connective tissue and in pathological formations
they are developed from spindle and branched cells. Czajewicz
holds that they are developed from small, delicate, flattened cells,
which look like spindle-cells when seen edgeways, but he does not
even mention the wandering cells, although they were well known
when he wrote. Toldt, again, believes that fat-tracts are glandular
in their nature ; and lianvier agrees with him so far as to call a fat-
cell a unicellular gland. According to Toldt, these glands (fat-
tracts) develop from special centres in the embryo, whereas in the
adult fat-cells are only developed from pre-existing fat-cells.

Turning now to our own researches, we wish first to state that
we can see no reason lor specially studying the growth of fat-cells
in the embryo. They are not embryonic structures in the ordinary
sense of the term, but are merely adjuncts to the processes of nutri-
tion, whether found in adult or embryo, the process of development
being similar in both ; and in studying their life-history under the

Development, &c., of the Fat-cell. By G. and F. E. Hoggan. 357

Microscope we are studying physiological changes rather than special
anatomical elements, changes which, in the space of a few clays, may
pass from the first appearance of fat in a cell to its fall development,
and subsequent decline and disappearance.

While the conclusions of many of the observers we have enume-
rated have been arrived at on the bodies of fishes, frogs, porpoises,
&c., we have specially drawn our conclusions from investigations
carried out on the smaller mammals, as bearing more directly
upon man, and wherever possible we have compared these with pre-
parations from the human body, with the result of finding complete
identity throughout. Contrary, however, to the opinion of many
authorities, we have found the serous membranes the most useful
for our investigation, being enabled to utilize these by virtue of special
methods of our own, which we shall describe. Of these membranes the
most serviceable is the growing broad
ligament of pregnant rats and mice ; for
the growth of this thin structure during
their short term of gestation is so rapid,
that the developing cells and other
structures remain isolated, having no
time to form themselves into the dense
masses which seem to have foiled other A, Upper ring ; B, Lower ring;
observers. Indeed, confining one's ex- C, Membraiie between them.

aminations to sections of tissue, as

recommended, would render it impossible to see the most interest-
ing of the phenomena in the life of the fat-cell, which can
only be recognized in uninjured membranes, and at the extremes
of cell promontories or isolated cell groups or islands in such
membranes.

Before ever the membrane is excised from the body of the
animal, it must be evenly stretched once for all, so as to keep the
lines of vessels apart from each other, and consequently the tracts of
fat-cells which lie close to them clear for examination. Moreover,
while the various reagents are gently applied, and the membrane
is being continually subjected to examination under the Microscope,
no fold must ever ruffle its surface, nor any object be touched by
it until it is permanently put up as a preparation.

These desiderata are obtained by using the histological rings
invented by us, of which we show specimens. They will be found
to be most simple and useful adjuncts in the biological laboratory.
These rings are always made in pairs, one fitting tightly upon the
other, with a certain amount of taper in each ; and when a piece of
membrane is jammed between them, the whole has the appearance
of a tambourine. They ought always to be made of vulcanite, as
metals are acted upon by acids ; bone, ivory, and other animal sub-
stances throw down salts like chloride of gold from their solutions ;

358 Transactions of the Society.

wliile glass, wood, &c., are too fragile for use. We have tliem made
of all diameters, but the most useful size for ordinary glass slides is
seven-eighths of an inch in diameter.

When, therefore, we wish to examine the serous membranes, the
animal must be killed gently by chloroform ; indeed, as soon as it
is insensible it ought to be even drenched with the anaesthetic, which
seems, when thus given in excess, to anaesthetize the individual cells
as well as the animal. No time should be lost by injecting the
animal, as by doing so at first we missed some most valuable indica-
tions ; but immediately after death the abdomen should be opened
up to the fullest extent, a portion of the uterus or intestine seized
with the forceps, and gently lifted up, so as to stretch the membrane
which attaches it to the back of the abdominal wall. Upon one sur-
face of this membrane the smaller ring of the pair is applied, and upon
the opposite surface the larger ring is adapted, and pressed gently
with a slight circular motion upon the smaller ring, so as not to
ruptm-e the delicate membrane, until it jams itself upon that smaller
ring, with the membrane lying between them. It may now be
snipped off with fine scissors external to the rings, thus separating
it from the rest of the body of the animal ; and we have then a
miniature tambourine formed, in which condition the membrane
remains until finally disposed of.

Our next step is to apply to either or both surfaces, with the
greatest care and without any preliminary washing, a half per cent,
solution of nitrate of silver in distilled water, and after a few
instants' exposure to its influence, the preparation is carefully
washed with distilled water, and exposed for a short time to a dull
northern light, until the desired action of the silver has been obtained,
as shown under the Microscope. We may now expect that not only
have the various cells forming the membrane been fixed in the con-
dition or shape they possessed during life, but that the shoals of
wandering cells, which are continually groping over the free surfaces
of the abdominal organs, will, as far as they existed upon the free
surface of our piece of membrane, be firmly fixed in situ, and the
whole may now be subjected to various staining processes.

Of these, by far the most suitable and generally used by us for
such tissues is the process invented by one of us, and described three
years ago in the Journal of the Quekett Club.

The tambourine membrane is first soaked for a few minutes
in spirit, to deprive it of water, and a 2 per cent, solution of
perchloride of iron in spirit is filtered upon it. After the lapse
of a few minutes a few drops of a 2 per cent, solution of pyro-
gallic acid in spirit is likewise filtered upon it, and in a few
minutes more, according to the depth of tint required, the whole
may be wjished in ordinary household water ; a few drops of glyce-
rine placed upon the membrane render it transparent, and it is

Development, &g., of the Fat-cell. By O. and F. E, Eoggan. 359

now ready for examination, or for being mounted permanently as
a preparation.

Although this process of staining is by far the quickest and best
for showing the development of fat in cells, it will be found advisable,
more especially when studying their disappearance, to reverse the
method, and, after treatment with silver solution, to treat the mem-
brane first with osmic acid, to render the fat quite black, and then
with logwood solution, to render the cells and their nuclei evident.
But whatever processes the membrane may be subjected to, it will
always be advisable to examine it from time to time under the
Microscope, the membranous surface of the tambourine being
placed uppermost on the stage ; and, as may easily be conceived, it
may thus be continually subjected to examination without touching
anything or its receiving any injury whatever.

Instead of commencing with the ancestry of the fat-cell, we find
it more convenient to start from the first appearance of fat-globules
within one, and to trace their gradual increase until we reach
the fully charged fat-cell. This condition is well shown in Fig. ],
from the broad ligament of the uterus in a well-nourished pregnant
mouse. At a we see the first sign of fat making its appearance, as
two minute oil-globules within a cell, one on each side of the cell-
nucleus. At h we have a stage further advanced, and notice three
fiat-globules within a cell, each of the globules being larger than
either of the two globules seen in the cell last described. In this way
we may trace the progressive development of fat in c, d, e, and /,
where the large fat-globules which fill the cells are on the point of
running together to form the fully developed fat-cells seen in Figs. 4
and 6. Let us now return to cell a, and proceed in the opposite
direction. All the cells we have referred to lie between the layers
of endothelium covering both surfaces of the membrane, or, in other
words, in the substance of the membrane itself. Now, there can be
no doubt that cell a is of the same nature as cell g, in which no fat-
globules have as yet appeared, and which lies like the rest in the
substance of the membrane. But g is evidently similar to cell h,
which is certainly a wandering cell lying external to the membrane,
for it has placed itself in one of the natural holes which are so
plentifully found in such membranes ; it is evidently similar to
the group of wandering cells seen near cell e, all of which, by the
binocular Microscope, may be seen to lie on the free surface of the
endothelium, over which they were travelling when the silver solu-
tion killed and fixed them in that position. Other minor features
stamp these as being wandering cells ; thus cell i possesses two
nuclei, h has a purse-shaped nucleus where the one is about to
become two, while aty we have the early stage or type of the newly
born wandering cell ; so that even without going further we might
venture to conclude that fat-cells are developed from wandering cells

360 Transactions of the Society.

in the substance of the membrane (in this case), and that these
ancestral cells are not special in their nature, as held by Kanvier,
but are purely and simply wanderers.

The relationship between the fat-cells and wandering cells may
be even more clearly traced in Fig. 2, from the mesentery of a rat,
where, lying between, or rather opposite the space between, two
groups of fat-cells, we see a portion of one of those shoals of wander-
ing cells, which may always be found on the free surface of such
membranes, lying sometimes like the lines of drift rubbish from a
receding tide, and at other times in clusters or buds attached by a
pedicle, if sufficient care has been taken not to rub or ruffle the
surface of the membrane or rudely to wash them away.

The fact that these cells are to be found scattered over the free
surface of such membranes, and unconnected with other structures,
is clear proof of their being wandering cells; and when we can
trace identity between them and similar cells becoming, or about to
become, fat-cells lying between the endothehum-covered surfaces,
the direct relationship between the two becomes evident.

In Fig. 2, with three or four exceptions, all the wandering cells
depicted there lie on the upper free surface of the membrane ; on the
opposite free surface of the membrane there were quite as many, but
to prevent confusion we have not drawn them. For the same
reason, we have only drawn the endothelium outlines on the upper
surface, except at cell a, where we have inserted in dotted lines
the outline markings of the endothehum on the lower surface of
the membrane, in order to show cleai'ly that cell a lies between the
surfaces in the substance of the membrane, and that it is identical
with cells c and d lying on the free surface, and forms a link
between these and cell h lying, like itself, between the endothelium-
covered surfaces, and which, as is shown by the two fat-globules within
it, is rapidly becoming a fat-cell belonging to the group of which
cell / is a fully developed fat-cell.

It has been urged as a reason for holding the progenitor of the
fat-cell to be a special form, distinct from the wandering cell, that
the latter is globular and the former flat and round ; but a glance at
such a group of wandering cells as is shown in Fig. 2 lets us see
both forms, with every variety of gradation between them. Young
wandering cells like d have so little protoplasm round their nucleus,
that they retain the globular form when exposure to cold or to silver
solution has forced them to retract their amoeboid processes and die
on the spot.

Full-grown wandering cells, on the other hand, with abundance
of protoplasm round their nucleus, like cells c, c, remain spread over
a certain extent of surface when subjected to the same conditions
as those affecting cells d, d. Every gradation of form may be seen
between these two extreme types, and we may also note that, when-

Bevelopment, Jtc, of the Fat-cell. By G. and F. E. Hoggan 361

ever a wandering cell is about to become a fat-cell, it develops a
considerable amount of protoplasm or cell-substance proper, which
increases likewise 2^(^'^'i ^assu with the growth of the fat within it,
so as to form a strong envelope for the great globe of fat in
the fully developed fat-cell.

Wandering cells, therefore, like e and / and especially a, with a
comparatively large amount of protoplasm, although apparently
round when viewed from the front, are also flat, and when viewed
edgeways they appear like long or spindle-shaped cells, thus causing
and accounting for a certain amount of confusion in the views and
descriptions of different observers ; for in the thick subcutaneous
tissue (unlike this thin membrane) in which it has been recommended
to study the development of fat-cells, these cells are seen as often
edgeways as any other way.

If we have succeeded in showing that fat-cells are developed
from wandering cells, and that the hastily assumed difference
between globular and flat round cells gives no ground for supposing
that the progenitors of the fat-cell were special even from their
origin, and if we have also succeeded in reconciling the views of
Eollett, lianvier, Czajewicz, and others, who have held respectively
that fat-cells were developed from flat and from round cells, are
we therefore to hold that Flemming and others, who have insisted
that fat was developed in branched cells, are wrong in their views ?
By no means ; and we hope to be able to show that they also
are correct, and that perhaps the chief cause of disagreement be-
tween observers lies in the fact that, by different methods or modi-
fications in methods of preparation, the same elements were shown in
all the different forms referred to. Even at the risk of appearing
prolix, we shall point out how slight modifications in preparation
have changed our views slightly, and appear to justify the opposite
opinions held by different observers.

When we tirst commenced this research some years ago, we were
careful to bleed the animal to death, after making it insensible by
chloroform, and after the blood had been withdrawn as much as
possible, the blood-vessels were filled with a coloured injection, and
the body was left to cool before we opened it to procure the membranes
for our preparations. In this way the preparations from which
Figs. 1, 2, and 4 were drawn, were made, and we believed that fat-
cells were specially developed from round or flattened wandering
cells. Some time afterwards, being in a hurry, we dispensed with
the preliminary bleeding, injecting, and cooling, and found that
we thus obtained singularly beautiful and illustrative specimens,
especially when the animal had been drenched with chloroform
after it was insensible. The vessels were still distended by fluid
blood, and all the wandering cells within the membrane were
found in a more or less branched condition, even when a large

302 Transactions of the Society.

number of fat-globules had become developed within them. In
this way the preparation from which Fig. 3 has been drawn was
made from the broad ligament of a pregnant mouse; and as an
example of the rapidity with which such a specimen can be made
by our special process, we may remark that within twenty minutes
after the animal had been brought to us to be destroyed, it was
killed by chloro'orm, opened, the membrane stretched on rings,
silvered and stained black, clarified, and mounted as a permanent
preparation.

Strange to say, when the first modification (by injection) was
practised, the wandering cells were found in great numbers on the
tree surfaces of the membranes, as if during bleeding, injecting, and
cooling they had endeavoured to make their way from the blood-
vessels or their neighbourhood to the serous cavities ; on the con-
trary, when the animal was quickly killed by chloroform and
opened, they were seldom seen on the free surfaces. In this case,
the jamming of the one ring upon the other keeps the blood-
vessels distended by fluid blood, and the first preparation thus
obtained is generally faultless, yet the very act of excising the rings
with membrane attached opens the blood-vessels left behind, and thus
a thin sheet of blood-corpuscles, scarcely noticeable to the naked eye,
comes to be spread on the surface of the remaining membrane, and
when silver solution is applied, the sheet of red blood-corpuscles
becomes fixed in situ, and completely obscures the preparation. If,
however, a jet of water is directed upon this membrane before
applying the silver, these will all be washed away, but of course
leaving the various cells in an altered condition, to be fixed by the
subsequent apphcation of silver. This shows the great advantage
to be gained by using the silver on clean preparations, without pre-
liminary washing, as this not only washes away the cells on free
surfaces, but it also alters the forms of those left behind.

Fig. o may therefore be regarded as a typical specimen of
wandering cells fixed in their branched condition, and in that con-
dition they are becoming fixed cells wherever fat is seen developing
witli.n them. We there see the various stages of the development
of fat within branched cells as clearly as they were seen within
round cells in Fig. 1, and the different amounts of protoplasm
developed round the branched wandering cells is as varied and
distinctive as in the round wandering cells seen in Fig. 2. In
short, we claim not only to have shown that fat-cells are specially
developed from wandering cells, but that these wandering cells
may appear to be round or branched cells, according to the process
or modifications of processes by which they have been prepared ;
and we believe we have thus reconciled the views of different
observers, as ftir as the shape of the parent-cell of the fat-cell is
concerned, those views being erroneous principally because they

Development, &c., of the Fat-cell. By G. and F. E. Hog (/an. 363

were too exclusive in their limitation to only one form of the
parent-cell.

When, however, we pass from the mere expression of shape to
the opposite opinions held by different observers regarding the
essential nature of the parent-cells, we find it impossible either to
reconcile these opinions or to agree with any one of them. We
agree as little with Eanvier in supposing those parent-cells to be
special in their nature, as we do with Toldt in supposing that only
fat-cells can give origin to future fat-cells. Klein's idea of peri-
lymphangeal nodules developing into fat-tracts, and fat-tracts being
appanages of the lymphatic system, appears to us too far-fetched,
so that there only remains for us to discuss how far it is correct to
consider fat-cells as developed from the fixed cells of the connective
tissue or from the adventitia of blood-ves«els.

What is the connective tissue, and what are its branched cells ?
These are questions which we admit we are unable to answer,
unless it be to the efiect that we believe both terms to be no longer
appUcable to the cells or tissue to which they were at one time
attached.

The term connective tissue, since it was first applied by Johannes
Miiller, has been modified out of all its original meaning by succeed-
ing histologists, until at the present day no two histologists of
eminence are agreed upon what constitutes that tissue.

Held at one time to include such structures as cartilage and
bone, in whose fixed cells no one ever supposed fat to be normally
developed, it is now almost confined to gelatinous, or what are
called fibrous tissues in general, such as tendons, tbe subserous and
subcutaneous tissues, &c. For our part, even if we acknowledge
the branched cells in tendon, the cornea, and similar structures to be
fixed cells, yet here also no one supposes that they can normally
become fat-cells ; and as regards the subcutaneous and subserous
tissues in which fat-cells are generally found, we cannot admit that
the branched cells found there are anything other than wandering
cells, moving through the soft gelatinous matrix to enter into the
formation of blood-vessels, fat-cells, or any of the other definite
fixed cells found there, or leaving them in retrogression when that
phase supervenes. Even should the term connective tissue be
retained for the matrix or tissue referred to, we must hold the term
fixed branched cells to be incorrect and inapplicable, and so far we
are at variance with Flemming, Klein, and others, who speak of
these as fixed branched cells. But in so far as we believe the wander-
ing cells and tbe branched cells they refer to to be identical, we agree
with them as to the parent-cells of the fat-cells. It is rather a
curious commentary on the term fixed branched cell of the connec-
tive tissue that Eanvier, one of the latest and best of histologists,
entirely denies the existence of such a cell, and endeavours to show

364 Transactions of the Society.

that the fixed cell of the connective tissue is a broad flat cell,
" cellule plate" which, when applied to fibres, has the appearance,
but only the appearance, of being a branched cell. Of course we
are equally at issue with him in his conception of a fixed cell of the
connective tissue, and believe that his "cellule plate" is only an
exhausted fat-cell, such as we have drawn in Figs. 9, 10, and 11 ;
and if anyone takes the trouble to compare our drawings with the
drawings given by Kanvier at page 3-10 of his ' Traite d'Histologie '
of his " cellule plate " (of which we have seen the original), he will
see a wonderful identity between them, an identity which does not
stop with appearance, but is continuous even in the physiological
attributes he ascribes to it.

All these considerations show how dangerously vague a term is
that of the connective tissue, and as we have already held that in
those divisions of it which we have been considering there are no
special fixed branched cells, it is clear that in our opinion no fat-
cells can be formed from them.

The hypothesis advanced by Flemming that fat-cells are
developed from the branched cells of the adventitia of the blood-
vessels, seems to have met with general and, it seems to us, un-
merited condemnation, for we have evidently here only an error of
name and not of fact.

In the first place, as Flemming is not responsible for the term
adventitia of blood-vessels, let us inquire what really constitutes this
adventitia. Anyone who studies silvered preparations of the skin
in mammals, cannot fail to be struck by the numerous and well-
marked branched ceils which lie specially upon the veins forming
their so-called adventitia and stretching out from them for a con-
siderable distance into the neighbouring gelatinous matrix, or, as it
is called, white fibrous tissue.

The number of these branched cells seems to be considerably
afiected by various pathological conditions, so much so that we feel
unable to admit that they are anything else than wandering cells
clustering about the vein as if they were either about to enter or to
leave it.

That fat should be developed in such wandering cells lying in
so close proximity to nutrition, is not only reasonable, but in general
accordance with our observations ; for, as a matter of fact, fat-cells
in a fat-tract found close to the lines of blood-vessels, seem to be
developed from the wandering cells nearest to the vessel, and which
would probably be called cells belonging to the adventitia of the
vessel.

In Fig. 5 we have an illustration of the manner in which a fat-
tract extends along a blood-vessel. In the cells there shown, the
fat seen within them had been deposited to our certain knowledge
within a period of twenty-four hours, and, although deposited in

Development, &e., of the Fat-cell. By G. and F. E. Hoggan. 365

previously existing exhausted fat-cells, it shows well the general
plan of development. These fat-cells had developed peripherally
along the blood-vessel a, first as a single row of cells h, h, lying
along or upon the vessel, and afterwards externally to that single
file as in the case of cells e, c and d, d.

Tl]e branched wandering cells from which these cells had
originally been developed, might fairly have been considered as
belonging to the so called adventitia, although at the same time
they were only wandering cells clustering round the vessel. So
far, therefore, we are inclined to agree with Flemming in the
identity of the cells and locality he refers to, although we cannot
agree with him in holding that these are fixed branched cells, or
that the development of fat-cells only takes place in the so-called
adventitia, and in being too exclusive as to the locality of develop-
ment ; for, as seen in our drawings, fat-cells may develop either
singly (Figs. 1, 3), or in islands (Figs. 7, 9. and 11) unconnected
with any vessel whatever, although it is quite possible that the
parent-cells only a short time previously formed part of the so-called
adventitia of the nearest veins.

It is a matter of common observation that the tracts or masses
of fat-cells lie close to the lines of blood-vessels, or, in other words,
close to the centres of nutrition, and considerable importance has
been attached to the question of the direction in which their develop-
ment proceeds. This we consider to be a wholly unnecessary
question, only brought forward by way of supporting certain
erroneous hypotheses, and we only now notice it lest our silence
be mistaken for acquiescence in them.

Laying aside Toldt s idea that the fat-tracts are developed as
glands from special centres in the embryo, as being too extreme and
palpably incorrect for serious discussion, let us pass to Flemming's
hypothesis * that the fat-cells near blood-vessels develop first close
to the vessels and are then pushed to the periphery by the growth
of succeeding fat-cells, in other words, that development is from the
centre of nutrition to the periphery. This view seems to be insisted

* Since the above was written, we have found that Flemming has recently
published another article on fat-cells in vol. xii. for 1876 of the ' Archiv fiir
Mikroskopische Aratomie.' That article seems to be in great part a defence of
his former opinions, which had been attacked by Klein and others. He has,
however, modiiied his views as to the development of fat-cells close to and from
tlie adventitial of blood-vessels, in somewhat the same sense as we have put it.
He also acknowledges that he was wrong in speaking of the whole of the proto-
plasma of the fot-cell outside tlie fat-globule as the cell-wall, and he corrects
himself so far as to speak of it only as i^rotoplasm, outside of which, however, he
describes in very vague terms another, or, as he calls it, a secondary cell-wall or
membrane not always necessarily present. In short, he has adopted Ranviers
idea of a fat-cell-wall, pure and simple, in which what remains of the original pro-
toplasm is still to be seen on its internal surface, only he des^iibes it differently
as a secondary membrane f >rmed outside of the protoplasm, a condition even more
complicated and more imtcnable than his former opinion.

366 Transactions of the Society.

upon as a necessary corollary to his hypothesis that fat-cells are
developed from the adventitia of blood-vessels, and Fig. 4 gives
fair support to it, where cells g, g, in the early stage of development
into fat-cells, lie at the very centre of nutrition, while the fully
developed fat-cells a, a he at the periphery. That this mode of
development should be very common is easily accounted for by the
fact that both wandering cells and surplus nutrition are most plen-
tiful immediately external to the blood-vessels, from which they
indeed probably come, and consequently fat-cells may most readily
be developed there. But Fig. 1 shows equally well the more
advanced fat-cells lying nearest the vessels, and the earhest stages of
development of fat in cells at the periphery. All this shows that
it is incorrect to limit the direction of development to one course as
Flemming has done, or indeed to make a special question of direction
of development, as we have shown that it may proceed from opposite
directions or from any direction.

In Fig. 4 it will be observed that the fat is developing or being
formed in two different conditions within cells, that while in cells
a, a and g only one large globule exists, in cells h, h we have a large
number of comparatively small globules appearing within one cell.

This really points to an important difierence in the time or
manner of fat formation within cells, which we did not perceive
when the drawing was made, but which subsequent observations
ex])lained. If in a fat-cell the fat is slowly but steadily deposited,
or has existed there for a long time, even if originally deposited in
globules which have subsequently run together, we find in such
cases only one large fat-globule flliing and distending the cell. If,
however, nutrition has been excessive and fat rapidly formed, we
generally find it deposited as numerous globules, more especially if
the cells in which it is deposited possess much protoplasm or were
previously existing fat-cells which had become exhausted. Fig. 5
is an example of this condition, in which the exhausted fat-cells were
probably in the condition of those shown in Fig. 9 ; but if the cells
have passed into the granular condition shown in Fig. 10, the
globules then appear to be imbedded in a granular matrix, as shown
in specimens which we exhibit under the Microscope.

We mention these points on account of the importance they may
have in medico-legal cases, such as the late Penge case ; for the
appearance of the globule not only gives us an idea of the quick-
ness of its formation, but the pellucid or granular character of the
matrix in which the globules are imbedded gives us an idea of the
degree of exhaustion which had preceded the re-development of fat.

The latter conditions are very common in mice which have
entered a trap while in a starving condition, and afterwards
gorged themselves on the bait employed. In this way we have
procured several specimens similar to Fig. 5, where in no case had

Development, &c., of the Fat-cell. ByG. and F. E. Hoggan. 367

the trap been set above ten hours previously, showing how rapidly-
fat may become formed' within previously exhaasted fat-cells in
these little animals.

It may also be well to state here that the normal shape of a
fat-cell, when it is not distorted by the pressure of contiguous
structures or fat-cells, is generally oval and sometimes round, as
shown in Figs. 4 and 6, the irregularly polyhedral shape drawn and
insisted upon by Kanvier being due entirely to distortion by pres-
siu'e of contiguous cells, and therefore in no way representing the
normal shape. The influence of pressure in distorting fat-cells may
easily be traced in Fig. 6, where cells a, a, a, at the border of a
fat-tract lying along the blood-vessels in the mesentery of a guinea-
pig, have their free borders rounded oif, while on the sides pressed
upon by contiguous fat-cells h, h, they are becoming angular and
irregularly polyhedral in shape, of the form indeed in which they are
generally represented.

Hitherto there has been no question of a cell- wall or membrane,
for all histologists agree that the wandering cell does not possess
one, and indeed it is generally presented as the type (often under
some other of its names) of a wall-less cell, whereas the fat-cell is
almost invariably presented as the type of an animal cell possessing
a true wall or membrane, and it therefore becomes of importance to
inquire how far we are justified in accepting it as such a type.
Eanvier and others, in tracing the development of the fat-cell from a
wall-less cell, go so far as to localize the time when the v/all is formed,
and state that it is only when the fat-globules have pushed the
nucleus from the centre of the cell to its periphery that the cell- wall
begins to be formed.

Now, with all due deference to the opinions of other observers,
we feel called upon to state that, even after careful searching and
studying the fat-cell in all its phases, we find no evidence whatever
of the existence of a special cell-wall, that is to say, in the sense in
which the term is generally understood. We cannot admit that
there is any change whatever in the nature of the cell-substance or
protoplasm, although in fully developed fat-cells like those in
Fig. 6 it has become so distended and attenuated by the mass of
fat growing within it, that it appears to surround the latter like a
thin sheet. Still that thin sheet is only unaltered protoplasm, and
we shall afterwards see that, when absorption of the fat from the
fat-cell occurs, the so-called membrane contracts upon the lessening
fat, becoming thicker as the fatty contents become smaller in a way
a formed membrane would not do, and when the fiat wholly disap-
pears, the cell-substance remains behind in the same protoplasmic
condition in which it existed in the parent-cell. If any observer
has observed before us the behaviour of the cell-protoplasm during
absorption of fat, we cannot understand how he could reconcile

368 Transactions of the Society.

that behaviour with the existence of a formed cell-membrane, and
indeed no better proof could be required of the entire ground-
lessness of the belief in a cell-membrane than that afforded by fat-
absorption. This belief in a cell-membrane has arisen and been
maintained by false analogy and erroneous histological methods,
or through the interpretation of the appearances they produced.
Asa vegetable cell often possessed a cell-wall, so it was supposed
that an animal cell ought to possess one, although the com-
plete organisms of plant and animal are entirely unlike. His-
tologically it was, or rather it is at the present time, considered
sufficient to treat fat-cells with ether, which dissolves out the fat
from the fat-cells and leaves the empty envelopes behind, and these
are held to be complete evidences of the existence of a cell- wall. It
is somewhat surprising to find histologists at the present day, who
make a sine qua nan of the use of fixing agents, admitting such a
proof. Ether, like alcohol, is a fixing agent which first fixes the
protoplasmic envelope and destroys its power of contraction, then
dissolves out the fat within it.

Certainly the histologist in this case has made a membrane
where one did not naturally exist, but the explanation is so simple
that it is surprising that no one ever noticed the worthlessness of
the test. Kanvier, while saying that this test is perfectly demon-
strative, adds another of his own invention, which is equally mis-
leading. By his well-known method of interstitial injection of a
solution of nitrate of silver among the fat-cells lying in the sub-
cutaneous tissue, he holds that he has been able to demonstrate the
existence of a cell-membrane external even to the protoplasm
distended round the fat. Under this treatment a dark membranous
layer seems indeed to surround the cell, but here too the appear-
ances are deceptive and the interpretation incorrect. When a
solution of silver is allowed to come into direct contact with such
cells, it forms such a layer where none existed before. This may
easily be demonstrated upon an endothelium-covered membrane, as
we have often done. If at one part the endothelium be removed
where it covers fat-cells, and the silver solution be then applied, it
will be found that the unprotected fat-cells show the dark pseudo-
membrane where the silver solution had come in contact with them,
while the contiguous fat-cells which were protected by endothelium
show no such membrane, thereby proving that the supposed mem-
brane is only an artificial production. Where the silver has thus
only penetrated to a certain distance into the protoplasmic wall, the
unafiected portion retains its normal appearance, and thus gives
rise to the supposition that a part of the original protoplasm may
often be seen lying on the inner surface of the supposed membrane.

The expression referred to, that the cell-wall only gets formed
when the fatty contents have pushed the protoplasm and nucleus

Development, &g., of the Fat-cell. By G. and F. E. Hoggan. 369

to the periphery, is inaccurate, from the fact that protoplasm and
nucleus are always peripheral to any fat-globule within the cell ;
and when by excessive distension the nucleus and protoplasm
appear like a signet ring, the relation between the two still remains
the same, and after absorption of the contained fat the nucleus
appears to return to the centre of the cell-substance, as seen in
Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, although in reality the relationship has
never altered throughout the cell life. We have now traced the
fat-cell into its fully developed condition, as shown in Fig. 6, and
seen that its parent-cell was the wanderhig cell, under which name
we of course include white - blood cells, lymph, lymphoid, or
lymphatic cells, migratory cells, embryonic cells, leucocytes,
amoeboid cells, and to these, by our own showing, the so-called fixed
branched cells of the connective tissue and of the adventitia of blood-
vessels ; and we have also seen that these cells may be either
globular, round, flat, spindle-shaped or branched, according to the
position in which they are viewed, or whether they are fixed
before or after they have had time to contract or retract their pro-
cesses. With the fully developed fat-cell we reach the end of the
first half of our studies, a task which ought to have been simple
and short, but for the fact that it was encumbered with the diver-
gent opinions of diflerent observers. We have endeavoured to
reconcile those opinions where possible, by explaining the causes of
divergence, and in this, we believe, we have been not unsuccessful.
We now pass on to the second part of our studies, to show how
the fully develojied fat-cell returns into its original condition of a
wandering cell, a task which will prove much easier and interesting
than that of following development, for few observers have traced
even the first part of the dechne of the fat-cell, and none to our
knowledge have witnessed the interesting appearances which herald
its disappearance, so that we shall here only require to state the
appearances observed by ourselves, and not to reconcile the divergent
opinions expressed by others.

Part II. — Betrogression of tJie Fat-cell.

During the development of fat-ceUs we noticed that, as the fat
increased within the cell, the cell-substance also increased pari passu
with the amount of fat which it had to envelope. In absorption or
retrogression of the fat-cell, we have thus two substances to get rid
of before the cell can return into its original condition ; but although
these two substances, namely, fat and excess of cell-substance, de-
veloped at the same time, their absorption occurs separately ; indeed
the decline or break up of the cell-substance does not commence
until some time after the complete disa])pearance of the cell-con-
tained flit.

VOL. II, 2 b

370 Transactions of the Society.

Both processes in retrogression can best be studied in the bodies
of rats and mice or other small mammals ; indeed the latter process
can only be studied well in such subjects. Flemming and others
have starved dogs and other large mammals for a long period, with
the result that they have failed to observe the most interesting and
essential part of the process. In rats and mice, more especially the
latter, which are often trapped in a starving condition, the system
seems to be so exceedingly sensitive to excess or deficiency of
nutrition, that they may either fatten or starve within the space of
twenty-four hours; the Httle animal from which Figs. 9, 11, and
12 were drawn, was found almost dead in a jar, into which it had
fallen, and in which it could not have remained above twenty-four
hours, yet the whole of the difierent stages of retrogression in fat-
cells could be followed upon one preparation of its mesentery.

This great susceptibility to variation in nutrition is apt to intro-
duce an element of uncertainty or confusion into the study of the
process of retrogression upon them, for it often happens that
the remains of fat-cells, which had been broken up some time
previously, are to be found in a preparation where well-developed
fat-tracts point to even excessive nutrition. The first changes,
during the absorption of the contained fat, seem to occur in the
condition of the fat itself, which, from being of a yellowish-white
colour and thick consistency, becomes more transparent, watery, and
sliglitly red in colour. These changes have been previously noted
by other observers, who have compared the resultmg fluid or fat to
serum, although there is nothing of the nature of serum about it,
for we find that under the action of osmic acid it blackens even
more intensely than in the case of newly formed fat. When once
absorption has faMy commenced, if nutrition continues deficient,
it follows a steady course, characterized by diminution of the fatty
contents and the contraction and thickening of the protoplasmic
envelope containing them ^ari passu vdth each other. This
process is illustrated by Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10, showing different
stages in different animals of the process of fat-absorption from fat-
cells, and it will be found that in all the mammalia the process and
appearances are the same throughout. Fig. 7 is from the body of
a young man who died of cancer of the skin, under the care of one
of us, at St. John's Hospital. He had entered the hospital only two
months before his death, a plump and well-nourished individual,
and said that previously he had never had a single day's sickness.
His downward progress was rapid, as the whole of the skin of the
left side of the thorax became gangrenous, and during the last few
days of life he was kept under the influence of morphia, on account
of his suflerings, and as he took httle or no food latterly, he died
much emaciated. Fig. 7 represents a part of his omentum, taken
by permission immediately after death, and stained by silver and

Develoj^ment, &c., of the Fat-cell. By Q. and F. E. Eoggan. 371

pyrogallate of iron. It may be taken as a typical specimen of
steady and unbroken absorption of fat from fat-cells, and it will be
noticed that, owing to the locality and the absence of distorting
pressure from neighbouring cells, as well as from their lying
parallel to the surface, all the cells are assuming the oval, almond-
like shape.

Fig. 8, again, is from the subcutaneous tissue of the body of a
young man, who died after an illness of thirteen years and in the
last stage of leprosy. It is prepared by treatment with osmic
acid and picro-carminate of ammonia. It represents a more
advanced condition of fat-absorption than that seen in Fig. 7 ;
and although selected from a spot in a perpendicular section,
where the fat-cells were by no means closely packed, yet evi-
dence of distortion (rapidly disappearing, it is true) is to be
seen in the angular shape of one or two of the cells. At other
parts of the group not included in the drawing, many fat-cells were
seen entirely destitute of fat. In neither case had the disease
under which the patients sufliered aifected in any way the flit-cells.
Although some observers have tried to make out a distinction
between the fat-cells found under the skin and those found in
serous membranes, recommending only the former for examination,
yet it will be seen that the fat-cells in Fig. 8 only differ from those
in Fig. 7 inasmuch as the former have been distorted by pressure
of contiguous structures, while the latter show the normal and true
shape of the fat-cells. Fig. 9, from the broad Hgament of the
mouse formerly referred to, shows a still further stage of absorp-
tion of fat, which has entirely disappeared from several of the
cells c, c in the drawing. Some of these cells also have been exposed
to some slight distorting pressure, and it will be specially observed
that in general appearance they are identical with the fat-cells of
the human body, as seen in Fig. 7, they having been prepared by
the same process.

Certain observers have also stated that the difference between
the fat-cells in man and the smaller mammals was so great, that
the latter could not be taken as types of the former. To this
statement we wish to give a complete denial ; we have never been
able to detect any difference whatever, not even sufficient to enable
us to tell which animal they belonged to.

As from several of the cells shown in Fig. 9 the fat has com-
pletely disappeared, we may consider that in them we have reached
the end of the first stage in the retrogression of the fat-cell, that,
namely, which concerns the absorption of fat only; so before
passing on to the second stage, let us make a few remarks relative
to fat-absorption.

We find no reason to suppose that the different stages seen in
the development of fat are represented in its absorption. We saw,

2 B 2

372 TransacUons of the Society.

for example, that fat was first deposited in several or many globules
within one cell, which afterwards ran or melted into one mass in
the fully distended fat-cell.

In absorption of fat we find no breaking up into several globules
of the one mass ; but where the fat-cells contained only one mass,
the mass grew smaller, but did not break up into globules, as seen
in most of the cells of Fig. 7. When, however, the fat-cells were
only in course of development when nutrition failed, as seen in
several of the cells in Figs. 9 and 10, where the developing globules
had not melted into one mass, these globules diminished together ;
in other words, single masses diminished as single masses, and
multiple globules diminished as multiple globules.

The course or direction of absorption among fat-cells is better
marked than the direction of development. The fat-cells of the
mesentery, and more especially at the upper part near the pancreas,
become empty before the fat- cells of the broad ligament, while in
each membrane the cells farthest from the blood-vessels and from
the neighbourhood of the parts of the blood-vessels farthest from the
centre of the circulation, are the first to become emptied of fat.
After the fat has disappeared from the cells, and the first stage
of decline is completed, a period of quiescence ensues, during which
little change appears in the condition of the exhausted cells.

It may be observed, however, that they seem to diminish
slightly in size ; they become more regularly oval or almond-
shaped, and when viewed edgeways the fat-cell is seen to have
become thicker in the centre, like an almond viewed edgeways.

Within the cell-substance the granules are seen becoming better
defined from the transparent matrix containing them, and at the
same time increasing in number. Suddenly, and without any par-
ticular change or warning, the granules begin to leave the cell in
every direction, as if they had become endowed with the power of
automatic locomotion which theii* mother-cell had lost on becoming
a fat-cell. Not only does the sharp oval outline become lost in that
mother-cell, but the nucleus also becomes nearly hidden by the
mass of granules clustering round it like a swarm of bets round
their queen. The swarm passes away on every side and in appa-
rently no definite direction, the granules becoming fewer and more
isolated the farther they pass away from the mother-cell.

This condition is well seen in Fig. 10, from the same animal
as Fig. 9. We have there a small group of fat-cells forming an
island apart from the great fat-tracts that lie along the contiguous
blood-vessels. While the fat has disappeared from all the cells
of the group, three of them, a, h, and c, have entered upon the
condition of granular exodus, and the granules may be seen passing
away from them in every possible direction. We see none of that
apj)earance shown in drawings of an ovum which has been burst

Development, &c., of the Fat-cell. By G. and F. E. Eoggan. 373

by mechanical pressure, and where the vitellus is seen pouring
out through the rent in the viteUine envelope. On the contrary,
there is clearly no membrane here to rupture, and the granules
appear to emerge from every point of the surface of the mother-
cell ; and we here desire to state that each of the departing granules
has been drawn in situ by the aid of the camera lucida, and that
we have in no way drawn upon our imagination in depicting this
phenomenon. In Fig. 10 it will also be observed that there are
stages in the granular exodus ; ceU h, for example, has retrograded
further than cell a, and cell c further than cell h ; or, in other
words, the granular exodus has been going on longer, and a greater
number of granules have left cells c and h than cell a, but the
continuous change onwards in absorption can be better studied in
Fig. 13, from the same animal and preparation as Figs. 9 and 10.
In this Plate we are brought to what may be considered as the last
chapter in the life-history of the fe,t-cell. In it the least advanced
in retrogression are cells a, a, still undergoing the granular exodus.
Cell 1), however, has almost reached the last stage of this process,
and in it a definite outline is again appearing, and the nucleus is
again becoming distinct, being no longer hidden by the swarm
of granules clustering round it, as in the case of the less advanced
cells. Beyond cell h we have a group of cells e, which have
probably belonged to a group of fat-cells similar to that seen in
Fig. 10. From them the granules have almost entirely departed,
leaving them in the condition of branched wandering cells, similar
to those seen in Fig. 3, the faintly tinted protoplasm in both cases
being almost destitute of granules, and visible apparently more in
consequence of difference of refraction between them and the
gelatinous matrix in which they lie than by any distinct colour or
tint.

In fact, we have now come upon debatable ground, where there
is room for discussing whether such branched cells are really the
offspring or result of the granular exodus from fat-cells or hon^ fide
wandering cells.

A certain number of granules can still be detected here and
there within their protoplasm, but it is difficult to say whether
these are a residuum of the original fat-cell or eaten as pabulum by
the wandering cell. By long and careful examination, we have
come to the conclusion that those cells c, c, are the remains of the
fat-cells which we have thus traced ba<jk to their original condition,
but we have considered it advisable to place the contras as well as
the pros of the question before our readers.

It ought also to be borne in mind that other cells besides these
contain granules, and that granular exodus is not confined to fat-
cells, which are shown here as typical of a condition, and not as
undergoing a change special to themselves. The blood capillaries

374 Transactions of the Society.

and vessels which had developed ^;ari 2^<^ssu with the outlying
groups of developing fat-cells, as indeed the special nutritive adjuncts
of the latter, have no longer any raison d'etre when their nurslings
perish, and they consequently obliterate their canal, and the con-
stituent cells separate and undergo a similar granular exodus to
that seen in the retrograding fat-cells, although in a much smaller
and otherwise almost imperceptible degree, as at/,/.

During the process of granular exodus in the fat-cell, a change
was taking place in the condition of the nucleus, which only becomes
apparent when, as shown in cell h, the greater part of the granules
which obscured the nucleus have left and allowed the nucleus to
become visible.

In the wandering cell, the nucleus stains intensely by colouring
agents, and is generally more or less globular in shape, except when
proliferating. When the wandering cell becomes a fat-cell, we see
that, as the protoplasm becomes distended by the fat within, the
nucleus also seems to become stretched out into a flat circular or
oval form, being thinner if greater in superficies, and staining much
less intensely than formerly by staining agents. Even in retro-
gression the nucleus maintains its flat and circular condition, as it
seems to pass back to a position in the centre of the cell-substance,
and continues in that condition till the granular exodus obscures
it. When it next appears, as in cell h, it has become globular, and
smaller in superiicies, and begins to stain more intensely, comes
back indeed to the condition of the nucleus of the wandering cell,
so that no distinction can be made between them.

The point of greatest importance in this inquiry is the nature
or character of those granules which we see leaving the cells and
travelling through the gelatinous matrix of the membrane, appa-
rently by virtue of their own power of locomotion. Indeed the
end of these studies only opens out to us the commencement of
other more minute, more delicate, and more important researches.
What, in the first place, is the tj'pical shape of the granules ? The
powers of the Microscope used in making the drawings 800 diameters,
only showed them as bright refringent points, staining slightly by
the black staining fluid used in the cases mentioned.

Moreover, to be able to fix their natural shape, they ought to
be studied in their living condition, upon the warm stage under the
Microscope, to see if, like wandering cells, they alter their shape
during life or during theu' locomotion, if such can be observed.
Even during their dead condition (chloroform having been plenti-
fully used in killing the animal, so that we might hope that, like
the wandering cells, they were fixed in their living shape), with
specially high powers of the Microscope, we can see that many of
them are oblong in shape but round when seen edgeways, and
sometimes two or three are attached together like beads. All these

Development, &c., of tlie Fat-cell. By G. and F. E. Eoggan. 375

points, however, ought to come into a special inquiry into their
life-history, so that we have considered it advisable at present
merely to draw them in their general positions, shape, and size, as
seen under the power used in making aU the drawings in this
research.

But of far greater importance than their shape is the character
of the substance composing these granular bodies, and this, we
think, we have been able to ascertain satisfactorily, as far as their
biological character is concerned.

As may well be conceived, the first point of importance to
settle was whether these were fatty or protoplasmic in their nature.
If, as was Hkely, they were fat-granules, little importance was to
be attached to them ; but if, on the contrary, they were proto-
plasmic in character, they were all-important as a key to the past
and an explanation of the future.

To decide this point we had to vary our methods of preparation
and, instead of using the pyrogallate of iron, we treated our mem-
branes with ether, logwood, carmine, indigo, purpurine, and eosine,
with and without osmic acid, and the result was unmistakable.
Osmic acid did not blacken, while colouring agents stained, logwood
being prominent among the rest in the intensity of its staining,
showing that these granules were protoplasmic in character and
not fatty.

The character stamped upon them by staining tests, as well as
the power they appeared to possess of mo\ing off at pleasure from
the parent-cells by their own inherent power, and as we shall
afterwards see of probably moving back again when the conditions
were reversed, show us that we have here to do with something
specific in biology, something vastly more minute, and a stage more
elementary than the composite body called a cell ; something which
lives and moves and has its being independently of the cell, and to
which we are called upon to assign a specific sphere in nature.
Have we here germs, the micrococci, the zoogloea, the spores, fungi,
bacteria, or the spores from which bacteria are developed in these
living atoms ? It is impossible to evade the conclusion that had
these been observed in sections of tissues, where their connection
with the cell or its nucleus could not be traced, more especially in
any specific disease, they would indubitably have been ascribed to
some of the foregoing classes, and (perhaps not without reason) the
most serious conclusions might be drawn from their presence. We
have no doubt that they furnish a key to the alleged discoveries
of some of the above-named classes of organisms in certain specific
or infective diseases in the past, and they may probably furnish
an explanation of many infective processes in the future.

We may also mention here, with reference to a recent biological
mistake in the character of germs that, whether treated with or

376 Transactions of the Society.

■without alcohol, and indeed by all kinds of modifications of method,
the result was always the same. At page 13 of his work ' On the
Lower Organisms,' in endeavouring to account for the presence of
bacteria within the living body, Dr. Bastian says:— "We must
imagine that when the vital activity of any organism, whether
simple or complex, is on the wane, its constituent particles (being
still portions of living matter) are capable of individualizing them-
selves, and of growing into the low organisms in question. Just as
the life of one of the cells of a higher organism may continue for
some time after the death of the organism itself, so in accordance
with this latter view, may one of the particles of such a cell be
supposed to continue to live after even cell life is impossible."

This hypothesis of Dr. Bastian's is so exactly applicable to
the granular bodies we have described, that we have ventured to
quote him, as he expresses even better than we could ourselves the
opinions we hold and wish to put on record.

We believe that in them we supply the missing link between
cellular and germ pathology, and its bearing on the causation of
disease will become more apparent when, at another time and place,
we have an opportunity of showing that granular exodus is not
confined to healthy cells, but that at least in one virulent disease
we have characteristic granular breaking up of its cells throughout
the body, and in that the explanation of its eminently contagious
character.

But the interesting phenomena to be observed in the life-history
of these organisms by no means cease with their leaving the parent-
cell in the condition of the wandering cells seen in Fig. 13. Even
in that direction they may pass beyond the stage seen there, and
thus we find that the whole of the fat-cells forming a great fat-
tract may pass away, leaving the vascular network which supplied
them still existing, or they may still be observed there as numerous
granular patches, each with its own nuclear centre which it is about
to leave, and which in turn is about to leave the neighbourhood of
the blood-vessels, as in Fig. 12.

Even at this juncture, if nutrition becomes again abundant, a
complete change takes place in the action or plans of those granules.
In that case they seem at once to return to the nucleus they were
leaving or had left. They surround that nucleus on every side,
and, when logwood staining is used, we find that, although that
nucleus (where it can be seen) is stained as intensely as the neigh-
bouring nuclei, yet the clustering granules stain so intensely purple
as completely to hide the nucleus from view, as shown in Figs. 5 and
14. Then comes another consideration : the granular cells staining
intensely by logwood come to be seen not only near vessels where
no fat-cells had ever existed, but also far away even from vessels, in
the centre of non- vascular tracts, which they could only have reached

Development, &c., of the Fat-cell. By G. and F. E. Iloggan. 377

by journeying as wandering cells. That they have this property,
we think we can demonstrate satisfactorily by means of specimens
which we show to-night.

If, in the first place, we start with cell a, Fig. 1 0, which seems
to have left the group of fat-cells shown there, we can pass on to
another example, Fig. 16, where four of such granular cells can be
seen lying within a natural hole of a membrane, like cell h, Fig. 1,
and lying, moreover, within a group of wandering cells for w^hich
they cannot possibly be mistaken ; for the large oval contour filled
with granules, a nucleus sharply defined and of a reddish colour
(when stained by pyrogallate) contrasts strongly with the blue-
black polynuclear condition of the wandering cells surrounding
them.

Only one link is missing, and that also we supply, by showing
in a, Fig. 15, such granular cells in the branched condition, moving
along by the side of blood-vessels, and contrasting strongly with
the transparent delicate branched cells 6, h, near them.

It would, therefore, appear that when from a fat-cell all the fat
has become absorbed and it has passed into granular retrogression,
the faculty of locomotion is restored to it, that indeed it is in
the condition of a wandering cell, plus the granules which it con-
tained. But it would further appear that, while wandering and
while its own granules are moving off from it, a supply of nutrition
checks the granular exodus without checking the cell wandering (or
exodus as regards the fat- tract), and then the granules may cluster
round the nucleus in every possible form of irregularity, looking
like the peripheral crystals in a lump of sugar. Gradually, however,
these granules seem to melt into the substance of the cell, and it is
again finally seen as a round or oval flat cell with sharp border and
granular contents, which gradually become less granular, until the
granular cell, the quondam fat-cell, becomes indistinguishable in
appearance from any other wandering cells and, as we already have
seen from its presence in the natural hole of a membrane and
therefore on its free surface, it has also the same nomadic faculty,
and indeed with that faculty we see no reason why it should not
be discovered within blood-vessels where we have not yet looked
for it. The time taken to efi'ect all these changes is comparatively
long, and we have not yet been able to fix a limit. We believe
that a fortnight is not sufiicient, and this fact is apt, as we have
already noted, to introduce a complication into the study of this
question ; for just as it seems the rule that a mouse may be reduced
often to the point of starvation while at large, the vestiges of such
granular cells are sca'jely ever entirely absent from some prepa-
ration, although we are able to show two or three in which they
have not been found to exist. When, moreover, we take into con-
sideration the fact that other cells beside fat-cells have the power

378 Transactions of the Societij.

or fate to become granular, and, moreover, that other processes
besides starvation will reduce even the fat- cell into the granular
condition, we may form a fair idea of the difficulties surrounding
this research and the liability to errors which it possesses.

Apart from the question of disease, if a tame rat be put into
a cage with some strangers, these latter, if they are powerful
enough, will often so maltreat the new-comer as to reduce it to a
skeleton, or even kill it outright, and then the same phenomena
of fat-cell absorption may be witnessed. Although young rats
while they are being suckled are generally plump and fat, they
rapidly become lean when weaned and forced to provide for
themselves instead of being dependent on the mother's milk. In
such cases, even although food had been continuously supplied, we
have found the fat-cells exhausted and granular cells abundant,
which could only be accounted for by the change in nutrition
subsequent to weaning. Even more interesting is the condition of
the fat-cells during excessive lactation, and the bearing which this
has upon the same condition in the human female. In rats and mice,
pregnancy is accomimnied by a great accumulation of fat in the tracts
near the blood-vessels, as if in preparation for the demands about to
be made upon the mother by her nurslings. A short time ago a
female mouse, having been trapped, was brought to us to be
destroyed, and we afterwards noticed that it was extremely lean,
and that its teats were pendent and flaccid, as if it were nourishing
a large litter of well-grown young ones, which we afterwards proved
to be a fact. From this animal's broad ligament and mesentery
specimens were prepared which showed all the stages of retro-
gression, similar to those seen in Figs. 9, 10, and 13, although,
from the immense number of exhausted fat-cells near the lines of
blood-vessels, it was evident that, shortly before, the animal had been
extremely fat, but it had been brought down to a condition identical
with that found in starvation, by the excessive demands of its young
upon it. We have thought it unnecessary here to enter upon any
speculation as to the channels by which the granules of protoplasm
move off from their parent-cell ; by the aid of the binocular Micro-
scope and one preparation whose endothelium is marked by silver
on both surfaces, it is easy to decide that the granules are moving
oflf through the soft gelatinous matrix which forms the membrane.
They move off in every direction and by no definite channel, and
lest some one should invoke the presence of lymphatic radicles as a
channel of exodus, we can only say that, after having made a
speciality of the search for lymphatic radicles or vasa seiosa, such
channels are purely mythical, and have no foundation in fact.
They may j)ossibly pass away finally by the blood-vessels or
lymphatics, or even more probably they may be absorbed or appro-
priated by the wandering cells, and we can from this easily imagine

Devehpment, &c., of the Fat-cell. By G. and F. E. Hor/gan. 379

how, by the absorption of granules from diseased cells by wandering
cells, a specific disease might quickly become generalized throughout

the system.

One word more as to the behaviour of the exhausted fat-cells
not yet passed into granular exodus, when nutrition again becomes
abundant. If in the condition of the cells seen in Fig. 9, they
simply fill the already prepared mass of protoplasm with numerous
fat-globules, as seen in Fig. 5. But if the cells have become
granular, like those seen in Fig. 10, when about to break up, then
they still fill up, as in Fig. 5, only that m this case the fat-globules
seem imbedded among granules. Of this condition we show a
specimen. Fig. 11, which affords inverse proof of the connection
between granular cells and fat-cells.

In terminating this long paper, we wish to observe that we do
not pretend to have completed this question of retrogression, but
rather to have only opened it out. Conscious of our many imper-
fections, we are jjrepared to find our conclusions modified or reversed
subsequently by others or by ourselves. We are also aware that
several collateral conditions remain to be investigated; such, for
example, as whether the supply or deprivation of water affects the
retrogression of the fat-cells in starvation, or whether gradual or
sudden deprivation of nutrition has the same result or efiect on the
fat-cells. These are points which would require to be settled by
direct experiment, if one has not the patience to wait for acci-
dental chcumstances. We have the patience to wait rather than
experiment, and when opportunity oflers and we find anything
new or anything incorrect, we shall not be so tardy in making it
known as we have been with this research, which has been spread
over an interval of above four years, but which we have endeavoured
to bring up to date.*

While the foregoin": was passing through tlie press, two remaikahle communi-
cations were made on Maj' 6th and 20th to the Patliological Society. The first
of theie, " On the Occurrence of Micrococci undemeatii Antiseptic Dressings," by
Mr. Cheyne, a pupil of Mr. Lister, and supported by him, mainly concerned the
cultivation in vegetable infusion of micrococci from the matter obtained from
wounds tr(!ated antiseptically, while the second was the report of the Committee
on Pyemia, and was largely illustrated by microscopical specimens of tissue in
that.

In the preceding pages we have spoken vaguely of the identity of the granules
we have described with many of the so-called specific organisms, because we
were aware that different people held different opinions as to what constituted
those supposed organisms. The high authorities who brought micrococci before
the Society, however, gave us a definite standard of comparison, and we now
assert with confidence that all those micrococci were nothing other than the

* A short accoimt of this research with microscopical demonstrations was given
by Mrs. Hoggan before the Naturforscher Versammlung at Cassel in September,
ls78, and her remarks were published in cxtenso next day, on pp. .56 and 57 of
the ' Tagblatt.'

380 Transactions of the Society.

granules formed from cell protoplasm in the manner we have described. The
specimens illustrating pyjBmia especially, showed micrococci both in free masses
and within cells of the kidney, almost identical with those shown in our pre-
parations.

In the discussion of the questions referred to, it was assumed that the so-
called micrococci were specific independent organisms from without the body,
and the chief interest turned on such questions as how they managed to enter
underneath the dressing or into the body, whetiier they could exist in the body,
or what specific influence, if any, they might have there.

All reasoning therefore might, however, seem superfluous if it could be shown
that, instead of being specific independent organisms from without, the so-called
micrococci were merely minute atoms of the protoplasm of the cells within the
body, formed as we have described, and that according as they were the result of
a physiological or a pathological process, so would their effect be when introduced
into the system. In more specific terms we might consider that the particles
resulting from the disintegration of the protoplasm of fat-cells would be harmless,
while those resulting from the protoplasm of cells in glanders, where we have also
observed this process, would be most malignant in their cftect when introduced
into the system ; and the same might be said of those particles so clearly shown
within and outside the cells in pyaemia.

( 381 )

XX. — On some Applications of Osmic Acid to Microscopic Purposes.
By T. Jeffery Parker, B.Sc, F.E.M.S.

CBead 12th March, 1879.)

Since the introduction of osmic acid amongst the reagents of the
histologist, it has been used for very various purposes. Its chief
virtue depends on the fact that it kills and hardens protoplasmic
structures with the least possible amount of shrinkage, and that it
stains fat of an intense black colour. The former property has
rendered it of great value in embryology, in the study of Infusoria*
and for many of the more delicate animal tissues ; the latter gives it
its pre-eminence in bringing out the ramifications of the finer
medullated nerves, and the structure of adipose tissue.

Eecently, as the Fellows of this Society are aware, Graber has
made use of osmic acid for the preparation of insect structures, with
very signal success ; Flesch, also, recommends the employment of
a mixture of it with chromic acid for preparations of the cochlea
and retina ; and Dr. Marshall has used a similar mixture for the
preservation of chick embryos.

I must apologize for bringing my very limited experiences
before the Society, but as some of my osmic acid preparations seem
more successful than those of similar objects prepared in any other
way, I venture to think that some account of my experiments
may not be without interest.

Perhaps the most successful preparations I have yet succeeded in
making with the aid of osmic acid, are entire specimens of a little
glass-crab (Phyllosoma), the larva of the macrurous genus Scyllarus.
The specimens were sent last July to Professor Huxley, by Mr.
Lloyd, of the Crystal Palace Aquarium, where the larvae were
hatched out.

In the case of these Phyllosoma, ten minutes' immersion in
a 1 per cent, solution of osmic acid, and subsequent treatment with
alcohol of gradually increasing strength, commencing with 50 per
cent., and ending with absolute, served not only to harden the
tissues, but to differentiate them in a very striking manner.
The immense central nervous system was stained jet black, and
stood out with diagrammatic clearness ; the muscles, glands, &c.,
assumed a greyish-brown colour, the striae of the muscle-fibres
becoming remarkably distinct. An immersion of five minutes was
in some respects still more successful, although less striking ; the
nervous system in this case took the same grey-brown colour as
the other soft parts, the fibrillation of the nerves and the nuclei

* Apropos of Dr. Pelletan's paper reprinted in this Journal, vol. i. p. 189,
I may mention that osmic acid is recommended for the instantaneous killing of
Infusoria in Huxley and Martin's ' Elementary Biology,' p. 94.

382 Transactions of the Society.

of the nerve-cells becoming very clear. The cells of the liver and
green glands, and those of the hypodermis were also brought into
view in a manner that left little to be desired for clearness.

By no means the least important point about these larvae is
that, delicate as they were, they could, after the treatment de-
scribed, be clarified with oil of cloves and mounted in Canada
balsam, with little or no shrinking or distortion.

For Dajyhnia, I have lately found the same treatment a decided
success. The heart, alimentary canal, ovary, and appendages are
well brought out ; the nervous system not so well, owing, I suppose,
to its containing less fatty matter than that of Phyllosoma, and
consequently not being acted upon to the same extent by the acid.
For entire specimens an exposure of ten minutes to half an hour in
1 per cent., or of twelve to twenty-four hours in yV per cent, is suffi-
cient ; but for dissected specimens, to show the separated appendages,
a day in 1 per cent, is not too much, the chitin becoming stained of
a light brown colour by the long exposure. In one specimen
acted on for this time I was fortunate enough to get the heart
dissected out of its pericardium, and found that the organ showed
very perfectly the beautiful arrangement of muscular fibres figured
by Glaus.* It must be remembered that after twenty-four hours'
exposure to a 1 per cent, solution of the acid, the Daphniae appear
perfectly black to the naked eye.

For Cijiyris, Cyclops, &c., the same process is equally good for
the preparation of specimens for dissection ; but very little is
shown when the animals are mounted whole.

The acid is a great success for preparing the mouth parts and
other appendages of Asellus aqnaticus. The animals should be
placed entire in a 1 per cent, solution for about a day, and then
treated with alcohol of gradually increasing strength. They become
jet black to all appearance ; but when the appendages are dissected
off, clarified, and mounted in balsam, they are seen to be stained of
a rich brown colour, their muscles are brought out with perfect
clearness, and their finest setas well shown up. The same specimens
unstained are so transparent as to be almost invisible, and such
colouring matters as carmine and haematoxylin are anything but
successful.

I have made very few experiments with insects, but those I have
are sufiicient to show how valuable this method is for the prepara-
tion of mouth parts, salivary glands, Malpighian tubules, &c., and
how it ought, for the former, entirely to replace the somewhat
barbarous method of treatment with potash or with turpentine.

The only other application of osmic acid to which I have to draw
attention, is for the preparation of delicate vegetable structures. The
most important experiments I have made in this direction are on the
* ' Z'jitschr. f. wiss. Zool.,' xxvii. pi. 26.

On some Applications of Osmic Acid. By T. J. Parker. 383

terminal bud of Chara ; and for this I have found it so successful,
that I have no doubt of its usefulness for other structures of a like
nature. The buds were placed in acid until they appeared black,
and were then treated with alcohol as described above. They were
then clarified with oil of cloves, and imbedded in cacao butter, and
the sections cut were mounted in balsam. The method is extremely
good for the younger parts of the bud, such as the apical cell, smallest
leaves, &c. ; but the oil of cloves and balsam cause a good deal
of shrinking of the older cells: it might possibly be better to
imbed in glycerine jelly, and to mount the section in glycerine.
The staining of these objects is very successful; the acid seems
to have been taken up by each granule of the protoplasm, and
there to have been decomposed, giving the granule the characteristic
grey colour. A mixture of osmic and chromic acids (chromic acid,
0 • 25 p. c, 9 parts ; osmic acid, 1 p. c, 1 part) answers, in some
respects, even better than osmic acid alone for this purpose.

In this, as in all the former instances, one great advantage of
the method is that hardening and staining are performed in one
operation.

384 Transactions of the Society.

XXI Is not the Botiferous Oenus Pedalion of Hudson synony-
mous with Hexarthra ofLudidg Schmarda?
By JuLiEN Deby, F.K.M.S.

(BeadSth January, 1879.)

Looking lately through the plates iilustratino; Ludwig Schmarda's
' Zur Natnrgeschichte ^gyptens ' (Yienna, 1854), I fell accidentally
upon the figure of an extraordinary rotifer which reminded me
forcibly of Dr. Hudson's Pedalion. From the imperfect figure,
plate iii. fig. 1, of Schmarda's work, I referred to the text for
fuller details, which are to he found on p. 15. We see there that
the rotifer called Hexarthra i^lyptera was discovered by Schmarda
on the 19th of March, 1853, in a small pool near the ruins of El
Kab, in Egypt. The water was brackish to the taste, and the
animal lived in it in shoals or " swarms." Although at the first
aspect Schmarda thought he had to do with some small crustacean,
he soon discovered the true position of his animal in the family
Hydatinea.

His examination, although insufficient for clearly establishing
identity of generic characters between Hexarthra and Pedalion, is,
however, sufficiently detailed to allow of great doubts being ex-
pressed as to the right of existence of the latter name. The
differences between Hudson's and Schmarda's descriptions reside
principally in the incompleteness of the details given by the latter,
and are consequently differences of omission rather than anything
else. Schmarda's work being rather difficult of access, I have
translated therefrom his description in full of Hexarthra j[)olyptera,
which I reproduce for the sake of comparison with Dr. Hudson's
careful and elaborate papers, published in ' Month. Micr. Journ.,'
vol. vii., 1871, p. 121 ; in ' Quart. Journ. Micr. Sc.,' vol. xii., 1872,
p. 333 ; and in ' Month. Micr. Journ.,' vol. viii., 1872, p. 209 :—

" The body is transparent, colourless, and represents a blunt cone,
at the broad end of which are situated the rotary organs. These
last are large, with numerous long cilia, and are so attached as to
form a right and a left group. Two globular red eyes are seen in
the middle of the forehead, not far asunder. The digestive appa-
ratus is very distinct ; an undulating (flimmernde) slit (mundspalte)
leads into a conical oesophagus, moved by four muscles, and carrying
two semicircular jaws, each of which is furnished with seven teeth.
The build of the masticating apparatus has some resemblance to
that of Triarthra. The stomach is short, but rather broad, and leads
into a cylindrical, many times constricted intestine, which narrows
at its lower end. The absorption of carmine was easily obtained.
At the upper portion of the intestine two pancreatic glands, which
are divided into two lobes, are seen to open. The organs of respira-

On the Rotiferous Genus Pedalion, &c. By Julien Dehij. 385

tion consist in two long, winding vessels on the sides of the body.
At the anterior extremity exists another system of vessels, forming
a great vascular ring, from which branches are thrown out. As
regards organs of generation, the ovary alone was recognized with
certainty. A second small, bladder-like organ is perhaps the
testicle. Eggs of various sizes and stages of development were
contained in the ovary. The ripe eggs were light green, and were
carried about at the posterior end of the body. The motions of the
embryo, the vibration of its ciHa, and the motions of its jaws, were
frequently observed before leaving the egg-shell. The organs of
the senses consist in two round eyes, filled with a carmine-coloured
pigment.

The organs of locomotion are very peculiar and complicated.
They consist in three pair of oars or fins. The first pair is the
most powerful, and takes its origin high up on the outside of
the abdominal face. It is conically j)ointed, has centrally on each
side four teeth, and divides at the tip into five pair of small plumed
appendages or fins. Two clearly marked muscles, striated trans-
versely, run through the whole length, giving off branches to the
appendages. The second pair of limbs is somewhat smaller in
all its dimensions, and is inserted deeper and more inwardly. The
eight teeth on the sides are shorter, and the tips only carry eight
appendages.

These limbs only carry a single central muscle. The third pair
springs from near the middle line of the body; on its lower
third, it is the smallest and weakest of the whole, and only one
muscle is discernible in each limb. The motion of these organs
is very active and energetic, as well as various in direction. Not
only do these animals swim with great swiftness, but, just as in
Polyarthra, Triarthra, and others, they have the power of leaping.
Besides these oar-hke organs and the rotary organs, both long and
circular muscles aid the movements of the body. I kept the
creatures alive until the beginning of April."

I advise those interested in the study of the Rotatoria to have
a look at these figures of Schmarda's, as no types of this class
of animals are more interesting from an evolutional point of view
than Pedalion or Hexarthra,* if this latter be really distinct
from it.

* Schmarda's original work was laid before the members of the Society l)y
M. Deby.

VOL. II. 2 C

386

Transactions of the Society.

XXII. — Note on M. Dehjs PaiJer.
By C. T. Hudson, LL.D., V.P.E.M.S.

{Read Qth April, 1879.)

In the above paper M. Deby says: — "The differences between
Hudson's and Schmarda's descriptions reside principally in the

Fig. 1.

incompleteness of the details given by the latter, and are conse-
quently differences of omission rather than anything else."

An examination, however, of the two figures here placed side

Note on M. Dehjs Paper. By C. T. Hudson. 387

by side, mine (Fig. 1) of Pedalion, and M. Schmarda's (Fig. 2) of
Hexarthra, will show that M. Deby's statement cannot be main-
tained, especially as M. Schmarda's written description exactly
tallies with his figure in the points to which I wish to call attention.

These are, that both M. Schmarda's description and his figure
represent his rotifer as having two hmbs of equal size much bigger
than the rest, and that all six spring from the same side of the
rotifer.

Now, Pedalion has one of its six limbs much bigger than all
the rest, and it is situated on the opposite side to the other five.

M. Schmarda's drawings are probably but rough ones ; but
making every allowance for this, it is surely impossible that he
could have been guilty of two such blunders as M. Deby gives him
credit for.

No doubt the two creatures belong to the same family ; but they
are generically distinct.

I strongly suspect M. Schmarda's " great vascular ring " to be
nothing but the muscles at the neck, and the " testicle " he speaks
of, to be probably the contractile vesicle ; but it is of httle use to
criticize hypothetical mistakes, so I will not pursue the matter
further.

2 c 2

388 Transactions of the Societij.

XXIII. — An Illuminating Traverse-Lens. By Egbert B. Tolles,
of Boston, Mass., U.S.

{Read 9th April, 1879.)

With the advent of objectives of increased interior angle of aperture,
the indispensableness of equivalent accessory means for the illumi-
nation of the object became immediately evident.*

In my first construction of such object-glasses, I therefore
required to provide means which proved so suitable that I have
adhered to their use to the present time.

The first appliance was a deep plano-convex lens, centrally
mounted below the object and having its centre of curvature in the
object-place. Afterwards, I adopted a plano-cylindrically convex
lens, equal to a hemisphere less the thickness of the object-slide,
which was placed in immersion contact with the base of the slide
so that the object itself formed the centre of curvature of this
illuminating lens. Around the convex surface of this central lens
moved a shutter to regulate and limit the access of light, and it
was provided also with a small plano-concave lens which, applied
by its concave to the convex surface of the larger lens by
immersion contact, cancelled the refracting surfaces and allowed
a perpendicular beam of light to reach the suitably immersed object
without refractiou.t

The device in a more complete form is represented in the annexed
figure, where P is the basilar plate of the whole traverse system,
having a circular groove and track in which the carriage C moves.
On a projecting arm A of the carriage C are mounted whatever
appliances are to be used to modify or direct the light upon the
traverse lens T in the direction of the object at the centre of the
system.

In the figure the concave lens N is shown in position on the
arm. Thus situated, the interior convex and concave surfaces
being of no effect, the two exterior plane surfaces of the traverse
system constitute it a prism, and every slightest movement of this

* See 'M.M. J.,' July, 1S71, p. 38. t Ibicl , May, 1873, p. 213.

An Illuminating Ti^averse-Lens. By Bolert B. ToUes. 389

concave facet lens on the traverse lens T would give a different
prism to infinite variety. In this arrangement, the concave mirror
can be used in the ordinary manner and condense light enough
upon the object for all ordinary purposes. The full interior
aperture of a dry objective would be reached at the very convenient
obliquity of 41'"', i. e. at less than the critical angle, or angle of
total internal reflection between crown-glass and air. L is a
double-convex condensing lens, that may be placed at about its
principal focal distance from the object.

For a condenser, with the size of apparatus as drawn in the
figure, a simple lens of 1|^ inch focus and about ten (10") degrees
of aperture is convenient, and if the lens is movable along the arm A,
it can be focussed readily on the object, the position being fixed by
inspection. This would be well for parallel rays. If diverging
rays are used another lens of two or three inches focus, mounted on
the arm A, will conveniently take up the rays from the radiant at
the distance of the focus of this supplementary lens.

The plate P is graduated on its circular edge, as in the figure,
to two degrees, and the arm A has a swing of seventy degrees of
arc each way from the axis of the Microscope. An index-line is
marked on the bevelled edge of the carriage 10^ from the axis of
the condenser, which must be added to or subtracted from the real
obliquity of the illuminating rays.

It is obvious that any observation made and duly recorded as
to its conditions, as of obliquity of incidence of illuminating pencil
or ray, form of the pencil or beam, focal length and distance of
the condenser, such observation could be successfully repeated.
The record of the obliquity of the most oblique rays reaching the
object directly and giving view of it at the eye-piece with luminous
field, would express the " balsam " aperture, or more correctly, the
half interior aperture of the objective when the front lens of the
objective and the traverse system are of glass of similar refraction.

Having thus the " balsam " angle we readily calculate or learn
the corresponding angle for glycerine, or water, or any medium of
which we have the index of refraction. A corresponding notation,
perhaps for air, might be engraved in juxtaposition on the basilar
plate.

390 Transactions of the Society.

XXIV, — On the Occurrence of Recent Reteropova.
By Arthur Wm, Waters, F.G.S.

(Bead Uth May, 1879.)

Plate XV.

In looking tlirough some of the British Museum recent Bryozoa, I
several times came across portions of round branches from the
neighbourhood of Japan, and upon examination some were seen to
be Myriozoum ; but the structure of others, similar in form, was
upon first sight a puzzle, for broken sections seemed to show trans-
verse markings like septa, so that I was in doubt as to what this
might be, and it was necessary to make transparent sections before
the appearance was explained, but then the tubular cyclostomatous
nature was quite clear, and it was interesting to find a Cheilosto-
matous {Myriozoum subgracile d'Orb.) and a Cyclostomatous
Bryozoon from the same locality, so similar in habit that they were
placed together as the same species, not in one case only, but in
several.

As is the case in all Cyclostomata, the shell-walls are perforated
by small holes, and the shell thickening between these holes gives
sometimes a beaded appearance (Fig. 4) to a section of a cell- wall ;
and it is to the irregular thickening of the shell causing well-hke
depressions round these holes that the peculiar appearance of
transverse lines is due.

Mr. Busk, in the 'Crag Polyzoa,' page 122, speaks of partial
transverse nearly equidistant septa in Heteropora, and Mr. J.
Haime figures most distinct septa in his H. pustuhsa* These

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV.

Fig. 1.— Heteropora pelliculata, nsLtm&l size. (The upper branches are drawn
slightly too long.)

Fig. 2.— Longitudinal section of ditto, x 25. (This is drawn with the growing
end downwards, and the structure is perhaps shown better in consequence.)

Fig. 3. — Transverse section of ditto, x 25.

Fig. 4. — Portion of same, magnified fifty times.

Fig. 5. — Operculum of Myriozoum subgracile d'Orb., X 85.

Fig. 6.— Operculum of Cellepora (Fig. 8), X 85.

Fig. 7. — Surface of Heteropora pelliculata; b, portion with the thin covering
removed.

Fig. 8. — Cellepora from Australia.

Fig. 9. — Heteropora ccrvicornis d'Orb.

Fig. 10.— Surface of ditto.

Fig. 11. — Ditto, with covering removed.

* ' Mem de la Soc. Ge'ol. de France,' ser. 2™e^ vol. v. pi. xi. The name H. pus-
tulosa was employed by Haime five years previous to the publication of the 'Crag
Polyzoa,' and therefore the same name given by Mr. Busk as a new species will
require to be changed. Haime's specific name jmstulosa had been employed by
Miclielin and d'Orbigny for his species, though the generic name they used waa
Ceriopora.

joim. R. MIC. soc, vol.it. pi.xy

:f S\

•I f

t

t« /-' t ,/

\:

s.

? not

I-.g.S.

07,.:

=^ V.

^- f:S>.>'

^;# |L

Fig 4-

3

'» i*

•I 3

r *^

I'ig.

#

m

„.*%1

( ■ ,

•;#•*

gj.

^"

■4'*'*.»

" • ;t'

f

_«i:-

.,;•!«'#
''«••*•*

■4

Fxg. 7,

{> , .

^^

Fxg.

10.

Fig. 11. ""

W- W<xters litk.

Min.UTii.Bj

1.2. 3. 4 &. 7. Hetex-opora pellicnlata..

5. Operculura of Myriozoirm. subgracile.

6. Operc-ul-am of Cellepo2-a.. 8. Cellepora, sp.
9.10.11. Hetejcopora cervicorYiis , d' Orl) .

Occurrence of Recent Eeterojpora. By Arthur Wm. Waters. 391

Mr. Busk explains by considerk^ the septa to represent the
remains of hymen-Hke lids, which have been left behind at suc-
cessive stages of growth. I havt not found this to be the case in
this species or fossil ones examined, but suppose it must occur in
other species.

The pore-tubes can be seen in the transverse sections, Figs.
3 and 4 ; in Fig. 4, they are shown passing through the
zooecial walls ; this structure is the same as we find in all Cyclo-
stomata, and the inner portion of Fig. 4 would represent equally
well Idmouea, Hornera, &c., for in all of this sub-order numerous
minute pores occur in the walls, as is also shown in the longi-
tudinal section, Fig. 2, which may also be considered as a cha-
racteristic section of the shell structure of the group. In the
Cheilostomata, on the other hand, numerous perforations are
exceptional, but in the cell-walls of most are comparatively large
disks, called rosette-plates, having one or numerous apparent per-
forations. In E. peUicuIata the interior of the zooecial tubes has
delicate longitudinal markings, with occasional faint transverse lines
of growth (see Fig. 2).

The external surface can best be studied with a calcined
fragment. In a piece thus prepared, the calcareous base of a thin
pelhcle is seen to cover nearly all the surface. The zooecial aper-
tures are nearly equidistant and have sometimes a thin cover, as is
the case with most of the Cyclostomata ; * surrounding each cell are
about eight cancelli, covered, as already pointed out, and in these
coverings are several perforations round which the white calcareous
film is thicker, thus giving the appearance of raised warts, and, in
fact, until the organic matter is removed this structure cannot be
correctly appreciated. The openings of the cancelli are usually
much smaller than the zooecial apertures, though in some cases
they are nearly as large.

I have been unable to identify it with any fossil form, and
therefore call it

Eeteropora 'peUlcidata, nov.

Zooarium erect, branches cylindrical, frequently dividing dicho-
tomously, ends of branches sometimes taper, at others swelling
out into a subglobular termination. Zooecia ; parallel tubes, per-
forated with minute depressed pores. Zooecial orifices circular,
interstitial orifices subcircular, disposed round the zooecial orifices.
Surface covered with a thin calcareous and organic pelhcle, cover
of cancelli numerously perforated.

Hab. — The Gulf of Tartary and the neighbourhood of the
island of Saghalien and Japan, between the latitudes 41°-46° N.,

* Such covers of the Cyclostomatous Bryozoa are specially worthy of note, for
in Polypora and other Cari)oniferoiis fossils belonging to the Fenestellidse similar
closures have been pointed out by Mr. John Young.

392 Transactions of the Society.

and longitudes ]41°-143^ E., in from fourteen to thirty-seven
fathoms.*

The next instance of the occurrence of Heteropora is interesting,
as being found under somewhat parallel circumstances.

In the Australian seas there is a Cellepora, probably common,
as I have seen it in several collections. It grows round the stalks
of seaweeds, &c., and is raised into ridges irregularly encircling the
zooarium (Fig. 8), with zooecia on each face of the ridge, so that
it may be said to have in part a biserial growth, and this is known
in Mesenteripora, Reticulipora, Eschara, Flustra, Biflustra, &c.

I have not been able yetf to identify it with any described
species, and in my own collection distinguish it as G. repleta (thus
in part retaining the meaning of the generic name Plethopora).

It is not, however, with this we have now to deal, but with a
Bryozoon (Fig. 9) of quite similar mode of growth, found in a small
boxful of the Celleporae, just mentioned, which my sister picked
up on the Semaphore near Adelaide ; however, as soon as it is put
under the Microscope, it is seen to be a Cyclostomatous Bryozoon,
and I do not at present see any reason for placing it in any other
genus than Heteropora.

The zooecial apertures (Fig. 10) are more irregularly placed
than in the last species, in which the region of the aperture was
only slightly raised ; but here it is elevated in a tubular form, and
the walls of the cancelli are also elevated. The perforations of the
cancelli covers are larger, with the white rim round each hole very
distinct. Where this film is removed (Fig. 11) there are spinous
protuberances round the aperture.

This is apparently the PlethojJora cervicornis d'Orb., 'Pal.
Fr.,' pi. 799, figs. 4, 5, found in the Senonien, and which is placed
by him among the Cyclostomatous forms, but until I discovered
this recent one I had always supposed the figure represented a
worn specimen of Cellepora, similar to the one already mentioned.

Heteropora cervicornis d'Orb.

Plethopora cervicornis d'Orb., 'Pal. Fr.,' vol. v. p. 1045, pi. 799,
figs. 4, 5.

Zooarium incrusting stalk of seaweed, raised into irregular
ridges. Zooecial aperture crateriform ; cancelli, mostly one series
round the zooecium, covers perforated with few large holes.

* There are from the same locality stems of varying sizes, some not more than
half the diameter figured, but whether they are all the same species I cannot say
with certainty. If the material liad been my own, I should have chipped frag-
ments otr all and made detail examination, but this could hardly be allowed in a
national collection, and I have to thank the Museum authorities for allowing me
to make sections of a broken fragment.

t I take this opportunity of saying I hope shortly to carefully study the
Australian recent and tertiary Bryozoa, and shall be glad of any assistance that
Jiaturalists can give me.

Occurrence of Recent Heteropora. By Arthur Wm. Waters. 393

Hab. — Chalk. Environs de Tours (d'Orb.). Eecent, Adelaide.

The genus Heteropora has been found in the Jurassic of
England and France, and the external appearance of H. lepida
Novak.,* is much the same as that of the recent species. The
genus was also frequent in the Maestricht chalk. Heteropora
dicliotoma and two other species are mentioned by Eeuss and
Manzoni, from the Miocene of Austria and Hungary. Busk men-
tions several species from the Crag, and the American tertiaries
have also yielded it, but it does not appear to have been previously
found recent.

Besides the interest of the genus occurring recent, the striking
similarity in shape of H. peUiculata and cervicoruis to Cheilosto-
mata taken in the same hauls is a most curious fact.

* "Beit. z. Kennt. der Bry. der biJhm. Kreid.," 'Denk. k. k. Ak. Wissensch.
Wien,' 1877, vol. xxxvii.

394 Transactions of the Society.

XXV. — Note on Homogeneous Immersion Ohject-gh
By F. H. Wenham, F.R.M.S.

iRead Uth May, 1879.)

As the homogeneous immersion object-glass is revived as a recent
idea, I quote from a paper contributed by me to the ' Monthly
Microscopical Journal,' June 1st, 1870, the following comment in
favour of homogeneous immersion. " One advantage in the immer-
sion objective is, that it almost prevents the loss of light from the
reflection of the upper surface of the cover and front of lens, and in
part neutralizes any error of figure and polish that may exist be-
tween them. There is also another condition annexed ; it has the
singular property of a front lens of adjustable thickness, and there-
fore can be set to the utmost nicety to balance the aberrations. Of
course there is no optical advantage attendant upon the use of water.
If a medium of the same refractive power as the glass were to be
employed, the result would be better. Water having a low refrac-
tive index, an adjustment is required for each thickness of cover,
and a difference of adjustment is not so marked and sensitive as in
the ordinary dry objectives ; but if a medium of similar refraction to
the glass were to be used, no adjustment would be required for any
thickness of cover, supposing the test objects to be mounted thereon
(which they generally are) ; for, in fact, we should then view them
all with a front of the same thickness — considering the cover, the
front lens, and the interposing medium as one." *

[Since the above was read, Mr. Wenham has sent U3 th e
following additional note on this subject. — Ed. ' J.E.M.S.']

In the ' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' No. 11,
1855, p. 3!J3, I described as part of the system of an object-glass,
a front lens connected with the slide by an intermedium of Canada
balsam ; of this I say, " It will be seen from the position of the
object, that each ray of light passing from that point through the
surface of the hemisphere, will be transmitted in straight lines in
a radial direction without undergoing any refraction; the conse-
quence of which is, that the full and undiminished aperture of the
object-glass is made to bear upon the object." Of the actual per-
formance obtained by this object-glass (a i), I say on the next page :
*' When an object is seen under these circumstances, it at once
shows the great increase of distinctness that is to be obtained in the
structure of the more difficult Diatomaceous tests when they are
thus viewed in Canada balsam with the full aperture of the object-
glass. Markings which in the neighbouring dry objects of the same
character are scarcely discernible, are sharply and distinctly visible
under the balsam hemisphere, with the same illumination."
* The discussion on this Note will be found at p. 494.

( 395 )
NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

ZOOLOGY.

A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology of the

Vertebrata.

Primitive Stripe in the Chick.— The so-called primitive stripe,
or groove, had a future ascribed to it by the earlier embryologists,
which the more modern authors regard as belonging to a different set of
embryonic structures : to the elucidation of this question, Dr. Mathias
Duval has lately * devoted himself. Messrs. Foster and Balfour, in
their ' Elements of Embryology,' remark that " by the earlier observers
the primitive groove was supposed to become converted into the
medullary canal. Dursy (' Der Primitivstreif des Hiihnchens ') was
the first to give a correct account of its disappearance ; and the dis-
tinction between it and the medullary groove has since been fully
recognized by many observers." In addition to information which
confirms this view of Dursy 's, M. Duval describes the characters of the
adjoining regions.

Bearing in mind the difficulty as to the exact stage at which an
embryo may be found to have arrived, a difficulty which is not lessened
but rather increased by information as to the exact length of the incuba-
tion period, M. Duval has not contented himself with merely stating
the number of hours. Imagine two embryos found at exactly the same
stage of development, but that one has been seventeen and the other
twenty-one hours in incubation. It is obvious that the ready method,
ordinarily adopted, of regarding the one as being some stages behind
the other, would easily lead to a belief in the succession of certain
changes, such as that which was asserted to obtain with regard to the
primitive groove. Another method of examination had therefore to be
adopted. Having obtained a series of blastoderms, of which he had
registered the length of the incubation period, M. Duval examined
them by surface view, and chose them out by pairs ; of each jjair one
remained intact and easily adapted to inspection, while the other was
hardened and stained, — and cut into sections ; these sections, again,
were not registered as being cut from an embryo of a definite age,
but from one (A, B, and so on) of which he had a corresponding and
intact example.

The developmental period which was studied, was found to be
divisible into three groups; one was from the fom'teenth to the
twenty -second hour of incubation ; the second from the twenty-second
to the thii-ty-second ; and the third from the thirty-second to the
fiftieth hour.

In the first period, inspection reveals the presence of an embryonic
" spot," which may be divided into two regions ; to the more anterior
and smaller i^art the name of tergal zone is given, while the rest forms
the immitive line, and, later on, the inimitive groove ; the zone grows
but little during this period ; in it the cjiiblast is alone well defined
* ' Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zoo!.),' vii. (1878) Nos. 5-6.

396 NOTES AND MEMOKANDA.

the remaining parts forming merely a series of irregular masses of
small spheres, in which, in fact, the processes of segmentation are being
still carried on.

The history of the primitive line during this period is altogether
different ; not only does it increase in size three or four times, but it
presents an altogether distinct hypoblast-layer, while the epiblast is
seen to be connected with cells, which will ultimately form the meso-
blast ; at the fourteenth hour the primitive line is simple and homo-
geneous, and it is with diflQculty that a faint depression can be observed ;
at the nineteenth hour the pit of the fourteenth has become a long
groove. Eunning along this line or groove there may be observed a
delicate filament, for which the name of epiaxial filament is now pro-
posed ; for this structure Dursy had proposed the name of axial, and
his observations are quoted and corrected in some details, the correct
apprehension of which the French embryologist ascribes to the use of
osmic acid.

In the second period the primitive groove undergoes no changes
of any importance, but in the tergal zone certain modifications obtain,
which lead to the formation of the medullary groove and of the dorsal
cord ; these changes commence with the great increase in size of this
region ; the cells of the mesoblast extend outwards towards the sides of
the embryo, and also form a condensed mass at the level of the bottom
of the medullary groove ; this mass is the future chorda dorsalis. Much
of what happens in this period, as in the succeeding one, could only
be rendered intelligible by the aid of a number of figures.

Of the thii'd period, the most important characters are the continua-
tion of the metamorphoses of the tergal zone, and the retrograde de-
velopment of the primitive groove ; the author refers to what he has
already stated as to the fourth ventricle of the brain, and the so-called
rhomboidal sinus, and insists on the fact that the medullary groove is
completely closed along its whole extent, so that the two regions just
mentioned owe their origin to modifications of the central canal of
this part.

Dr. Duval concludes his paper with three statements ; the first, in
which he definitely states that the primitive groove ought to be abso-
lutely distinguished from the medullary groove, and that these parts
have different periods of, and different regions for, their development,
is accompanied by a detailed criticism of the works and statements of
earlier embryologists ; in the second, he deals with the history of the
three layers of the embryo, and shows that the course of development
of these three is different in the tergal zone to what it is in the parts
posterior to it ; and he brings this to bear on the statements of Eemak,
Waldeyer, Goette, Balfour, and Durante, who assert that the meso-
blast is developed from the hypoblast ; of Kolliker, who ascribes to
the former of these two layers a purely ectodermal origin ; and of His,
who would regard the epiblast and hypoblast as both being the seat
of origin of the mesoblast.

The third statement is that the chorda dorsalis is solely formed
from the tergal zone and in front of the primitive groove, and that it
is formed from the hypoblast, or at any rate has the same origin as

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 397

the mesoblast, with which layer its earlier stages of development are
most intimately bound up.

Evolution of the Male and Female Genital Glands of Mammalia.
— M. Ch. Eouget gives * a short account of his work on this subject,
from which there is so much still to be learnt that is of great import-
ance in any comprehensive or correct account of the structure and
relations of the group.

So soon as the common rudiment of the genital glands gives rise
to those peritoneal cells which invest the genital layer, and these
cells thicken (twelfth day in the rabbit), a number of cylindrical cells
with large nuclei are found among them (primordial ovules) ;
gradually they pass inwards and become connected with the so-called
segmental cords, in which they form lines, the separate elements of
Avhich are separated from one another by masses of small cells. The
first sign of sexual differentiation is the disappearance of the ovules
of the epithelial layer, and the formation of the earliest rudiments of
the tunica alhuginea. From the sixteenth to the twentieth day the
number of ovules increases rapidly, and that the more in the male ;
the primitive cells, with an ovoid nucleus, form a reticulum for the
ovules in the female, and seem to be the rudiments of the flattened
cells of the primordial follicles. In the cortical portion there are
small cells, which increase very rapidly in the male ; the ovules
persist even during infancy in the male glands, and apjiear to form
the large cells, to which La Valette St. George has given the name of
spermatogonia. The important point, then, that the ovules are essential
elements of the testicle, which was first shown by Balbiani to be true
of the Plagiostomous Fishes (and more recently of a young sheep j,
may be fairly extended to all mammals at any rate, as M. Eouget has
observed them in the human embryo, in rabbits, cats, and dogs.

Natural Science Prizes of the Brussels Academy. — The subjects
for the Natural Science prizes of the Brussels Academy for 1880 are
the following : —

1st. (A geological subject.)

2nd. " Explain the history of the germinative vesicle in ova
capable of developing by parthenogenesis," The author to choose the
object of his essay amongst the different sjiecies of animals in which
parthenogenetic development has been positively established.

3rd. " New observations are required on the relations of the
pollen-tube with the ovule in one or more phanerogams."

The value of the medals to be awarded are 800 francs each, and
the essays must be written in French, Flemish, or Latin.

Cells and Nuclei. — Dr. Klein continues, in the ' Quarterly Journal
of Microscojjical Science,' f his observations on the structure of cells
and nuclei, forming Part II., and dealing with the epithelial and
gland-cells of mammals. This was written before the appearance of
Professor W. Flemming's article on the same subject in the ' Archiv

* ' Comptes Rendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) 602.
t 'Q. Jouni, Mier. Sci.,' xix. (lS7i>) 125.

398 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

f. Miki\ Anatomie,' * wbicli is referred to by Dr. Klein iu a postscript,
in which he points out that Flemming's views on the structure of
cells and nuclei and the relation of the two do not in some respects
coincide with those already expressed by himself. In the third and
concluding part of his observations, he proposes to discuss in detail
these differences.

B. INVERTEBRATA.

Invertebrates of Kerguelen's Land.— Professor Studer gives somo
account f of the results of his stay in this island, the fauna of which
appears to offer some very interesting peculiarities ; four new species
of Cladocera are described and figured, one of the Ostracoda, and two
Copepods ; some remarks are made on the anatomy of Brada
mammillata Grube, which, it is concluded, belongs to the Pheruseidce
of Grube, although it differs from them in the want of tentacles and
branchias ; its coiled enteric canal, the gastric csecum, and the white
excretory glands are all points of resemblance ; the animal is dis-
tinguished by the presence of tubercular skin-glands, which form a
secretion by which particles of sand are united together to form a
closely fitting investment for the animal. A new species of the
interesting Chastopod genus Opliryotrocha is also described (the
specific name proposed is Claparedii) ; the two segments next to the
head carry no appendages, and are merely provided with a circlet of
cilia ; the next following all carry lateral foot-stumps ; the labrum
was simple and toothless, while the lower jaws carried seven project-
ing tooth-like ridges ; the cephalic lobes have only one band of
cilia ; this latter is of especial interest, as being an organ which has
not been lost, as it has been in most annelids, during the passage of
the creature from its larval to its adult state ; the condition of
maturity was indicated by the presence of ova.

In a later contribution,+ Studer gives a list, with bibliographical
and other remarks, of all the animals known to live in Kerguelen's
Land and the surrounding sea.

MoUusca.

Blood-cells of the Acephala. — The cells of the blood of TJnio are
ordinarily found to be amoeboid in character, and provided with a
large number of sharply-pointed pseudopodia ; the plasma is colourless
and not highly refractive ; they vary in size in various Lamellibranchs
within comparatively wide limits ; they are generally provided with
a single nucleus, which is small as compared with the size of the cell,
and is granular ; a number will be observed to contain fatty matter.
The most striking point, however, is their tendency to develop long
processes, while under observation, and with these pseudopodia they
may manage to unite themselves into masses of a considerable size.
To the question as to how far this was a natm-al occurrence, Flemming
has addi-essed himself § A drop taken by the aid of a lupctte from a

* See this Journal, ii. 137.

t ' Arch. f. Naturgeschichte,' xUv. (1878) 102.

X Ibid., xlv. (1879) 104.

§ ' Archiv f. Mikr. Anat.,' xv. (1878) 243.

NOTES AND MEMOBANDA. 399

fresh pulsating heart did not present any blood-cells with processes
of any great length, but in about a minute observation revealed their
presence ; the same results were obtained with blood taken from the
vessels, and the conclusion is arrived at that in the circulating blood
the cells only give off a few and those short processes ; it is obvious
that the presence of large conglomerate masses would effectually stop
up the smaller blood-vessels, and it is observed that it is rare for such
masses to be observed in fresh blood.

At times a few immobile bodies without processes, and of a smaller
size, were also observed ; these might be rounded or formless, and
present or not present distinct nuclei.

Later Stages in the Development of Fresh-water Mussels.—
M. Blanchard gives * an account of Max Braun's observations."]"
These were rendered successful by cutting up the gills of a female
Anodon, and so separating the embryos therein contained, and
placing them in an aquarium in which were a number of fish ; on
these Vertebrates the embryos soon fixed themselves and attained
their adult stage in something over seventy days. Having fixed
themselves by their byssus-threads, the so-called Glochidia fasten their
shells into the fins or other parts of their hosts ; the inflammation so
started gives rise to a proliferation of epithelial cells, in which the
larvae are soon encysted. As may be imagined, observations on their
development were thus rendered easy, and Braun is able to state that
the byssus-gland soon disappears, that the single adductor muscle
of the valves, having become double, soon makes way for dther organs,
while the permanent adductors become developed ; the foot appears
at first as a cone situated in the middle of the larva, and the pedal
ganglia become evident ; the median portion of the enteric tube gives
rise to two hepatic caeca ; the mantle of the embryo, which consists of
large cylindrical cells, disappears, and the new mantle, which is
made up of small cubical cells, takes its place. This absorption is
accompanied by that of the bony ray of the fin to which the embryo
had become attached, and the calcareous salts from it appear to go
to form the shell of the adult. The generative organs are not
developed till later, and when the young is set free from the cyst.

Locomotion of the Terrestrial Gasteropoda. — Heinrich Simroth
has an interesting article on this subject, | which is one on which little
has been done of late, and the views of Bergmann and Leuckart are
still accepted by most zoologists. According to these observers the
mechanism of locomotion in the common garden snail is essentially
the same as in a number of apodal insect-larvEe, with this exception,
that the number of waves which pass over the body are much more
numerous, and the attachment of the foot to the surface moved over
is more complete. There is, of course, no doubt that locomotion is
effected by the waves which pass over the foot from behind forwards,

* « Kev. Internat. rles Sci.,' il. (1S7S) 634.

t ' Verh. Phys.-Med. Gesellscli. Wurzburg,' xiii. ; SB., p. xxiv. (4th May, 1878).

X ' Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.,' xxx. Suppl. (1878) 166.

400 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

and that it is more rapid in proportion as these succeed one
another more rapidly ; but these waves do not seem to be locomotive
when the animal is placed on a glass, as it was in Bergmann and
Leuckart's experiments, and the only change which then occurs is in
the coloration of the organ. So long as the animal is at rest, the foot
is all of the same colour, but when it begins to crawl the transverse
bands become darker {Helix, Avion), or of an ashy hue (Li max). In
Helix the waves pass over the whole of the foot anteriorly, and over
the great part of it posteriorly ; in Linv.tx and Avion they are limited
to the median third.

Some three hundred experiments of the following character were
made : — A snail was made to crawl up a glass cylinder and the follow-
ing points were observed :—(l) The length of the animal; (2) the
length of the passage ; (3) the number of waves in an equal period of
time ; (4) how often a wave passed during the experimental period ;
(5) the length of the period ; (6) the weight of the body ; and (7)
the weight of the foot. Calculations based on these observations lead
to the conclusion that " the smaller animals have the greater power
of locomotion, and that tliis law does not apply merely to the smaller
genera and species, but also to the smaller and younger individuals of
the same species." It is, however, to be noted that in Helix pomatia
and HJwvtensis the waves succeed one another less rapidly in the smaller
than in the larger examples ; and it is concluded that the most suc-
cessful number of undulations are those of from 30 to 40 centimetres
in length. It follows from other measurements that the body moves
more rapidly up to a certain point, and that after this an increase in
the number of waves is of less use, while it is shown that the smaller
number of undulations in smaller animals is, within the limits of this
law, of greater physiological value than the higher number observed iu
the larger forms. The next law stated is now easily comprehensible —
the physiological value of the individual waves is inversely propor-
tional to the number of waves which pass over the foot in a given
period. From experiments in which the animals had a weight to
carry, it is found that within limits they are able easily to do so, in-
asmuch as the unloaded snails are not able to make use of all their
activity.

The voluntary muscles of the Gastevoj)oda are those in the dermo-
muscular tubes, and those derived therefrom (m. columellaris, and
muscles of the tentacles) ; in formation these seem to be intermediate
between the smooth and the striped elements found in the Yevtehvata ;
these are the vetvactile muscles, by which the different j^arts of the
body are brought into relation ; while the pvotvusile muscles, or those
by which locomotion is effected, are the longitudinal muscular fibres of
the foot. In Helix these extend over the whole of the breadth of
that organ with the exception of a small marginal portion ; in Avioii
and Limax, as might be supposed from what has been already stated,
they are confined to the median third. In addition to these there are
other fibres which run in various directions, and there is a special layer
around the pedal gland, and above it there is a covering of transverse
muscular fibres ; in the upper half of the hinder portion there is a

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 401

longitudinal layer connected with the columella, and of function in
withdrawing the animal into its shell.

The retractile bundles are chiefly innervated by the pedal
ganglia, which are, moreover, the chief centre for the locomotor
muscles also ; these pass in two parallel rows into the foot, and are
given off to the muscles by pairs, and at regular distances from one
another. When a motor nerve is stimulated the muscle-serum be-
comes less capable of dissolving myosin, and the consequent coagula-
tion, which is always associated with extension of the protrusile
muscle, causes a change in the characters of the light reflected from
the foot ; with each stimulation this coagulated spot varies in position
according as different nerve-branches are excited, and this coagulation
extends from behind forwards. For further details the paper, which
is a very valuable contribution to this branch of j)hysiology, must be
consulted ; but we may point out that Herr Simroth observes that the
difiference noted between the living protrusile and retractile fibres is
evident also in the dead animal, the former being elongated, and the
latter greatly contracted.

Auditory Organs of the Heteropoda. — Professor Claus opposes* the
views of Professor Ranke on three points : (1) According to this latter
observer there are only four auditory cells, in addition to the large
central cell ; Claus thinks that there are a large number. (2) The
structures regarded by Eanke as ganglionic are the concentrically
arranged auditory cells in the thickened sensory epithelium, into
which the fibres of the auditory nerve pass. (3) There is not a
single plate in the relatively large cavity between the central cell
and the outer auditory cells, but four large indifferent supporting
cells. It is of course impossible to make the diflerences plain with-
out reproducing the figures, and we must be content with drawing
att-^ntion to the subject.

Peculiarity in Littorina. — In a paper " On some Australian
Littorinidfe " | the Rev. J. E. Tennison- Woods says that there is one
peculiarity in some members of this genus to which attention has not
been drawn by any naturalist, and it is so very common and so peculiar
that it must have some relation to the animal economy. It consists
of a spiral white or yellow line or groove, which lines the interior of
the shell and arises from the anterior aperture, or at the lower part
of the labrum or outer lip. Along the groove the organs of reproduc-
tion are always exserted whether they be male or female. It is not
easy to explain why this portion of the shell is differently coloured,
unless it is in keeping with what is noticed in the colouring of certain
flowers, butterflies, &c. The whole of the Littorince have the aperture
of dark colour though highly enamelled, and this whitish line is a
conspicuous diversity in the appearance, though it would be a very
narrow view of the operations of nature to say that its only purpose
was to attract.

The author also establishes that the Australian Littorinidee so

* 'Arch. f. Mikr. Anat.,' xxv. (1S78) 341.
t ' Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,' iii. 55.

VOL. II. 2 D

402 NOTES AND MEMORANDA,

closely resemble the European genus Litforina, that they cannot be
generically separated from it ; that the genus Bisella should be sup-
pressed as no permanent generic character can be defined in it ; that
Tedaria pijramidalis is merely Littorina with a double line of granules,
and that all the Australian species have the groove or line above
mentioned, which is in some way connected with the organs of repro-
duction.

Structure and Physiology of the Octopus. — An extended series
of observations made on this animal at Roscoff are published by the
Royal Academy of Belgium.* Attention has been already drawn in
this journal (pp. 164-166) to the new substance which M. Fredericq
has found in the blood and to the action of the chromatophores ; we
may now add an accoimt of the vascular, excretory, and other systems.

Circulator y Organs. — Examined under water, and after the removal
of a small portion of the ventral wall of the mantle and of the visceral
sac, the rhythm of the heart is easily observed ; the contraction com-
mences in the peritoneal vessels and vena cava, and passes onwards to
the " venous hearts " at the base of the branchire, thence to the
auricles, and thence to the arterial ventricle or heart proper. About
thirty-five pulsations can be counted per minute, and as each takes
about ^V of a minute the contractions overlap more or less. The
action of this organ is not atfected by the removal of the peri-
cesophageal ganglion, the section of the pallial nerves, or the extirpation
of the pallial ganglia, and this evidence on the one hand, as well as
the fact that different parts removed from the organism, or the whole
heart removed from water, still continue to beat for a time, point
to the presence of exciting centres in the cardiac region itself. The
contact of the air, mechanical, and still more electrical excitation,
accelerate the action of the heart, on which also certain nerves from
the cesophageal collar seem to have an accelerating or a depressing
action ; the former run ah>ng the great vena cava, and the moderator
fibres are found in the trunks of the visceral nerves, as was first shown
by Paul Bert.

The latter seem to resemble very closely the pneumogastric
nerves of the Vertelrata, inasmuch as section of them increases the
number of pulsations, while weak excitation diminishes them, and
strong excitation brings the heart to a standstill in diastole.

But rhythmical contractility is not confined to the heart and its
neighbouring vessels ; the veins, even in their furthest ramifications,
present the same character, as may be well seen by examining an
Octopus into which a little colouring matter has been introduced ; two
large veins may then be seen in any one of the arms, which anasto-
mose largely with a number of smaller subcutaneous venous ramules ;
along their whole length a wave of contraction may be seen to pass,
which, though apparently irregular for the whole, is quite regular and
rhythmical in any given portion ; these beats are altogether inde-
pendent of the central nervous system.

The pressure of the blood in the arteries appears to be very great,

* ' Bull. Aca.l. Roy. Belg.,' xlvi. (1878) 710.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 403

as it is shown to be equal to 8 centimetres of mercury, whereas in
Testudo it is only from 30 to 50 mm., and only 70 mm. in Coluber natrix.

The lacuiife so common in the vascular system of other Mollusca
are here replaced by capillaries, and there does not seem to be in
the CejjJialojwda any means by which the sea-water is enabled to mix
itself with the blood.

Excretory Organs — The Octopus is provided with peritoneal caeca,
which contain a clear, and at times viscid, liquid, which holds in
suspension a number of brownish granular bodies, crystals of carbonate
of calcium, epithelial cells (and parasites, the most interesting of
which is the curious Dicycma iijims of Van Beneden). There is no
reason for supposing that these structures belong to an aquiferous
system, as their orifices are ordinarily closed, and the contained liquid
is a secretion from the glandular appendages of the veins, and is of
the natiu-e of an effete body. M. Fredericq has been unable to find
the uric acid which Harless and Bert had found in Sepia, but he has
discovered in its place the presence of guanine, and he gives, as we
need not do, the method by which he proceeded.

Bespiratory System. — To deal with the nerves by which the
alternate opening and closing of the muscular mantle around the
respiratory cavity is effected : all these are given off from the sub-
cesophageal ganglionic mass, as may be shown experimentally by first
removing the whole of the head, when the respiratory movements
cease altogether, and then removing the supra-ceso^jhageal ganglia,
when they are in nowise affected. These movements appear to be
reflex, as the author states that the pallial nerves also supply the
integument of the mantle, and that section completely destroys all
sensibility in these parts. Excitation of the peripheral end of the
pallial nerve or direct irritation of the pallial ganglia produces ener-
getic contractions, while excitation of the central end of the nerve
gives rise to symptoms of distress. Section of the visceral nerves
ordinarily arrested the respiratory movements immediately, but exci-
tation of the central end, if sufficiently strong, produced a temporary
reaction; this excitation seems to pass to the sub-oesoi)hageal mass,
and thence by the pallial nerves ; the former or visceral set seem,
among other things, to give sensibility to the branchiae, and the con-
stancy of the respiratory movements seems to depend largely, if not
entirely, on their integrity ; these movements then are reflex, whereas
M. Fredericq, like most modern physiologists, regards the action in
the Mammalia as automatic. The question now arises, how does the
respiratory centre, if there is one, of the Cej^halopoda act under the
irritation of alterations in the characters of its air-supply ? The
answer is very remarkable : interruption of the cephalic circulation
diminishes and slows the respiratory movements, a stay in poorly
aerated water has the same effect, and a return to water from air is not
accompanied by an increase, but by a decrease in the number of the
respiratory movements.

Digestive Organs. — The contents of the intestine, the secretion
of the salivary glands and of the liver, are distinctly acid ; the
aqueous infusion of the fresh salivary gland has no action on starch,

2 D 2

404 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

whereas that of the liver converts it into glucose, and, in an acid
solution, digests fibrin ; this latter organ contains no traces of bile
acids or pigments, and yet M. Fredericq is unwilling to propose any
alteration in its name.

Nervous and Muscular Systems. — M. Fredericq is of opinion that
the supra-oesophageal ganglia are the seat of psychical processes and
ought to be compared to the cerebral hemisphere of the Vertebrata ;
he states that the sub-oesophageal masses contain the centres for the
resj)iratory movements, the chromatic function, and for the movements
of the various muscles of the body ; he comes to the same conclusion
as Colesanti as to the physiological similarity of a single arm and a
decapitated frog ; there are in it no true volxmtary movements, but the
reflex ones are manifested much more energetically.

In chemical composition the muscles seem to resemble those of
the Vertebrata ; the aqueous extract contains an enormous quantity of
taurine, and the so-called idio-muscular contraction can be very easily
caused to appear in the muscles of the mantle.

Neomenia and the other Amphineura. — Dr. Jhering gives *
an abstract of the work lately done on this subject, and does good
service in iJointing out that the name Solenojms Sars was published
without any description, and that therefore it cannot take the place of
Tullberg's name — Neomenia. The heart is found to have a similar
position — median and dorsal — to that of the same organ in Chiton,
but the view that Neomenia is hermaphrodite does not find acceptance
with Jhering. The observations of Graff on the nervous system
appear to point to the natural character of the group Amphineura, in
the opinion of its founder, who takes occasion to point out that
Mr. Ball's palasontological researches confirm his views of the phylo-
genetic relations of the Patellidce with the Tecturidce. It may be of
interest to note that Keren states that he has known this remarkable
Neomenia for the last thirty years.

Anatomy of Chiton. — H. von Jhering describes f the results of his
own observations on some points in the structure of these eminently
interesting Mollusca, and gives a critical revision of the statements of
previous authorities. Looked at from his point of view, as, indeed,
from any, the importance of these forms cannot be overestimated ;
our author regards the Chitons as intermediate between the Mollusca
proper and the Annelides, and is of opinion that their developmental
history is much more similar to that of the just-mentioned Vermes than
to that of the Gasteropoda. It is, indeed, only of late years that these
forms have foimd theu* proper place in the zoological system ; Latreille,
in 1820, placed them with the Trilohites, and de Blainville, in 1825,
with the Cirripedia. The observation of Herr Jhering was chiefly
turned to the generative and renal organs and the histological charac-
ters of the muscular system, dm-ing his late stay at the Zoological
Station at Trieste ; these are his conclusions : —

1. The Chitonidfe are dioecious.

2. The ovarian eggs are enclosed in a follicle; in C sqiiamosus
this secretes a spiny chorion.

* ' Morphol. Jahrbucli,' iv. (1878) 147. t Ibid. 128.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 405

3. Tlio ova are fertilized in the ovary.

4. The kidney is a ramified gland, placed at the base of the
coelom, and invested by a ciliated epithelium ; it gives off a median
and unpaired efferent duct, which opens below the anus.

5. The secreting vesicles of the renal organ are developed in the
nucleus of the kidney-cells, and not, as in most jMollusca, in the
protoplasm of these elementary parts.

6. The muscular fibres form fibrillar bundles, which are enclosed
in a nucleated sarcolemma.

7. These fibrillas are simple in the pedal muscles, but in those
which form the buccal mass there is an anisotropic substance which
forms sarcous elements, and these are separated from one another by
isotropic substance. The separate fibrillae do not correspond to one
another, so that the " striation " which has been observed in the same
region in the Gasteropoda cannot be said to exist here.

It is of interest to observe that M. Jhering states that there are
striped or unstriped fibrilLne in the adductor muscles of the Ano-
donta, the portion which is striped ai)pearing to be that which effects
the rapid closure of the shell.

The paper is illustrated by a plate of sixteen figures.

Phenomena which precede the Segmentation of the Ovum in
Helix aspersa — M. Perez thus describes these phenomena in a paper
to the Bordeaux Society : * — The ovarian ova meet, in the diverticulum,
the spermatozoids which fecundate them. The germinal spot, at first
clear and homogeneous, assumes a cloudy aspect, and two small
nucleoli become vaguely visible. Later on, the spot becomes pale and
diffluent and the germinal vesicle disappears.

Around the freed nucleoli a radial system is formed of the fusiform
body and the two suns (soleils) known to embryologists. The two
nucleoli enlarge, and soon acquire a vesicular envelope. It is not long
before they are divested of the radial system which they had formed
by the contractions of the vitelline mass, which pushes outwards
(under the form of polar globules) the radial substance, which is
more fluid than the vitellus.

But the two cellular bodies thus enucleated remain in the vitellus,
where they are shown with the utmost ease by reagents in the place
formerly occupied by the germinal vesicle. They raj)idly increase in
size as they approach the centre of the vitellus ; and at the same
time their nucleus decomposes into a great number of nucleoles of
unequal size. Then one of them is completely destroyed. The other,
undergoing very nearly the same fate as the germinal vesicle, disap-
pears, leaving as its only trace two of the nucleoli which it enclosed.
These, becoming free by the destruction of the cell-wall, give rise to
a new radial system similar to the first, which becomes the " point de
depart " of the segmentation.

Liver and Digestion of the Cephalopodous MoUusca. — From
experiments made by M. Jousset de Bellesme on the liquid secreted
by the liver of Octoims vulgaris, obtained by cutting a peri spherical

* ' Eev. Intemat. Sci.,' iii. (1879) 280.

406 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

portion of the gland and hollowing out in it a cavity, in which the
liquid accumulated, he arrives at the conclusion * that the gland called
liver among the Cephalopods has no functional analogies with the liver
of Vertehrates. It is a digestive gland, destined to transform the
albuminoid matters alone, which these animals make their usual food,
and is without action on the fatty and amylaceous matters. He
pointed out the same fact some years ago in Carcinus mamas and
Astacus fiuviatilis, and since then M. Plateau has arrived at the same
results in his researches on the Arachnida and Myriapoda, so that it
may now be considered to be established that the liver of the higher
Vertebrata is not represented in the Invertebrata.

The communication of M. Jousset de Bellesme confirms in some
respects the researches of Krukenberg on the same subject,! and those
of Fredericq4 The infusion of the hepatic tissue (of the Poulp),
Fredericq says, digests fibrino both in acid and in alkaline solutions,
and transforms starch into glucose. Therefore we have hero a diastatic
ferment, and another ferment acting on the albuminoids which is
neither pepsine nor thrypsine (it is a mixture of both, according to
Krukenberg), and he reiterates what he previously said of the liver of
the slug : § " The so-called liver of the Poulp is a digestive gland,
which could be better compared with the pancreas of the Vertebrata."
The opinion of M. Jousset de Bellesme diifers from the preceding
in that he rejects the idea of any action of the liver of the Poulp on
amylaceous and fatty matters.!

In regard to digestion, M. Jousset de Bellesme (in a subsequently
published note 1| ) says that the superior salivary glands of the
Poulp do not exercise any digestive action ; their liquid only
serves in mastication and deglutition. As for the inferior salivary
glands, their function would be to dissolve the connective tissue
without attacking the muscular fibres themselves ; whilst the liquid
of the liver, on the contrary, digests the albuminoid matters. The
author adds : " After numerous attempts, operating sometimes on
fasting animals, sometimes on animals which were digesting, I became
convinced that none of the liquids supplied by the glandular appendages
are capable of emulsionating fats and transforming starch into glucose.
We therefore have to do with an animal which only possesses the power
of digesting albuminoid and connective matters, and the fact is all the
more remarkable as some of its own organs, the liver, for instance,
contain a large proportion of fatty matters." This would be a con-
vincing argument in favour of the opinion that living beings may form
fatty matters by the disassimilation of albuminoid matters ; but M.
Fredericq shows that the liver of the Poulp transforms starch, and
emulsiouates fatty substances.**

* ' Coniptcs Eeiidus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 304.

t " Versncbe zur vergleichenden Physiologie dcr Vcrdaiumg," in ' Uulers.
ans dem Physiol. Instit. der Univt-rs. Heidflberg,' i. (1878) o'27.

X ' Bull. Acad. Sci. Bclgique,' xWi. (1878) 7(31. § Ibid. 213.

II 'Itcv. lutcrnat. Sci..' i)i. (1879) 2(53.

i 'Coniptes Reudua,' Ixxxviii. (1879) 423.

♦* ' liev. luteruat. Sci.,' iii. (1879) 271.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 407

Molluscoida.

New Tunicata. — Professor Heller, in continuation of his previous
papers on the Tunicate fauna of the Adriatic and Mediterranean, now
describes * a number of new species from the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans, from the South Sea, and the Antilles ; these, of which there
are thirty, belong to the following genera: — Ascidia (6), Bhodo-
soma (1), Cynthia (6), Microcosmus (5), Pohjcarpa (8), Styela (3), and
Boltenin (1). He owes his opportunities to the kindness of Professors
Schmarda and Mobius, and to the director of the Museum Godetfroy
at Hamburg.

He appears to have been especially struck by the extraordinary
similarity of the forms from these very ditferent regions ; not only
do all the species belong to known genera, representatives of which
are to be found in the European seas, but many of the species examined
were absolutely identical with such. Thus, Ciona intestinalis was
brought from Sydney, as was also the Styela grossa, which is not rare
at Trieste, while Cynthia dura, another Adriatic form, was collected in
the Antilles and oflf New Zealand. The Microcosmus claudicans, so
common in all European seas, was found in the whole extent of the
Indian Ocean and of the South Seas, while it does not appear to be
absent from the West Indian region ; and the same remark applies to
Pohjcarpa pomaria and P. varians. The paper is illustrated by six
plates of thii'ty-two figures.

Arthropoda.
Gall-making Aphides. — The life-history and agamic multiplication
of the Aphididje have always excited the interest of entomologists,
and have even attracted the attention of some of the most eminent of
our naturalists. With all their vast numbers and their universality,
their life-history has, however, baffled the skill of many an observer,
and this has been especially the case in the gall-making forms which
so disfigure our trees. Kesearches carried on into the life of the
Phylloxera have, however, somewhat cleared the way, and Dr. Eiley
begins, vol. v. for 1879, of the ' Bulletin of the United States Geo-
logical Survey ' with some biological notes, in which he recounts the
following most remarkable history: It will be remembered that
destructive as these insects are, they are most fragile, and languish in
confinement, so to trace out all their daily history for a space of over ten
months was a labour requiring diligence and perseverance — one that
probably would not have been successful had not Dr. Riley been
helped by an enthusiastic lady friend. The first species studied is
known as Schizoneura americana. It infests the leaves of the American
elm, sometimes in such numbers as to cause all the leaves to fall. If
during the winter the cracks in the bark of an American elm that was
badly infested with this leaf-curling species the previous summer be
examined, there will pretty surely be found here and there a small
dull yellow coloured egg, about • 5 mm. long, probably still covered
with the remains of the female's body, quite dried up. Out from this
egg will in the early spring be hatched the little crawling creature
* ' SB. Akad. Wien.,' Ixxvii. (1878) 83.

408 NOTES AND MEMOKANDA.

which constitutes the first generation in a very remarkable series,
settling upon the tender opening loaves. This " stem-mother " begins
to feed, causing the leaf to swell up and pucker until it at last curls
over the tiny form. After three moults, and the temperature being
warm, it commences to people the leaf with young at the rate of
about one every six or seven hours. The second generation, though
they never grow to be at all as large as the stem-mother, are like her
in many respects. They accumulate in vast numbers, some of which,
scattering, form new colonies. Their issue forms the third generation
which are destined to become winged. These winged forms are short-
lived, but they lay twelve or more j)seudova at average intervals of
about half an hour. The young plant-lice from these form the fourth
generation, the members of which are very active, running swiftly.
They are of a brown colour, and are somewhat like in general appearance
to those of the second generation. In this stage they swarm over
every portion of the tree, and their necessities cause them to migrate,
in which effort masses of them get destroyed. The fifth generation is
very similar to the fourth. It gives rise to forms like the fourth, but
without wings. These give origin to the sixth generation. All of
these acquire wings. These abound in the latter end of June and
early part of July. They congregate on the bark, seeking out sheltered
cracks or crevices, in which they deposit their young. These form
the seventh generation, and are sluggish, of the colour of the bark,
the females a little larger than the males. They have no mouth.
They live for several days without motion. The female seems to
increase in size by the enlargement of her one single egg. Both sexes
soon perish, leaving among their shrivelled bodies the shining, brown-
ish, winter egg with which we started ; so, after a long series of vege-
tative reproductions, at last the time comes f(jr the renewing of the
race by this zygospore-like body. Sm-ely in this lies a hint to our
plant-growers. It would be easier to destroy a single egg than stop
a stream of agamic-produced forms extending to six generations.*

Buzzing of Insects. — In a supplementary communication on this
subject (see vol. i. pp. 276 and 373), M. Perez says that he does not
agree with M. de Bellesme in thinking that a conical movement
(mouvement conique) of the thorax can produce a sound, because, on
fixing the animal with a pin, the movements are very attenuated, with-
out the movements of the wings and the buzzing being destroyed or
even weakened. These movements cannot therefore explain the
buzzing, f

Larval Cases of Phryganeidse.— Several new forms of Phryganeidce,
exhibiting interesting modifications of the larval cases, have been dis-
covered in Brazil by Fritz Mixller, who describes them in a letter to
his brother Hermann Miiller. J He says, " I have lately found several
new larvfe of Phryganeidce. The group of Hi/droptilidiB seem parti-
cularly rich in this place in peculiarly shaped larva-cases. Hagen

* 'Times,' 12tli March, 1879.

t 'Rev. Iiiternat. Sci.,' iii. (1879) 281.

X ' Zool. Auzeiger,' ii. (1879) 38.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 409

only knew of four of these cases. I have already found nine, which
must be classed under six quite distinct genera : —

I. Cases resembling mussel-shells, with narrow slit-like anterior
and posterior apertures (as Hydroptila). They are carried on the
sharp edge. (They look particularly like mussels when they are
formed of rod-shaped diatoms, which then represent as it were the lines
of growth.)

1 . Upper and under edges parallel, almost straight ; coated out-
side with fine sand. Larvse with three caudal tracheal gills.

2. Of a similar shape but made of algfe or diatoms. Larvas
without gills.

3. The dorsal angle strongly arched ; the case made without the
aid of foreign materials.

II. Case formed of diatoms, the sides pressed together, with a
narrow anterior and posterior slit ; the edge of the back has two funnels
(I call them for the present Dicaminus). For entering the pupa stage
they are fixed upright, and sometimes whole villages of these cases are
found attached to stones. The use of the funnels is evident, viz. to
give free entrance to the water necessary for respiration. The larvas
in the small mussel-like cases which have no such tubes, are seen to
make, almost continuously, brisk serpentine movements in their cases
with the posterior j^art of their body — with the result of introducing
fresh water. The Dicaminus larva never does this.

III. Almost cylindrical, coated externally witli fine sand. Diminu-
tive tubes, only 2 mm. long and about • 5 mm. in diameter.

IV. Cases attached to movable stalks.

V. Scutiform cases, fastened all round, similar to an egg-case of
Nephelis, with a small hole at each end.

VI. Flask-shaped cases (Lagenopsyche nov. gen.). These are
especially remarkable. In distinction to almost all the known cases
of Hi/droptilidce, the anterior and posterior ends of which are equally
and uniformly made use of for the larvte to creep both in and out of,
the cases of the Lagenopsyche difter greatly at the two ends, the
anterior opening being round, and the posterior a long narrow slit.
All the other Phryganeidce. look out of the last formed and wide part
of their tubes ; LagenopsycJie out of the first formed neck of the flask.
I know no other instance of the change in position of the pupa in its
case (what for it is front, above, and below, for the larva was behind,
right, and left). The imago usually creeps out in the first hour or
two of the afternoon."

Development of the Silkworm.— A preliminary account of his
researches on this subject is published, by A. Tichomirofi",* whose
chief results are as follows : —

1. The author was able to confirm Bobretsky's observation as to
the passage of amoeboid cells from the interior to the periphery of
the egg, in order to form the blastoderm. This process was best seen
on the second day after the eggs were laid. There was no evidence
to show whether these amoeboid cells originated, according to Bobret-

* 'Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) 64.

410 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

sky's hypothesis, from the ogg-nucleus, but it seemed probable that
they were formed freely in the interior of the egg after fecundation ;
in sections of the new-laid egg, small lumps of protoplasm were
found, the appearance of which convinced the author that in them the
future amo3boid germ-cells were to be sought.

2. Tichomirotf differs from former workers at the embryology of
insects, in denying the formation of the muscular layer by an invagina-
tion of the ectoderm. He states that a temporary sinking in of the
outer layer takes place in the position of the future dorsal groove, but
that he has never observed a true invagination. The cells of the
muscular layer are formed by division from those of the ectoderm, the
process taking place at any point in the germ-lamella, and not only in
the middle.

The yolk-spheres, with their numerous nuclei, which are seen in
all stages of development up to hatching, are true formative cells, at
the cost of which the mesoderm grows. They also give rise to
migratory cells, the latter being not unfrequently found in the
interior of the yolk-cells.

4. To the endoderm, i. e. the epithelium of the midgut, the author
assigns a very remarkable origin. When the mesoderm has under-
gone segmentation, it undergoes complete solution of continuity along
the middle line of the germinal streak, so that two distinct meso-
dermal plates are formed, as in Worms and in some Vertebrates. These
mesoderm plates then begin to grow towards the dorsal side of the
embryo, forming a pair of lamellte, which soon separate from the rest
of the mesoderm as midgut-j^lates (Mitteldarmlamellen), and then
grow ventralwards as well as dorsalwards. At the same time their
most superficial layer of cells become so differentiated as to form the
flattened epithelium of the future midgut: the remaining cells become
the thin muscular layer. The two midgut-lamellfe then begin to
approach each other both dorsally and ventrally : ventrally they soon
unite, and so close in the gut below ; dorsally, on the other hand, they
remain separate for a long time, and undergo an extraordinary change
in their mode of growth. Their outer or muscular layer, in fact,
begins to grow faster than the inner or epithelial layer, and soon
extends beyond the latter, so that now each midgut-lamella consists
of two parts— a ventral two-layered plate, united with its fellow below,
and a dorsal purely muscular band. The two muscular bands thus
differentiated from the midgut lamellre grow upwards, diverging some-
what from one another, until they are in close contact with the dorsal
wall of the embryo, when they curve inwards towards one another and
unite completely. In this manner a double tube is produced, having,
iu cross section, the form of the figure 8. Of the two tubes, which
are at first in free communication with one another, the ventral one,
composed of an outer muscular, and an inner epithelial layer, becomes
the midgut: the dorsal tube, wholly muscular, becomes the dorsal
vessel of the insect's blood-system.

5. The silk glands take their origin simultaneously with the
trachere, and in their earlier stages resemble the latter completely,

6. There are no cephalic trachete, the invaginations of the ecto-

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 411

derm which take place in the head being the foundations of the
internal cephalic skeleton. The latter consists, firstly, of a hollow
rod bridging over the occipital foramen, and, secondly, of the chiti-
nous bands which stretch from the foramen to the angle of the clypeus.
These bands are hollow, and in the region of the brain are dilated into
a vesicle which communicates with the exterior by a tolerably wide
aperture.

7. There is a true lower lip which must be looked upon as the
serial homologue of the labrura.

8. The thin inner egg-membrane, lying beneath the chorion, is
quite evident even in the youngest stages, before the formation of the
blastoderm.

9. The cells of amniotic epithelium often send out processes
which meet and fuse with the cells of the ejiiblast, and so form
strongish bands connecting the epiblast with the amnion.

10. The tergum of the embryo is formed by a gradual narrowing
of the root of the amnion, as a result of which process the cells of
the tergal epiderm long resemble the flat amniotic cells.

11. Lal"ge cells become separated off from the epiderm, and remain
unchanged to the end of the embryonic development, even existing in
the young larvas as lateral cell-aggregations (Zellencomplexe).

12. In the epidermis itself very large nucleated cells are found
among the ordinary small cells : probably these have some relation to
the development of hairs.

Venomous Caterpillars.— Mr. E. D. Jones, C.E., Corr. Memb. of
the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool, relates, in the
Proceedings of the Society,* an experiment he made with a cater-
pillar in Brazil, on 28th February, 1878. The species is not given,
but it is described (with a plate) as 1^ inch long, very thick in pro-
portion to its length, and the whole body covered with long red-
brown hairs, which grow in tufts arising from the centre of each
segment, and at the base of the long hairs are bunches of venomous
spines which are quite concealed by the hairs. The body is very soft
and fleshy, and of a paler colour than the hairs. The head is very
small, and is when eating quite covered with a fleshy mantle formed
by the first segments of the body.

Feeling certain it was an exceedingly venomous caterpillar, he
determined to sting himself with it.

At 11 A.M. he applied the back of the caterpillar to the back of
his left hand, with suflicient pressure to feel the pricking of the
spines. In ten minutes he had violent pain in the hand, and the
place of contact had swelled up into a white lump surrounded by
a dark-red inflamed patch. A few minutes later, violent pain set in
under the armpit. At 11 .30 a red rash apjjeared on the inside of the
elbow, and this gradually extended up to the shoulder, along the
biceps, and down the arm to the place of injection on the hand.
The rash was slight, excepting just at the elbow. Soon after 12 there
was a sensible weakness of the hand and arm, either an eft'ect of the
extreme pain or a distinct eficct of the jioisou. At 12.15 the rash
* xxxii. (1878) p. cii.

412 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

began to disappear, and the pain under the arm sensibly diminished.
The affected area on the hand began to perspire considerably, and the
pain in the injected spot was as violent as ever, burning horribly like
a scald. At 1 the arm])it pain had nearly ceased, the rash had dis-
apjieared, but the pain in the hand was so bad that he could hardly
bear it. Boring a hole with a red-hot iron came nearest to the effect
in his imagination. At 5, 6, 8.30, and 10, there was diminished pain,
though at 1 . 30 a.m. he awoke with it. Next day it was gone, but the
soreness not until the day after. The marks of the points of the
thirty-six spines were still visible when he wrote (16th March).

Abortion of the Hairs on the Legs of certain Caddis-flies, Ac-
Mr. C. Darwin, writing to ' Nature,' says * that several of the facts
given in the following letter from Fritz Miiller, aj^pear to him very
interesting. Many persons have felt much perplexed about the steps
or means by which structures rendered useless under cliangcd condi-
tions of life, at first become reduced, and finally quite disaj^pear. A
more striking case of such disappearance has never been published.
Several years ago some valuable letters on this subject by Mr.
Romanes (together with one by himself) were inserted in the columns
of ' Nature.' Since then various facts have often led him to speculate
on the existence of some inherent tendency in every part of every
organism to be gradually reduced and to disappear, unless in some
manner prevented. But beyond this vague speculation he could
never clearly see his way. As far, therefore, as he can judge, the
explanation suggested by Fritz Miiller well deserves the careful con-
sideration of all those who are interested on such points, and may
prove of widely extended application. Hardly anyone who has con-
sidered such cases as those of the stripes which occasionally ajipear on
the legs and even bodies of horses and apes — or of the development of
certain muscles in man which are not proper to him, but are common
in the Quadrumana — or again, of some peloric fiowers — will doubt
that characters lost for an almost endless number of generations, may
suddenly reappear. In the case of natural species we are so much
accustomed to apply the term reversion or atavism to the reappearance
of a lost part, that we are liable to forget that its disappearance may be
equally due to this same cause.

In the letter (written from Brazil), Fritz Miiller says that there is
there a locality in which a peculiar fauna lives, viz, the rocks of
waterfalls, which are of very frequent occurrence. On these rocks,
along which the water is slowly trickling down, or which are continually
wetted by the spray of the waterfall, there live various beetles not
to be met with anywhere else, larvae of diptera and caddis-flies.

The pupae of these caddis-flies, as well as those ^ living in
Bromelife, are distinguished by a very interesting feature. In other
caddis-flies the feet of the second pair of legs (and in some species
those of the first pair also) are fringed in the pupje with long hairs,
which serve the pupa, after leaving its case, to swim to the surface
of the water for its final transformation. Now neither on the surface
of bare or moss-covered rocks, nor in the narrow space between the
* 'Nature,' sis. (1879) 462.

NOTES AND MEMOKANDA. 413

leaves of Bromelias, the pupae have any necessity, nor would even he
able, to swim, and in the four species living in such localities which
he examined, and which belong to as many different families, the feet
of the pupfE are quite hairless, or nearly so, while in allied species
of the same families or even genera (Helicopsyche) the fringes of the
legs, used for swimming, are well developed.

This abortion of the useless fringes is of considerable interest,
because it cannot be considered, as in many other cases, as a direct
consequence of disuse ; for at the time when the pupfe leave their
cases and when the fringes of their feet are proving either useful or
useless, these fringes, as well as the whole skin of the pupa, ready to
be shed, have no connection whatever with the body of the insect ; it
is therefore imjiossible that the circumstance of the fringes being
used or not for swimming, should have any influence on their being
developed or not developed in the descendants of these insects. As
far as he can see, the fringes, though useless, would do no harm to the
species, in which they have disappeared, and the material saved by
their not being developed appears to be quite insignificant, so that
natural selection can hardly have come into play in this case. The
fringes might disappear casually in some individuals ; but, without
selection, this casual variation would have no chance to prevail.
There must be some constant cause leading to this rapid abortion of
the fringes on the feet of the pupte in all those species in which they
have become useless, and he thinks this may be atavism. For caddis-
flies, no doubt^ are descended from ancestors which did not live in the
water, and the pupte of which had no fringes on their feet. Thus
there may even now exist in all caddis-flies an ancestral tendency to
the production of hairless feet in the pupae, which tendency in the
common species is victoriously counteracted by natural selection, for
any pupa, unable to swim, would be mercilessly drowned. But as
soon as swimming is not required and the fringes consequently become
useless, this ancestral tendency, not counterbalanced by natural
selection, will prevail, and lead to the abortion of the fringes.

Comparative Embryology of the Insecta.— Professor Graber in a
preliminary article * gives a brief history of the results of his
observations, which appear to be of considerable importance. An
examination of the ovarian cell at an early period has revealed the
presence, in the centre of the yolk, of a number of amoeboid cells,
which appear to have been formed by the division of the germinal
vesicle ; these " primary embryonic cells " have a relatively large
nucleus and a number of nucleoli ; several may be seen to unite with
one another by means of their pseudopodia, and they may also be
observed to undergo division. The blastosi^here always consists of a
single cell - layer, and always undergoes " emboly " ; its first dif-
ferentiation is into two layers only, or, in other words, there is no
independent appearance of the mesoderm, which in these forms at any
rate always owes its origin to the endoderm (endoblast). The
internal germinal cells arise in two ways, some independently of the

* 'Arch. f. Mikr. Anat.,' xv. (1878) 630.

414 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

blastoderm, and otlicrtj from the endodcrm ; this is well sliown in the
diagram.

Germinal vesicle

Germinal cells

Outer germinal cells Inner germinal cells

(blastoderm) (primary)

Ectoderm I'^uJoderm (endoblast)

Mesoderm Inner germinal cells
(secondary)

The inner germinal cells, which evidently correspond to the
migratory cells of earlier embryologists, may not be observed till
a very late stage in development; similar bodies have been seen in
the spiders, where they appear to represent the germ of the enteric
gland (liver-germ), which is only distinctly differentiated after the
embryonic stage is passed.

Investing Elements. — In all the insects examined by Graber, the
blastoderm was seen to develop an investing segment, and also to give
rise to a cuticle, so that at a certain stage nine layers may be made
out in the embryo : —

(1) Tertiary investment of the ovum. Eemains of the epithelium of the

ovarian follicle.

(2) Chorion. Secondary investment. Cuticle of ovarian follicle.

(3) Vitelline membrane. Primary investment of the ovum. Cuticle of

the yolk.

(4) Cuticnlar investment of the germ. Cuticle of (5) \

(5) External cellular germ-membraue Derivates
(G) Internal „ „ I ^f ^{^^

(7) Ectoderm f ■Rlastodprm

(8) Mesoderm Embryo Blastoderm.

(9) Endoderm j /

In some insects {Butterflies, Carahis) cavities may be observed
between the layers numbered 3 and 4, and between the inner germ-
membrane and the peripheral yolk, and these are filled with a sub-
stance different to, but developed from, the ordinary yolk.

Tracheal System of Glomeris.— In the first of a series of papers
on the morphology and anatomy of the Jidida'* Dr. Ernst Voges, of
Gottingen, describes the arrangement of the tracheae in the genus
Glomeris.

The stigmata, which are situated, in pairs, immediately in front of
the attachments of the legs, have a biscuit-shaped aperture, with
tumid edges, produced into numerous spiniform prolongations, which
form a sort of grating over the aperture.

♦ ' Zool. Anzeiger,' i. (1878) .SGI.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 415

Each stigma leads into a backwardly directed tube, which soon
divides into two branches. Of these, the inner and smaller is directed
forwards, and passes immediately into a trachea : while the outer
and larger passes obliquely outwards, backwards, and upwards, and
becomes continuous, in like manner, with a large trachea.

The tubes which put the trachete in communication with the
stigmata diifer from the stigmatic pouches of Jidus, in that the latter
are directed forwards from the external aperture. The tubes are
probably metamorphosed portions of tracheal stems.

Structure of the Hydraehnida. — Croneberg gives * a brief
account of his observations, which were originally published in
Eussian, In all species which he has examined he has found a
chitinous framework internal to the labium, which consists of two
pieces which bend forwards and unite above the mouth ; these form a
chitinous groove which is connected with a system of muscles, all of
which go to make up a powerful suctorial apparatus. Above the
mouth there are two other chitinous ridges, which enclose the com-
mencement of the two primary trunks of the tracheal system.

The oesophagus passes through the ganglion and then widens out
into a large stomach ; it is provided with a number of cfecal sacs,
which vary in number from five to thirty -four ; these are all connected
together and are invested by an epithelium, which consists of large
brown cells, and represents the liver. The fatty body seems to be
represented by a layer of smaller and more transparent cells, covering
the stomach and the excretory organs. These latter, in all cases, end
by a portion which passes directly to the anus, which persists even
where the rectum is absent, and the midgut ends blindly.

The buccal glands are arranged in three groups, of which two are
racemose and one tubular ; tliey all three have a common duct. The
generative glands vary greatly in character and position ; in Eijlais
they consist of a system of communicating longitudinal and transverse
canals, which form a network around the stomach ; there is a single
orifice. In Nescea and Hydrachna the ovaries are circular in form, but
the testes consist of five large pyriform tubes united at their base
(^Nescea), or of a number of smaller and pedunculated saccules. In all
three cases the seminal duct passes into a muscular bulb, and the
oviducts into a wide, muscular vagina.

Acarina found parasitic in the Cellular Tissue and Air-sacs of
Birds. — To the general rule that the superficial or cutaneous parasites
of animals— the so-called Epizoa — belong to the group of the Articu-
lata, and that the internal parasites are worms, there are, as might be
expected, some not inconsiderable exceptions ; thus there are Filarice
which infest the skin, and there are insects [(Estrida) to be found in
the stomach of the horse, the pharynx of the deer, and in the cranial
sinuses of the sheep. M. Megnin, in writing on this subject,! makes
but brief reference to the Linguatididce, but these Arachnoids, as they
are ordinarily considered, may be referred to in a little more detail as

* ' Zool. Anzeiger,' i. (1878) 316.

t ' Journ. Anat. et Phya.' (Robin), xv. (1879) 123.

416 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

indicating the slight value which can be attached to such broad
generalizations as that just stated,

Ludwig Graif, in his work on Myzostoma (Leipzig, 1877) proposes
to unite that form with the Linguatulida and Tardigrada into a
group, intermediate between Arthropods and Vermes, for which
he suggests the name StelecJiopoda. So much on the one hand : on
the other, a larval Pentastomum (the most important, if not the only
genus among Linguatulids) has been found in the human liver, and
others in that of the hare and like forms, while the nostrils of dogs
and the lungs of the boa are also well-known homes for these
curious forms. In the paper now to be examined, descriptions are
given of several species of Acari, which have been found in the more
internal organs and tissues of birds ; the first to describe any of these
forms was the Italian zoologist Gene, who, in 1845, gave an account of
a form which infested every specimen of Strix fiammca found in the
neighbourhood of Turin ; the number found in the tissue underlying
the skin aj^pears to have been enormous, but no lesions could be dis-
covered by which they might have entered ; the skin, curiously enough,
retained its natural colour, and the superjacent feathers exhibited no
alteration of form or colour. To this form Gene gave the name Sar-
coptes strigis, and he compared it with the form, S. nidulans, described
by Nitzsch ; this comparison was not very full, but this again is hardly
a matter for astonishment, as it has since been shown that Nitzsch's
form was not a Sarcoptes at all. The parasite on the Turin Strix is
described as being only -/„ of a line in length, of a pearly white, with
the body convex superiorly, and flattened inferiorly.

In 1866 another form was described by Mr. Eobertson, of the
University Museum, Oxford, who discovered it in the pigeons which
were provided for the instruction of the students of that Institution ;
this was said to be visible to the naked eye, white and vermiform ; its
chief abode was the subcutaneous connective tissue around the great
veins of the neck, and the region of the pericardium. A critical study
has shown that Robertson's form was described by Filippo de Filippi
in the year 1861, under the name of Hypodectes nycticoracis ; in 1872
M. Slosarski, of the University of Warsaw, examined the parasite of
the pigeon, and, while giving a new name, confirmed the statements
of the Oxford anatomist as to the absence of distinct internal organs,
and of the large quantity of granular vesicular sarcode which filled its
interior.

The observations of M. Megnin himself were commenced at the
instigation of M. Alph. Milne-Edwards, in the same year (1872), and
the bird examined was Lophjrus coronatus. Here the forms described
by Robertson and Slosarski and by Professor Gene appear to have
been found together. As it is impossible to give a detailed account
of his observations, we will deal with the more interesting of the
two; this was not half the size of the other, the mouth was much
more rudimentary, the integument smooth and diaphanous, and no
trace of an anus was evident ; this curious form can only be
explained by reference to the life-history of the Acarina, in which
there are a succession of stages, which are nothing less than

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 417

veritable metamorphoses ; when the larva is on the point of passing
to its second stage, it becomes altogether inert, all the internal
organs become resolved into a semi-fluid substance, which envelops a
kind of blastodermic memhrane, which behaves exactly as the blasto-
derm of the eggs, and gives rise to swellings which develop into
new appendages, and which are themselves arranged just as are
the appendages of the developing larva ; soon casting its envelope, a
new and larger Acarus appears, but the rejected envelope exhibits all
the former organs of the larva, empty and discoloured ; this curious
rejuvenescence may be effected in the space of twenty-four hours.

In the normal course these changes, the essential characters of
which are the same in all moults, pass through the following cycle :
ovum, larva, normal nymph, sterile female, ovigerous female. "When
the course is altered in any way, the form in most cases dies down at
once, but there are certain species which escape, thanks to a method
to which M. Megnin, its discoverer, has given the name of adventitious
metamor pilosis.

This is what occurs with Pterolichus falciger, a form which infests
pigeons ; when the pigeon moults with great rapidity, and loses nearly
all its feathers, the normal nymph, instead of becoming a male or
sterile female, gives rise to a worm-like form, and passes to the
cellular or peritracheal tissue, which is especially loose in these
birds ; here it lives for a time and increases in size, passing again
towards the integumentary tissue only when the ordinary conditions
of its existence are re-established. It was apparently forms in this
stage which fell under the observation of Messrs. Kobertson and
Filippi.

After a description of acarine parasites of the gallinaceous birds,
M. Megnin gives an account of the form found in the air-cavities ; this
specimen does not appear to belong to the Sarcoptidce, but to be tho
representative of a new group, of which it is at present the only known
genus ; M. Megnin finds that it is provided with a conical rostrum,
which is perforated anteriorly, and which is formed by the fusion of
the maxillae, the labial palps, and the mandibles ; he names it, on
account of its mode of life, CytoleicJius {kvt6<; = cavity, and Aei'^oj =
lick up) ; living as it does on the walls of the cavities which it
inhabits, it does not seem capable of producing any inflammation of
these parts. The species has, on account of its form, the name Sarcop-
toides ; it is described as ovoviparous, and an account is given of its
male, young female, nymphs, octopod and hexapod larvae. The form
is found in the air-sacs of the Gallince, and especially of the Pliasia-
nidce, where it lives in colonies ; the individuals are of a relatively
large size, and of a white colour. It is only dangerous in excess,
when it may produce cough, and, perhaps, asphyxia.

On some Genera of Acarina. — Haller's two papers on this subject *
are reviewed by Megnin ; "j" the first is a revision of the genus Analjes
(^Dermaleichus). It may be interesting to note the earliest observations

* 'Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.' (1877).

t ' Joiu-ii. Anat. ot Pliys.' (Robin), xiv. (1878) 107.

VOL. II. 2 E

418 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

on these forms, wliich were made by Eedi (1728), C. C. Cuno (1734),
de Gecr (1783), and Hermann (1809) ; as at present regarded, there
are two (snbgeneric) sets of forms in the genus Analges ; in one
{Chelopii) the third pair of limbs are of great size, and provided with
a tubercular process to the second joint, which takes part in the
formation of a strong pincer ; in the second group {Pacliycnemici)
this tubercle is absent, although the appendages in question are of an
enormous size. Ilaller recognizes four species in the former, and
nine in the latter group ; but Megnin lool« upon three of these
latter, one of which is a new species (Gerthice), as all belonging to one
species, while the two new species of Haller (affinis and coleopteroides)
are regarded as belonging to the A. corvinus of Robin and Megnin.

In his second paper Haller describes two new genera of avicolous
mites — Freyana (dedicated to Professor Frey) and Picohia ; the former
Megnin is inclined to regard as a sub-genus of Pterolichus ; the
second, which was found under the integument of Picus canus, appears
to be allied to Myobia, although it has, according to Megnin,
affinities to the parasitic Cliyletidije.

Parasitic Chyletidse. — M. Megnin makes * some very interesting
remarks on parasitism, in which he founds a new division of these
forms ; as is well known. Van Benedon has pointed out the differences
between their habits of life, and has grouped them as (1) Commensal,
(2) Mutual, (3) Parasitic; on these there is no need to insist, but the
new class to which the name of auxiliary parasites is given must be
briefly described. The author one day chanced to enclose with some
Listrophora, which belong to the second group, two Chyletidce, which,
although of about the same size, are very much more active ; these
he observed to set on the Listrophora, to kill them, and suck their
juices. These, then, are truly auxiliary parasites ; truly so it should
be said, inasmuch as the African "beef-eaters" which extract the
larvae of the (Estrido} from the back of oxen, buffaloes, and gazelles, or
the falcons of South America, which perform a similar service for
the llamas, do not live solely on the parasites of these animals.

A word is said as to the views of Van Beneden on parasites
proper. This author states that " the presence of several taeniae in the
human intestines constitxites ' un etat de sante enviable,' " but it is
pointed out that various Ungulata and even Carnivora can and do fall a
prey to these parasites ; and it is therefore proposed to divide the
forms into an inoffensive and a dangerous (pathogenic) group,

A number of forms are described in detail and figured, and some
remarks made on their physiology, of which the following are the
more important points : —

Differences in Form. — On a superficial view these are very striking,
but the differences exhibited are only to be observed in those struc-
tures which come into relation with the host.

Digestive Apparatus. — The mouth is essentially a conical sucker,
formed by the fusion of the labrum and maxillas ; the enteric tube is
straight, and is but rarely provided with caeca; the anus is very

* ' Jouin. Anat. et Phys.' (Robin), xiv. (1878) 416.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 419

small. In Harpirhynchus this latter is absent, owing, apparently to
the mode of life of this animal, which feeds itself on the product of
the sebaceous glands of its host, and gets rid of the eifete gases bv
means of its tracheal system.

Respiratory Organs.— The tracheae are very well developed, and
are made up of two principal trunks which open near the rostrum.
1 he stigmata have a screw-shaped form, thanks to which the entrance
ot toreign bodies is very effectually prevented.

Generative Organs.~The male organ is always placed behind the
anus,_ where this is apparent, and the female organs occupy the same
position m two species ; curious as this fact appears to be, we must
remember that in the Hirudinea and even Annelides the position of the
genital orifice may vary very greatly.

Organs of Belation.— The ai^pendages differ in even different
species, owing to the different modes by which the possessors are
connected with theii- hosts; in the genus Chyletus these variations are
confined to the terminal portion of the appendages ; in Harpirhynchus
delicate "" ^'"'''^ ""''^ ^'"'"''"^ reduced, and in Myobia they are very

Intimate Structure of the Central Nervous System of Decapodous
Crustacea. -M. E. Yung describes* the neJvous system of the
Crustacea as composed of fibres and cells. The fibres always present
an envelope and contents. Contrary to the opinion of Remak, fibrillar
bundles are never found homologous with the cylinder-axis of the
nerves of Vertebrates. The fibrillar structure does not appear until
after the action of reagents. The contents of the cells are also
surrounded with an envelope, and are in all points similar to those of
the tubes. There is a nucleus (sometimes two) enclosing one or more
nucleoles, which contain in their turn nucleolules. The cells are
apolar, monopolar, and bipolar. They are rarely found with three pro-
longations. W ith reagents they behave in the same way as the fibres
ihe latter are, m fact, nothing but cellular prolongations. The
elements grouped m the commissures and the ganglia are surrounded
with a double envelope of connective tissue. The brain seems to be
formed of three pairs of ganglia.

Functions of the Ganglionic Chain in the Decapodous Crustacea,
—in a note in a late number of the ' Comptes Rendus,' f M. Yung says
that the fuuctious of the ganglionary nervous system of the Arthro-
poda are still little known. He has studied them in the higher Crus-
tacea (lobsters, crabs, &c.), always making use of living animals and
having regard, m the interpretation of the results, to the influence of
the operation, and the circumstances under which it has taken place
Ihere are a number of causes of error in these experiments which
explain the divergences of opinion amongst previous authors and
wJiichare to be avoided by operating not upon one only but 'upon
many animals. ^

* 'Comptes Kencius,;ixxxviii. (1879) 240; ' Rev. Internat. Sci ,' iii 160
t 'Comptes Rendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) 347. '

2 E 2

420 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

The following are the results of M. Yung's observations : —

The ganglionic masses and the commissures which unite them are
evidently sensitive throughout the chain ; the sensibility is the same
on the superior, inferior, and lateral faces.

The roots of the nerves radiating from the chain are both motor
and sensitive, contrary to the classical opinion of Newport, Valentin,
Longet, &c.

Each ganglion is a centre of sensibility and of motion to the seg-
ment of the body to which it belongs; but the sensibility becomes
" inconsciente " and the movements reflex when the ganglion is separated
from those which precede it.

The sub-cesophageal ganglion is the motor and sensitive centre for
all the masticatory elements and the foot-jaws.

The brain or supra-oesophageal ganglion is sensitive on all its faces,
contrary to what prevails among insects, whose brain, according to M.
Faivre, is insensitive. It plays the part of motor and sensitive centre
for the cephalic appendages (eyes, antennae).

Each right and left side of the brain acts upon the corresponding
part of the body, and it is the same with the other ganglia of the
chain. There is no interlacing in the course of the nervous fibres.

The removal of the brain causes the toppling movement forwards,
which arises from a want of equilibrium, resulting from the insensi-
bility of the cephalic appendages, and from the predominance of the
movements of the posterior members.

The movements which continue after the total removal of the brain,
and which in certain cases have a character of spontaneity, are never
co-ordinated.

The lesion of one of the lobes of the brain produces " mouvements
de manege " from the injured side towards the other.

The brain is the seat of the will and of the co-ordination of
movement. It has no direct action on the movements of the heart.

The movements of the heart are accelerated by electrical excitation
directed to the commissures of the oesophageal ring, whence the
current travels to the stomato-gastric ganglion and the cardiac nerve
(the nerve described by Lemoine). They are retarded by the electrical
excitation of the thoi'acic ganglia.

Male Organs of the Decapodous Crustacea. — The new Zoological
Station at Trieste is already bearing good fruit, an example of which
is to be found in the long and elaborate paper on this subject, * illus-
trated by six plates, by Dr. C. Grobben. The state of science during
a long period is well illustrated by the fact that no one seems to have
taken any interest in the subject to which Dr. Grobben directs atten-
tion, between the time of Aristotle and 1750, about which time Fortius
and Von Rosenhof examined the male organs of the crayfish.

A. Internal Organs.

I. Position. In the Tlwracostraca the testes are always placed
superiorly to the intestine, and in all, except the Paguridce, between
this organ and the heart ; in the Stomapoda they are placed in the

* 'Alb it. Zool. Inst. Wien-Triest,' i. (1878) 57.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 421

abdomen ; in the ScMzopoda and Macrura in the thorax ; in the
Galathcidce they extend in front of the digestive stomach, and in most
Braclujura they reach to the very anterior portion of the branchial
cavity ; the efferent ducts ordinarily open at the coxa of the last pair
of thoracic feet.

II. Structure. In all Becapoda, with the exception of the Pagu-
ridce, the testes consist of paired parts and an unpaired piece ; they
are generally divided into anterior and posterior lobes, but the unpaired
portion varies greatly in position ; in Astacus it is rei)resented by the
unpaired hinder lobes, but as a rule it forms one, and in some cases
two. connecting pieces set transversely.

These organs are simplest in structure in Squilla mantis, where they
form a tube, the walls of which bulge out into inconsiderable cfeca,
which are invested by a sj)erm-producing epithelium ; in Athanas,
among the Decapodo, the testes are merely elongated sacs, but the
spermigenous epithelium invests regions only of their walls. As the
sac elongates, the germinal region becomes broken up, and the testicular
tubes attain to an acinous character ; this is seen e. g. in Palcemon, and
further stages of complication are observed in Alpheus, in Astacus,
and in Homarus. The testes and efferent ducts are always invested
by connective tissue, which varies a good deal in character : in Homa-
rus it is very well, but in Astacus it is very feebly developed. In
various forms, striated muscular fibres were observed in the walls of
the testes, the presence of which is explained by the fact that one-half
or two-thirds of the testicular tubes here form merely efferent ducts.

Two sets of elements are distinguished in the germinal elements ;
the one set forms large cells with a large rounded nucleus — spermato-
blasts ; the other forms a protoplasmic mass in which no cells can be
made out, but merely a number of nuclei interposed between the bases of
the spermatoblasts ; these nuclei, which vary greatly in form, stain
very readily ; these are the reparative germs, so called because they
appear to take the place of the effete spermatoblasts ; the difference in
these two sets of elements is not to be observed in the young, in which
indeed the reparative germs alone appear to be present in any quantity,
and what difference there is finally, is shown to be no greater than
what obtains in the case of the ovarian cells and the cells of the
ovarian follicles ; just as each follicular cell is potentially an ovarian
cell, so the reparative germs are potentially spermatoblasts; these
latter are formed by the metamorphosis of the reparative germs, just
as the ovarian cells are formed from those of the follicle. These con-
siderations support the doctrine of the homology of the testis and
ovary, as do also the presence of reserve matters in the spermatoblasts,
and the striking similarity of the structure of these two organs in such
forms as Eupagurus (P. Mayer).

III. Structure and development of the seminal corpuscles. As
is well known, these bodies are markedly distinguished by their
"radiate form," but it is pointed out that the equally common belief
in their motionless character has certain exceptions ; the simplest
arrangement is found in Squilla, in which too their history is most
easily followed out ; an elaborate examination leads to the conclusion

422 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

that in the Macrura these bodies are larger than in the Brachjura, and
within the limits of any group the spermatozoa seem to be proportional
in size to the general size of the body ; greatly as they vary in size,
they vary in form still more, and the dictum of Wagner that the
Vertebrate siiermatozoa may even vary in various S2)ecies, may be com-
pletely applied to the Decapoda, and the influence of this variation
on the j)reservation of species is insisted up(m, inasmuch as it is
obvious that the more the spermatozoa vary in character, the less will
they be able to set up the molecular changes by which fertilization
commences, in the females of other species than their own ; and
further, those species are most likely to be preserved that have highly
differentiated spermatozoa.

The sum of the rays appears to be homologous with the flagellum
of the Vertebrate spermatozoon, and it is pointed out that immobile
spermatozoa are never found in any animal in which chitinous struc-
tures are not developed.

IV. Vasa doferentia. The author distinguishes in these three
chief regions : (1) An efferent portion, which is delicate ; (2) a broader
glandular portion, and (3) a ductus ejaculatorius, which is ordinarily
provided with a very powerful musculature. This duct may give rise
to lateral dilatations of various sizes, which seem to provide a men-
struum for the sperm. Their presence has been frequently denied.

V. Spermatophores. All the Decapoda examined by the author
form spermatophores, the envelope for which is ordinarily formed in the
vas deferens; in Astacus, this envelope is of a dead- white colour,
which hardens in the water, while the envelope of Homarus swells up
under the same conditions. In form these spermatophores vary
greatly : they are bluntly conical in Scyllarus, stalked in Eupagurus,
pouch-shaped in Porcellana ; in other BracJiyura there is no special
form for the different members of the group, and in Dromia there can
hardly be said to be a spermatophore at all.

B. External Generative Characters.— As is well known, there is an
easily recognized difference between the male and female; of the
accessory generative characters by which this is effected, some are due
to the development of other organs, such as the ovary, and may be
shown to owe their origin to natural selection ; others are due to the
development of parts which have for their purpose the safety of the
sperm or of the young, and these have a similar origin ; others, again,
are due to sexual selection, such as the offensive organs formed by the
appendages of the males, or their coloration ; while the last set of all
are dependent on the different modes of life of the two sexes.

G. A few brief observations are made on the vascular supply of
the generative organs, in which the antennary and sternal arteries take
a large share : a species of Distomum was observed in the vas deferens
of Portunus depurator.

Central Nervous System of the Crayfish. — In a brief communi-
cation,* consisting of histological and of morphological observations,
Krieger states that the perineurium consists of a firm membrane, in

* ' Zool. Anzeiger,' i. (1878) 340.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

423

wliicli a number of interlaced bands and elongated connective-tissue
nuclei can be made out. The name perineurium is applied to the
general investment of the nervous system, while that of neurilemma is
applied only to the coverings of the separate nerve-fibres. The tissue
ordinarily known as the outer neurilemma is stated to belong to the
connective tissue of the body cavity. As to the nervous elements, he
agrees generally with Dietl, but he finds a number of nucleoli in the
nuclei of the large ganglion-cells, and also notes that the " tubular "
nerve-fibres do not appear to be formed of primitive fibrillee, but to be
composed of a strong sheath containing a clear viscid fluid.

The dotted substance of Leydig is found to be composed of a
number of distinct spheres, which are arranged in pairs, which, again,
are ordinarily connected by a transverse commissure, or a bridge of
dotted substance. Each sphere gives ofi" a peripheral nerve, or a com-
ponent part of one. Of these spheres there are eight in the cerebrum.
The anterior give oft' fibres for the optic nerves : of those that succeed
them, the outermost provide for the outer antennse, and the others for
the inner antennte and oj)tic chiasma respectively. In the sub-
oesophageal ganglion there are seven pairs, five of which are connected
by a bridge and commissure, and two by a bridge only. Each of the
thoracic ganglia is provided with a pair ; in the abdominal ganglia
there are two pairs, one ellipse-shaped and one spheroidal ; the caudal
(post-abdominal) ganglia are foimd to have five pairs. The greater
part of what follows is only intelligible to those who have Dietl's
figures at hand, but it may be noted that the nerves arising from the
ganglia are stated to be generally made up of two parts, and that the
so-called giant nerve-fibres pass through the whole of the ventral cord.

Heart of the Crayfish, and Lobster. — The following results are
given by Deszso * on this subject : — (1) There are five pairs of clefts
on the dorsal surface, of which four are so small as to require
careful search. On the ventral sui'face there are three pairs, two of
which are very small. (2) The musculature of the organ is composed
of muscle-cells, and not, as has been supposed by Weissmanu and
others, of mere muscle-fibres ; these cells have the transversely striated
substance on one surface only. The nuclei of the muscle-cells are
provided with nucleoli, which may often be observed in the act of
fission. In the lobster the anatomical elements are much smaller
than in the crayfish. In the muscular wall of the heart there are
eight haemal spaces corresponding to the eight clefts, and these spaces
unite in a central ventricle. (3) The pericardium is an elastic layer
of connective tissue, in which a few small nuclei can be made out ; it
is not provided with any muscular elements. (4) In the posterior
region of the dorsal part of the muscular heart, ganglionic cells, ordi-
narily bipolar, and invested in connective tissue, may be discovered.
These are often united together by threes, or in a larger number ; the
largest of them were found to measure ^^ of a millimetre, their nuclei
t3q%, and their nucleoli -jis of a millimetre.

The same author gives f a very brief account of the connection

* ' Zool. Anzeiger,' i. (1878) 126. t Ibid., 274.

424 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

between the circulatory and the respiratory organs in the Arthropoda.
He finds that in Insecta, Myriapoda, and Arachnida there are as
many pairs of clefts in the dorsal vessel as there are pairs of stigmata;
that in the Crustacea there are, likewise, as many clefts as there are
pairs of branchias ; this obtains when the gills are set on the abdomen
and post-abdomen ; when, however, the gills are gathered under the
cephalo-thorax, then there are in the heart as many pairs of clefts as
there are pairs of gills under the shelter of this investment.

New Branehiopoda off the French Coasts.— M. Hesse describes*
some new Crustacea, for which he forms a new genus — Copechoites
{kwttt], oar, x'^^'^Vi lifiii") '•> f-s their relation to other forms will probably
be of interest to naturalists, we append his table of classification,
which, as he says, is based on that of Norman and Brady : —

Legion : Branehiopoda.
Sub-order : Cladocera.
Division: Calyptomera.
Tribe : Anomopoda.

Family — CopechcBtidce . . . . Copechoete, Hesse.

„ Bosminidoe Bosmina, Baird.

„ MacrotrichidcB .. .. Macrothrix, Baird, &c. &c.

„ Lynceida; Lynccus, Miiller, &c. &c.

Four new species, to which the names elongata, affinis, fissa, and
armoricana are given, are described and figured ; they are all of
extremely small size, and are marine in habitat. No details can be
given as to the history of their development, but eggs were found,
which in some cases were strong and greatly elongated, and in others
spherical ; in the former case the enveloping membrane was thick,
and the thinness of this investment in the latter case appeared to be
due to its earlier condition of development. The detailed description
which is given indicates the affinities of these forms to the Bosminidce.

As single specimens — which, by the way, all belonged to females —
were alone found, M. Hesse is unable to give any anatomical details ;
he states, however, that the antennte were long and delicate, but that
of these appendages only one pair was to be observed ; as to the other,
no definite statement is possible ; the abdominal is much shorter than
the post-abdominal region ; this latter, or tail, has a truncated termi-
nation, which is very large and surrounded by a horseshoe-shaped
pad ; it is provided with two powerful muscles, which must evidently
be of great assistance in locomotion. The branchiaa, which are elon-
gated, are set towards the centre of the body ; the enteric tube takes a
direct course from before backwards. The eyes are seated on short
broad peduncles, and can be moved laterally or in a line parallel to
the long axis of the body.

They were observed to live 283 millimetres below the surface of
the water, at which level they were probably supported by the air
entangled in the valves of their shells ; as in the Bosminid(P, the shells
of the Copech(Btidce form a hood-like protection for the anterior
portion of the head, but they are at once distinguished by the different

* 'Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.),' vii. (1878), Nos. 5-G.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 425

characters of the abdominal termination of the body, and by the pre-
sence on the thoracic appendages of hair-like setfe.

They have been obtained from below stones on the sea-shore, from
the stomachs of a fish and of a Medusa, and from a mass of Fucus.
The paper is illustrated by a plate.

On the Crustacea of the Mozambique. — The collection of Dr.
Peters is described * by Hilgendorf in great detail, and illustrated by
four plates, but the whole paper is too technical to allow of any brief
account. It may be mentioned, however, that the number of known
species from this region is multiplied by more than 4, — 27 now be-
coming 128. Of the 101 forms new to this region, only one genus —
Podopisa, one new sub-genus — Myomenippe, and seventeen new species
are recorded. The only other collector in this region appears to have
been Bianconi, and the importance of it to carcinology cannot be over-
estimated. The new genus appears to be intermediate between the
MacrojwdidiB and the Maiadce.

Vermes.

Pneumonia produced by a Filarian Worm. — M. Megnin has
discovered f a new worm, which he proposes to call Strongylus minii-
tissimus ; this creature was observed by him in some African sheep
which were brought over to Vincennes, and which suffered from puru-
lent abscesses on the lung, although the bronchi were completely
healthy. Clearly allied to Strongylus filaria, it differs from it by its
much smaller size — 1 (male) to 1^ (female) centimetre, while the
tail is very short, and the embryo is provided with a short caudal pro-
longation : the habits also are different ; the fecundated females
become encysted in the pulmonary tissue, where they die after giving
birth to the embryos, which escape by the bronchi ; the dead give rise
to inflammatory processes in the lung. Development appears to obtain
externally to the host, just as in Strongylus filaria, and other pests of
the fowl, and Oxyuris incurvata and Strongylus armatus of the horse.
Ova and embryos placed in damp earth were found living after fifteen
days, but no other changes have yet been observed ; further investiga-
tions on the subject are, however, promised.^

On Sagitella (Wagner).— Although M. Uljanin states that what
observations he has to offer § on this interesting annelid are merely
rough notes, they are of sufficient value to demand very careful atten-
tion.

Tegumentary System. — The cuticle is a fine, transparent, strong
membrane, which may or may not be striated ; it does not appear to
cover the anterior part of the buccal segment or the elytra ; the greater
part of the hypodermis is made up of a very fine protoplasmic layer,

* ' MB. Preuss. Akad. Wiss.' (Nov. 1878), 782.
t ' Bull. Soc. Centrale Ve'tenDaire ' (1877), 646.
X ' Jouni. Anat. et Phys.' (Robin), xiv. (1878) 548.
§ 'Arch. Zool. Expe'r. et Gen.,' vii. (1878) 1.

426 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

in which are set a large number of nuclei, each provided with two or
three highly refractive nucleoli ; the apj^areut absence of this layer in
sections of the worm, which have been treated with acetic, osmic, or
chromic acid, is explained by an account of what happens in the fresh
creature when it is submitted to these reagents ; the protoplasm con-
tracts, and forms more or less oblong masses of varying size, which
are separated from one another, and contain two or even three nuclei.
In the anterior part of the buccal segment this layer is thick, but
Uljanin was unable to make out the separate cells. The elytra are each
formed of a somewhat opaque nucleated mass, which is made up of a
number of small, distinct cells, each provided with a large nucleus, and
of larger bodies, which appear to form unicellular cutaneous glands,
such as are so common in the integument of all Chcetopoda. True
cilia seem to be almost comj)leteIy absent ; the buccal segment of two
species is, however, provided with a ventral and a dorsal hood, the
edges of which are jwovided with a row of long lamella?, which on close
examination are seen to be made up of a number of united cilia, which
so far seem to be just the same as the lamellje of the Ctenophora.

The subjacent muscular layer is arranged in two sets ; the outer,
in which the bands seem to be circular, is really composed of large
bands, separated from one another by spaces almost as large ; the
elements of these bauds are cylindrical, and are altogether similar to
those so commonly found in the Annelides. The lower layer consists
of longitudinal muscles, the elements of which are greatly elongated,
narrow at either end, and provided at one edge witli small outgrowths
containing a finely granular substance (cf. the " nematoid fibres " of
Eatzel).

Nervous System. — Uljanin contradicts N. Wagner's description in
almost every point ; he asserts that what this author took for the cerebral
ganglionic mass, is merely the glandular portion of a retort-shaped
organ which lies above the oesophagus ; while he further states that
there is a true ganglionic chain, and not merely two flattened nerve-
trunks. At the end of the body of the worm there appears to be a
tactile organ, but the most curious portion of the sensory apparatus is
represented by the small rod-like bodies which ave connected with the
elytra ; when highly magnified, an elytron is seen to contain in its
tissue a number of curved filaments, the two ends of which are set
towards its surface ; some of these spread out into a fan-like termina-
tion, and others remain more compact : the filaments are very fine and
highly refractive, and are connected at their ends with spherical and
likewise highly refractive corpuscles, of two distinct sizes, and with
elliptical bodies of a similar character. Our author is merely content
with drawing attention to this apparatus, which be cannot believe to
be made up of spermatozoids, much as they resemble them at first
sight.

Digestive Organs. — The mouth is situated at the middle of the
ventral surface of the buccal segment and above the ventral hood ; the
oesophagus is short and thick-walled ; the intestine largest more
anteriorly, and the anus is placed on the dorsal surface of the poste-
rior segment ; above the oesophagus there is an elongated organ, which

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 427

the animal can be induced to protrude on irritation witli acetic acid,
and which it moves at short intervals in a longitudinal direction ;
examination by the aid of sections of the buccal region shows that this
organ belongs to the enteric tract, inasmuch as it is lodged in a
saccular fold of the cBSophagus ; no very definite account can be given
of its function, but it is presumed to secrete an offensive liquid ; the
walls of the intestine are remarkable for the presence of enormous
cells in the epithelium, very similar to those which are found in the
same region of some larval annelids.

The perivisceral cavity is largely occupied by connective tissue, at
the expense of which it is probable that the generative elements are
produced.

Segmental Organs. — All but the buccal segments are provided with
a pair of segmental organs ; those of the fifth segment are not, as are
the others, long and sinuous, but are shorter and broader, and are
evidently efferent ducts for the sexual products.

Beproductive Organs. — The Sagitellidce are hermaphrodite ; in
mature specimens the whole of the coelom was observed to be filled
with ova and spermatozoa ; the former oblong, the latter with a
spherical head and a short tail. Passed out by the ducts of the fifth
segment, the ova appear to remain for a time in connection with their
parent, and under the protection of the elytra of the fourth and fifth
segments. They do not appear to undergo any metamorphosis, but
in the young the elytra form soft pads, and the lamellae of the hoods
are formed of separate cilia.

Zoological Position. — Satisfied as to their belonging to the Annelida-
Chcetopoda, M. Uljanin proceeds to inquire whether they should bo
placed with the Oligochceta or Polychata ; the covering of the segments,
the absence of muscular bands in the coelom, the characters of the
segmental organs, are all points which distinguish them from the
latter ; the tentaculiform appendage of their buccal segment is not
found among the Oligochceta, while the presence of one or two pairs of
elytra on all the segments distinguishes them from both these groups ;
but these elytra are merely modified parapodia, and the characters of
the tentacular appendage are not suflicient to justify their separation
from the Oligochceta ; they must, nevertheless, form a distinct groui>,
for which a name is taken from the small annelid described byBuscb,
which seems to be a close ally of Sagitella — Tyj/hloscolex ; the chief
characters of the Typhloscolecidce, then, are these : —

Body oblong, and consisting of a varying number of segments ; the
anterior or buccal segment is provided with one or more tentaculiform
appendages, and with cilia, or with lamellae formed of cilia ; all the
segments of the body carry one or two pairs of elytra. Some or all
(with the exception of the buccal segment) are armed on either side
with a few short spine-like setae. Pelagic.

The two genera — Typhloscolex Busch (1851), and Sagitella
N. Wagner (1872) — are then defined, and of the three species of the
latter, *S^. Kowalewskii Wagner, and S. barhata and S. proecox, which
are new species, there follow short diagnoses : the animals have been
foimd at Trieste, in the Eed Sea, and in the Mediterranean.

428 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

Echinodermata.

Embryogeny of Asteriscus verruculatus. — Barrois has extended
his embryological investigations to the Asteroidra, of which group the
development of Asteriscus verruculatus is described,* He finds that
the gastrula is of the primitive type, that it grows into a harge, ciliated,
and completely closed sac, and then becomes trilobed ; the two side
lobes fall away and the young asterid is develojied from the median
ijortion. By invagination of the endoderm the enteric canal becomes
divided into three parts, the two lateral sacs being peritoneal, and
completely surrounding the middle one. The mouth, as in most, is
formed by the invagination of the ectoderm, which pushes its way in
between the two peritoneal sacs. The enteric cavity likewise gives
rise to the water-vascular system.

The star-shaped form of body is due (1) to tlie flattening of the
rounded large (median) lobe of the embryo ; this is effected from
behind forwards, and aftects the intestine and the parts annexed thereto ;
(2), between the anterior and posterior surfaces thus formed there
arise ectodermal thickenings which grow into the arms ; of these, one
arises at the most anterior point, and the two others on either side ;
(3), the development of the water- vascular system into a ring round
the mouth. The peculiar point in the structure of this asterid at this
moment is the great degree of asymmetry which it exhibits, owing to
the much greater development of the superior as compared with the
inferior surface, and the exceutric position of the mouth ; this want of
symmetry gradually disappears, owing to the mode of growth now
followed ; as this goes on, the ambulacral lobes are seen to divide into
five branches ; at first three lobes are seen, and then five are formed
by the trifurcation of the median lobe.

As time goes on, the intestine gives ojff five ca3ea, and becomes
provided with an anus ; and the calcareous plates take on a definite
arrangement.

The most important points are henceforward associated with the
elongation of the arms and the increase in the number of the ambu-
lacral joints, which is effected in just the same way as is the multipli-
cation of the " zonites" of annelids.

Comparing this form with those in which there are intermediate
larval stages, we may note that, in Asteriscus, the endoderm grows out
into a large sac, from which the intestine, peritoneal sac, and water-
vessels are directly differentiated, whereas in the others the endoderm
forms the intestine, and it is this intestine which gives rise to the
other organs ; in the young starfish three regions, dorsal, ventral,
and lateral can be made out ; the observation that the ambulacra
exhibit the same mode of increase as the Annelides may be applied to
the Echinoidea, as well as to the Aster oidea.

On the Skeleton of the Asteriadse. — An article | on this subject,
by M. L. Viguier, consists of an historical introduction, a careful and
detailed description of the composing parts, and an account of a number
of genera. His chief conclusions are : —

* ' Journ. Anat. et Phys.' (Kobin), xv. (1879) 1.
t 'Arch. Zool. Exper. et Gen.,' vii. (1878) 33.

NOTES AND MEMOEANDA. 429

1. The study of the skeleton, whicli has hitherto been neglected,
and which is by many naturalists regarded as incapable of furnishing
any characters useful in classification, is shown to be " the only
means by which the diiferent genera of this class can be rationally
distributed in natural groui)s."

2. The mouth, whatever be its type, is made up of a number of
ossicles, of which there are five times as many as there are arms.

3. The mouth is limited by a number of pieces, of which there are
four times as many as there are arms ; these pieces are set in pairs, one
of which — amhidacral — forms the extremity of the ambulacra! grooves,
while the others — adambulacral pairs — are set between these ; above
the adambulacral jiairs, and exactly interambulacral in position, is an
azygos piece, to which the name of odontoplwre is given.

4. This mouth is formed on one of two types :

(a) In one the ambulacral pairs extend into the interior of the
mouth, and limit its contour — amhidacral type.

(/3) In the other the adambulacral pairs extend into the interior
of the mouth — adambulacral type.

5. These two groups characterize the two sub-classes into which
M. Viguier divides the Asteroidea; one, containing the Asteriadw,
Heliasteridce, and BrisingidcB, has the ambulacral pairs horizontal, the
adambulacral pairs truncated, and an " odontoj)hore " which is not pro-
vided with apophyses, and which forms a massive body, capable of but
a slight amount of movement ; in the other group, of which the
EcliinasteridcB, LincMadcB, Goniasteridce, Pterasferidce, and Astropec-
tinidce, are the more important forms, the " odontophore " is ordinarily
provided with apojihyses, and the adambulacral ossicles are not so
completely truncated.

6. This classification accords with the results which M. Edmond
Perrier has gained from the study of the characters of the pedicel-
lariee, so far as they are present to afford assistance in this difficult
operation of arrangement.

7. The teeth and the " odontophore " vary in form in the various
genera, and in many cases even in the various species.

8. The so-called " odontophore " seems to be homologous with what
Miiller called the osseous peristomial plates of Euryaltis, and with
the corresponding parts in OpMura and Ophiocoma ; in extending his
survey to the Ecliinoidea, the author finds, as is natural, greater difii-
culties in his way, and he is content to insist on the morphological
resemblances presented by the "tooth" of the dentate forms (Des-
mosticha ; Casnidididce) when compared with the " odontophore " of the
starfish.

No examination of any morphological characters in the Echino-
derma seems to be comjilete in these days which does not take into
account the corm theory of Haeckel, which, as we are informed by its
author, is " as yet the sole theory attempting the genetic explanation
of this remarkable group of animals ;" * and, indeed, the position and
the great value of the speculations of the German zoologist do demand

* ' Evolution of Man,' Engl, tranil., ii. 480.

430 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

a most respectful attcDtion ; facts, however, seem to be against him
here, and M. Viguier brings some new considerations to our notice ;
the fact that Duvernoy in 1837 spoke of "cinq colonnes vertebrales"
in Asferias, and that he called the starfishes " serpents a plusieurs
corps, et a une seule bouche," is worthy of notice ; much more so are
the following points : the general skeleton of no asterid ever presents
a regular segmentation, corresponding to that of the ambulacral and
adambulacral series, nor are the radial cteca divided in correspondence
with the segments of the body as they are in all annelids. As we are
on debatable ground we may, as a matter of criticism on the arguments
of, and without any desire to object to the final conclusions of M.
Viguier, point out that the segmentation of the vertebral column of
the adult bird and mammal does not correspond to that exhibited
by the episkeletal muscles or spinal nerves, and yet the metamerism
of the Vertebrata is as certain as any fact in morphology.

Ccelenterata.

Researches into the Hydrozoa. — Professor Glaus has communi-
cated * to the Vienna Academy a long and elaborate paper on such
forms as he has observed in the Adriatic.

In tlie hermaphrodite Chrysaora the development of the embryo
is effected within the ovary ; the ovarian cells are formed in the lower
cell-layer of the ovarian region, the upper layers of which form part
of the gastric epithelium and are richly provided with urticating
capsules ; as the cells increase in size, they project into the homo-
geneous layer which separates the upper from the lower (germinal)
portion, and gradually become provided with a stalk, which is formed
at the expense of the neighbouring cells, and, later on, with a
follicular investment of flattened cells; fertilization is followed by
cleavage into two cells of unequal size, and in the succeeding stages
of segmentation the spheres produced are also unequal ; at the point
where the larger cells are found an ingrowth commences, and the
endodermal tube, which raj)idly extends to the opposite pole, begins
to be formed ; in the jirimary coelom of the resulting elongated
GasiruJa-lavya a clear fluid is developed ; the next succeeding stages
could not be observed.

A point of much interest in the history of this form is that
embryonic develojiment goes hand in hand with growth ; in most
AcalejjJice cleavage does not commence until the ovum has attained its
full size, but in Chrysaora, just as in the viviparous Aphides and in
the Polyi)hemida (Cladocera), development commences while the ovum
is still very small, and long before it has obtained its full amount of
nutrient material, which in the animal under description is obtained
from the already mentioned follicular cells. When the blastopore is
closed we get a larva of which the two cell-layers are very different
in character; the ectoderm is formed of cylindrical cells, richly
provided with urticating capsules of three different forms ; the
anterior end of the free-swimming larva is much broader tlian the
hinder end, and the cilia form a broader fan.

* 'Deukschr. Acad. Wien,' xxxviii. (1878) 1.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. ' 431

After tracing tlie history of the ScypMstoma and EpJiyra stages, Claus
concludes with observing that there is no fundamental difference l)et\veen
the Mednsce and the Pohjijs ; the Scyphistoma is a polypoid Medusa,
and the Medusa a broad, discoid, flattened Polyp, which has ceased to
be fixed, and has become adapted to locomotive habits by the aid of
its swimming bladder ; the " grappling lines " are the marginal
tentacles ; the radial pouches of the gastro-vascular system are
represented by the radial vessels, while the gelatinous disk forms a
very strong mesodermal layer, which develops into a supj)orting
lamella in the Uydroida, and a skeleton in the AntJiozoa.

The rays along which are set the genital pouches (and marginal
bodies) are rcgarried as rays of the second order, which are developed
at an angle of 45^ to the four primary tentacles, or rays of the first
order ; while the name of intermediate rays is given to the eight rays
of the Ephyra form in which the tentacular vessels are developed.

Aca/ephce and Hydro-medusce. — In the opinion of Professor Claus,
the differences between these forms have never been satisfactorily
stated ; the names Cryjjtocarpce and Phanerocarpce, or Gymnoplithal-
mata and Stegannphthalmata, or Craspedota and Acraspoda, which we
owe to Eschholtz, Forbes, and Gegenbaur, are insufficient, for the
large and complicated marginal bodies of the Acalephce correspond,
from a morphological point of view, to tentacles ; the cavities in the
substance of the umbrella in which the generative organs of the
Cryptocarpce are placed, are foimd to be present in a number of
the Phanerocarpce ; neither in structure nor in position is there any
fundamental difference between them. A more valuable point of
difference is to be seen in the presence or absence of the filaments
which appear to form tentacular appendages to the generative organs ;
the Steganoplitlialmata {Piscomedusce) are stated to be Scyphistoma
Med usee with filaments, while the GymnopjMlialmata are Hydroid
Medusce without filaments. With these considerations in mind, Claus
has lately addressed himself to the examination of the characters of
the Charyhdeidce and ^ginidce, w'hich had been placed by Fritz
Miiller with the Hydro-medusce, and by Agassiz among the Acaleplice
(Piscophora). The great similarity in the external form of the bell
and of the manubrium in Charybdea and Oceania, as well as the pre-
sence in both of four primary rays, have been used as arguments for
uniting these forms ; but the number of the radial canals, marginal
bodies, and tentacles vary very greatly in the latter, and it appears to be
allied to the Hydro-medusce, while Charybdea presents distinct points
of resemblance to the Acalephce ; judged by the point on which Claus
insists, the Oceanidce are found to want the gastric filaments.

Spongicola fistularis, a Hydroid inhabiting Sponges. —A
resume is given in M. Lacaze-Duthiers' ' Archives,'* of the observations
of F. E. Schulze on the above-mentioned form, the chief interest of
which is that it bears on the assertions of Eimer that the Spongice
are provided with nematocysts ; bearing in mind the changes in the
zoological scale which the researches, chiefly of Professor Haeckel,

* ' Arch. Zo:il. Exper. et Gen.,' vii. (1878), Notes, ix.

432 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

have sliown to be necessary for the Spongitv, any further information
is obviously important. In two siliceous sponges and in a horny
sponge Eimer observed a number of canals, which enclosed a whitish
body, which contracted on irritation ; believing this to be part of the
sponge, and rejecting the idea of its being hydroid in character, Eiraer
proposed to call it the prehensile animal (Fangs- thier). Two English
observers, Mr. Carter and Professor Allman, have since 1872
observed similar cases, and they have both regarded the " Fangs-
thier " as a hydroid ; to this conclusion Schulze is also led. He
says that in no case that he has examined can he regard the
neraatocysts as forming an integral part of the sponge-body ; in all
cases they have been observed on the surface or in the canals which
are so characteristic of these lowly forms, and in all cases it has
been easy to demonstrate that they are intruders. The four sponges
examined belonged to the genera Beniera, Suherites, Esperia, and
Myxilla. As the characters of this form are found by Schulze to
correspond to the description given by Eimer, with the sole exception
of their structural continuity with the sponge, it does not seem
necessary to enter into fui-ther details ; the accounts of Carter and
Allman are stated to be too short to allow of any satisfactory
comparison.

As to the development of this Spongicola, no information was
obtained ; but the author is of opinion that it belongs to the Hydroida
or Hydro-medusfe, although there are indications of a Scyphistoma
stage, such as is seen in the common Aurelia anrita, with which there
are certain other points of agreement in the histological and morpho-
logical details.

Deep-sea Siphonophora. — Professor Studer's observations * are
reviewed in M. Lacaze-Duthiers' ' Archives.']" The author points
out that there are indications of a fauna intermediate between that
of the surface and that of " abyssal " depths : during the voyage of
the ' Gazelle,' Siphonophora were obtained, which can be satisfactorily
shown to have come from depths varying from 500 to 2000 fathoms
and from a region in which the temperature was from 2° to 6°.
Two new species of Rhizopjhijsa — R. conifera and It. inermis — are
described, as is also a new genus, Bathyphjsa ahyssorum (1880
fathoms). The author calculates that the air-sac acts in just the
same way as in those species that live near or on the surface.

Histological Characters and Development of Myriothela. — Herr

Korotneff, of Moscow, makes some brief observations \ on this subject,
the interest of which has been increased of late years by the work of
Professor Allman. Dividing the body into the three regions of foot,
median region, and upper region, he proceeds to point out how they
differ ; the walls of the body everywhere consist of ectoderm, support-
ing lamella, and endoderm. The ectoderm consists of several layers, in
which three distinct sets of cells may be made out. Below the superficial
layer there is a layer of subepithelial embryonic cells, in which the

* ' Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoo].,' xxxi. (1878) 1-24.

t ' Arch. Zool. Expe'r. ct Gen.,' vii. (1878), Notes, xiii.

X ' Zool. Aiizeigxr,' i. (1878) 363.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 433

nematocysts are flevelopccl, and a fairly well differentiated layer of
muscular fibres which run parallel to the long axis of the body. The
supporting lamella, in addition to the cells on its outer surface, which
Professor Allman regarded as neuro-muscular, has also cells on the
inner aspect which, as the Russian observer points out, are flagellate
endodermal muscle-cells ; in addition to these there are in the endoderni
outgrowths (blastostyles), which are conical in form and centripetal in
direction, and which consist of large cells containing bro\vn pigment
granules and giving off amoeboid processes and flagella ; by the aid of
these plasmatic jirocesses the cell is enabled to feed itself directly,
while the flagella serve as tactile organs.

The blastostyles, which carry the gonophores, differ in structure
from the " body " in the feeble development of the subepithelial and
muscular layers, the latter indeed being altogether absent in young
blastostyles ; the supporting lamella has no projecting processes, and
the ectoderm varies in character with the age of the blastostyle ; just
below the supporting lamella there are large dark-coloured cells,
whence are developed the generative elements.

In the foot the ectodermal cells are five or six times as long as the
ordinary cells, are coarsely granulated, and may be converted into
gland-cells, which secrete a strong chitinous outer layer by which the
whole of the foot is covered. The cells for the nematocysts are also
present in somewhat large numbers, while the muscular layer is absent.
The supporting lamella is without any outgrowths, and the endoderm
is of the ordinary type.

The tentacles consist of muscular epithelial cells, such as were
first observed by the author in Hydra fusca, and have since been seen
by the brothers Hertwig in the Medusce, together with a supporting
lamella and a simj)le endodermal layer. In the capitular portion of the
tentacle four kinds of nematocysts may be observed, three of which
are sui^plied with tactile haii-s. Between the nematocysts there are
elongated pigmented cells, while the supporting lamella is highly
developed, and broken up into fibrillae which take a centripetal
direction.

Tentacular structures (claspers) are found between the blastostyles ;
these serve for the attachment of the developing ova, and, though
structurally similar to the tentacles, differ from them in having the
ectodermal layer differentiated into glandular cells, which serve to
attach the ova. The statement of Allman that these structures function
in fertilization is not supported by M. Korotneff.

In continuation of his researches, Korotneff* describes the de-
velopment of the gonoi^hores ; the large embryonic cells at the base of
the endoderm of the blastostyle become collected together at various
points ; this " agglomeration " passes through the ectoderm, and forms
an elevation on the surface ; the jDcripheral cells of this " gonogenetic
chamber " (Allman) become provided with refractive granules, which
form a covering for the egg. One of the cells of the collection
increases greatly in size and absorbs its neighbours; impregnation

♦ 'Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) 187.
VOL. II. 2 F

434 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

takes place, and the egg escapes, to be seized on by tbo " claspcrs."
The plan of development of the sperm-cells is of the same character ;
after impregnation the endoplasm of the egg is seen to become
possessed of a number of cells which move towards the periphery and
pass into the ectoplasm, where they form the blastoderm ; between
the cells of these two regions a differentiated lamella soon appears,
which will go to form the future supporting lamella : the endodermal
mass becomes fissured in anticipation of the gastric cavity, while the
ectoderm gives rise to ingrowths, which are soon converted into the
larval tentacles of Mijriothda. The free actinula-enibryo has no mouth,
and nutrition is effected by the remnants of yolk-sj)heres in the gastric
cavity. As soon as the mouth is developed, the embryo becomes fixed,
the primitive tentacles are absorbed, and the blastostyles developed.
Compared Avitli the calcareous sponges, Myriothela differs in the
characters of its gastrula ; but as is pointed out, these animals have a
simple ovum without any nutrient material, while the siliceous sj)ouges
which have an ovum provided with nutrient material, do also form a
" planula."

The mesoderm is stated to be incompletely differentiated, and to
consist of two muscular layers, the upper of which is distinctly sepa-
rated from the ectoderm, while the lower is intimately connected with
the endoderm ; these two layers are separated by the supporting
lamella which is likewise mesodermal in origin.

Porifera.

Structure of the Aplysinidae. — This family of horny sponges is
treated of by Professor Eilhard Schulze in one of his important series
of " Researches on the Structure and Development of Sponges." * The
first part of the paper consists of an historical resume of former work
on the family, and enumerates the genera belonging to it, namely,
Aphjsina, Verongia, Dendrospongia, Danoinella, Janthella, and the
author's new genus Aplysilla. To this follows an anatomical and
histological description of Aphjsina and of Apli/silla.

1. Aphjsina aerophoba. — Of the account of this already well-known
species, our space will only allow of our noticing tlie histological
portion.

The ectoderm consists of a single layer of flat jiolygonal cells with
distinct nucleus and nucleolus. The boundaries between these cells
are often seen only on treatment with silver nitrate, and in some
cases even this treatment failed to reveal cell contour, owing to the
presence of a structureless cuticula, probably formed under abnormal
conditions for i^rotective purposes.

The mesoderm consists of a sort of connective tissue made up of
cells imbedded in a matrix, which is jiartly granular, partly (in the
neighbourhood of the external surface and of the canals) hyaline.
The cells themselves are mostly stellate, being jjrovided with long,
sometimes branching processes. But where the mesoderm surrounds
the water canals, these cells become spindle-shaped, and surround

* ' Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zcol.,' xxx. (1878) 379.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 435

the canal like a layer of circular muscle-fibres : these have indeed been
described as muscular elements, but Schulze prefers to call them
" contractile fibre-cells."

Amongst the ordinary mesoderm cells, rounded cells are found
•without definite processes, and probably to be considered as amoeboid
wandering cells. There also occur remarkable structures of an irregu-
larly rounded or knobbed form, about 10 /x in diameter, of a bright
yellow colour and strongly refractile. Each of these consists of a
number of small, globular, hyaline bodies, in close contact with one
another : to their presence the yellow hue of the entire sponge is
due. When exposed to the air, these yellow granules undergo a re-
markable change of colour, becoming first pale bluish grey, then pure
blue, and finally dark prussian blue : by this change the coloured
bodies become at first more transparent, but finally quite opaque.
The yellow colouring matter is turned brown by ammonia, and is
slowly dissolved by ether and absolute alcohol, readily by acetic acid.
Schulze considers these bodies to be accumulations of reserve material,
analogous to the fat-cells of other animals, and to the starch of plants.

In the hyaline portions of the mesoderm occur very fine fibres,
probably comparable to the connective-tissue fibrils of Vertebrates.
In the neighbourhood of the ciliated chambers occur, scattered through
the mesoderm, numerous small rounded granules, of a whitish colour
by reflected light. There is no discernible bounding membrane {inem-
hrana limitans) either between mesoderm and ectoderm, or between
mesoderm and endoderm.

The endoderm consists of collar-bearing flagellate cells in the
hemispherical jiortion of the ciliated chambers, into which the afierent
canal opens ; while the funnel-like portion, leading into the efferent
canal, is covered by the same tesselated epithelium as the rest of the
internal cavities.

The fibres forming the skeleton of Aplysina are cii'cular in section,
and consist of a laminated horny cortex, enclosing a soft medulla
which exhibits a delicate fibrillar structure. At the apex of the fibre,
the lamellae of the cortex are at a considerable distance fi'om one
another, and have the appearance of a series of supcrj)osed glove-
fingers, the innermost of which exhibits perfect continuity of structure
with the medulla, which is thus seen to be in no way essentially
different to the cortex.

In autumn and winter, rounded masses consisting of cells with
vesicular nuclei were found in the mesoderm of adult individuals : the
further fate of these is unknown, but the author considers that they
are probably spore-like reproductive bodies.

2. Aplysilla sulfurea, nov. gen. et sp. — :A full description is given
of this genus, which differs markedly from Aphjsina in the fact that
the horny skeleton does not consist of a regular network of fibres, but
of isolated, simple or branched, terete fibres, each attached to a basal
plate. With regard to the migratory cells occurring in the mesoderm,
the author remarks that their presence proves the tisues in which they
occur to be a true mesoderm, consisting of actual cells imbedded in a
matrix or ground-substance, and answering to the connective tissue

2 F 2

436 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

of tlie liiglier animals ; and not a syncytium, that is, composed of fused
cell-bodies with imbedded nuclei.

Both the migratory cells and the collar-bearing cells lining the
ciliated chambers contain in their protoplasm yellow pigment granules.

The sexes are distinct. The spermatozoa have an ovoidal head and
a long delicate tail, and occur in definite aggregations, each enclosed in
a special cavity of the mesoderm lined by a single layer of flat poly^
gonal cells. Probably, as in Halisarca, each aggregation is formed
by the repeated division of a single cell. The ova are contained each
in a similar cavity of mesoderm : the vitellus is opaque, owing to the
large number of yolk- granules: there is an excentric germinal vesicle
and refractive germinal spot. Probably the eggs, like the aggregations
of spermatozoa, result from mesodermal leucocytes.

Only one developmental stage of Aplysilla was observed — the
blastula jihase. This consists of an oval body, covered with a single
layer of cylinder cells, each provided with a long cilium, and en-
closing not, as usual, a clear fluid, but a definite tissue, consisting of
stellate cells with anastomosing processes. From this it seems probable
that the mesoderm in Aplysilla is formed actually before the gastrula
stage.

The other species of this genus, A. rosea, is remarkable from the fact
that it is hermaphrodite, young eggs and sperm-aggregations being
found in one and the same section.

Structure of Spongelia. — In a memoir on this genus of horny
sponges, F. E. Schulze * gives, besides an historical summary and
enumeration of the species, a full description of Spongelia avara and
of S. pallescens, and short accounts of S. elegans and S. sjnnifera. The
genus itself is distinguished, according to Schulze's observations, by
the following characters.

1. The possession of large, simple, saccular, ciliated chambers,
which are provided with numerous inhalent pores, and possess a wide,
round, exhalent aperture, opening directly into one of the efferent
canals.

2. The complete absence of highly refracting granules in the
matrix of the connective tissue surrounding the ciliated chambers.

3. The extensive enclosure of foreign matters by all the chief
fibres of the skeleton ; the thin connecting fibres may or may not
contain foreign particles.

4. The more or less uniform development of conical elevations
(conuli), 1-8 mm. high, and the same distance from one another, over
the whole surface of the sponge, with the exception of the area
surrounding the osculum.

5. avara. — The skeleton in tliis species consists of a network of
fibres of spongiolin, in which are imbedded great numbers of foreign
bodies, the chief of which are broken spicules of other sponges, both
siliceous and calcareous, fragments of plates and spines of Echinoderms,
shells of Foraminifera and sometimes of Radiolaria, as well as frag-
ments of the hard parts of worms, molluscs, &c., and sand-grains.

* 'Zcitsch. f. wi.ss. Zool.,' xxxii. (1878) 117.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 437

The an-angement of these foreign bodies is very irregular ; they are
always, however, situated in the axis of the horny fibre, and those of
an elongated shape have their long axis set as nearly as jjossible in
the direction of length of the fibre. It looks, at first sight — so com-
pletely is the true skeleton of the si)ouge interj)enetrated with these
extraneous matters — as if they were the exciting cause of the formation
of the skeleton ; but this is shown not to be the case, from the fact that
spongiolin fibres were found, exhibiting a concentrically laminated
structure, and quite free from foreign bodies. These latter, therefore,
are not essential to the formation of the horny skeleton, but are
probably adjuvant to it.

The disposition of the fibres is very irregular : they exhibit no
distinction into vertical and horizontal fibres, but in each of the column-
like elevations of the sponge it is seen, in a longitudinal section, that
there are eight or ten more or less longitudinal main fibres, between
which is an irregular network of fine connecting fibres.

The roundish pores in the ectoderm lead into irregular lacunae or
" subdermal spaces," from which atferent canals branch out into the
interior of the sponge, and finally open by minute pores into one of
the ciliated chambers, each of which has from twenty to thirty pores.
The ciliated chambers are disposed radially round the efierent canals
into which they o^jen directly by a wide aperture, there being no
intermediate passage or eiferent duct between the two. The elfereut
canals finally debouch into one of the wide cloacal cavities, at the
extremity of which is an iris-like contractile membrane serving to
regulate the width of the osculum.

All those parts of the sponge which are bathed with water, except
the ciliated chambers, namely the external surface and the afferent
and efferent canals, are lined with a single layer of flat polygonal
cells, constituting the outer cell-layer or ectoderm.

The mesoderm, or connective-tissue layer, consists of a hyaline
gelatinous matrix, with imbedded star- or spindle-shaped cells, the
processes of which often anastomose. The refracting granules which,
in most horny sponges, occur in the mesoderm surrounding the ciliated
chambers, are wholly absent. Contractile fibre-cells occur, as in
Ajoh/sina.

The endoderm consists of the flagellate cells lining the ciliated
chambers : in these are contained lilac or rose-coloured granules, to
which the tint of the entire sponge is due.

The morula stage was the only phase of development which the
author was enabled to observe.

In Spongelia pallescens aggregations of spermatic cells were found
in definite cavities of the mesoderm, lined with a single layer of flat
cells. The ciliated embryos of this species were also examined. They
have the form of a cylinder, with one end slightly convex, the other
slightly excavated : the latter has a strong brown-red colour. The
body is covered by a single layer of columnar ciliated cells, surround-
ing a central mass having much the same characters as the mesoderm
of the adult.

This species is remarkable for being infested by two species of

438 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

parasitic alga, Callitliamnion memhranaceum and Oscillana spongelice
(n. sp.).

Protozoa.

Evolution of the Infusoria from the Lower Protozoa. — In some
speculative observations on the probable steps in and causes of the
evolution of the Infusoria from the lower Protozoa* Mereschkowsky
remarks upon the (as a general rule) total absence of symmetry in the
Infusoria, and considers that this is explained by the close genetic
connection between that group and Amoehce. The first step in the
differentiation of the latter was probably a hardening of the superficial
layer of protoplasm, and with this was connected a proportional
thinning and lengthening of the pseudopodia, and a slowing of the
animal's movements. With the gradual induration of the superficial
layer of protojilasm, there seems to have come about a greater and
greater restriction of the area suitable for the inception of nutriment ;
in this way the infusorial mouth was produced. But as the in-
gestive area became less, it became more and more necessary that the
animal should have the means of rapid locomotion, and so be able to
make up, by active foraging, for the lost power of taking in any
suitable food-particle which might happen to come in contact with
any part of its surface. In response to this want, it would seem that
the variously disposed cilia and flagella of the Infusoria came into
existence by the action of natural selection.

Acinetae and Vorticellse. — Biologists, as is well known, have
never yet accepted the views of Stein as to the Acineke being stages
of development of Vorticcllce, &c., mainly from the fact that his
observations have not been confirmed by other observers. Mr. H. E.
Forrest, one of the secretaries of the Birmingham Natm-al History and
Microscopical Society, in describing what he terms " Acinetation " in
the Vorficelhv,'\ states that " last October, while examining some
AcineicE, he saw a small Vorticella burst from the body of one of them
and swim away."

Researches on the Acinetae. — M. Fraipont, in continuation of the
results of his investigations on the Acinetce found on the Ostend coast,
publishes three parts of his memoirs, | in which he deals with the
structure of some well-known and of some new species, and also with
the general characters of the group ; to this last we will first address
ourselves.

Skeletal memhrane (Hertwig). — The presence of this structure and
its morphological characters have been the subject of considerable
doubt and dispute ; Claparede and Lachmann regarded it as a calyci-
form covering of resistant character ; Stein asserted that in addition
to this there was an internal membrane, while Hertwig has drawn
attention to the differences presented by Acinefce as compared with
Pudoplmja ; in Acineia Fraipont always found an internal membrane
covering the surface of the protoplasm, at all points where this was-

' ' Arch. f. IMikr. Anat.,' xvi. (1879) 153.

t ' Midland Naturalist,' 11. (1879) 88.

X 'Bull. Ac. Koy. Belg.,' xlv. (1878) 217, 287, 475.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 439

separated from the outer covering ; the cavity between the two invest-
ments may be single or divided into different parts, according to the
extent to which the protoplasm is separated from the outer coat, and
it is on the separated parts, and these only, that the second or inner
covering is developed, and it is to be regarded as nothing more than a
newly formed cuticle.

Tlie stalk is not always developed, and, where it is, it may be merely
a continuation of the wall of the body, or it may also have proto-
plasmic contents ; in either case it varies greatly in character.

The tentacles. — While Lachmann was the first to point out the suc-
torial nature of these appendages, it is to E. Hertwig that we owe our
knowledge of the fact that they are not always suckers, but that they
may remain of a lower grade of differentiation and be simply prehen-
sile filaments ; and again, the same organism may present tentacles of
the two types. Varying as they may in position and in arrangement,
it is clear that, from a morj^hological stand-point, w'e have to do with
a single type of structure. Looked at thus broadly, a tentacle is formed
of a wall, and of the contained protoplasm ; but it is something more
than the pseudopodia, with which Stein, Haeckel, and Gegenbaur
would compare it ; it is covered by the cuticle of the skeletal mem-
brane, and there is evidence of a differentiation of the jjrotojjlasm along
the axis of the tentacle, and in the higher forms there is a spiral fila-
ment differentiated in this part.

As to the symmetry of the body, we find all kinds of modifications ;
bilateral, quadrilateral, pyramidal, radiate, or none at all.

Protoplasmic contents. — The protoplasm is of very nearly the same
character in all Acinetce ; there is a delicate outer layer, which is
finely granular, and a more opaque medullary mass, which is often
pigmented ; the endosarc is more fluid than the ectosarc, and may
contain small shining bodies, which are spherical or navicellar in
form, and closely resemble the trichocysts of the ciliate Infusoria. In
this substance two kinds of vacuoles may be distinguished ; one, set
irregularly and varying in form, while the others are pulsatile, and
vary in number in different species ; they appear to be always found
near the surface of the ectosarc, and though undergoing a systole and
diastole do not vary in position ; with regard to these structures it is
of great interest to observe that in some cases the presence of an
excretory canal has been noted by some observers. The nu ileus
appears to vary in character, from a spherical or ovoid form to
arborescent structures of great complexity, and the study of one of
these latter shows that it passes through all the possible intermediate

Beprocluction may be effected in one of three ways ; the first and
simplest is by fission, but this is rarely observed ; the second is by
gemmation, and the third by the formation of embryos within the
body of the parent ; but vpith regard to these moles, the author has
but little to say from his own observations.

With regard to the classification proposed by M. Fraipont, we could
only deal with it satisfactorily by giving it in detail, and we must
therefore be content to make two observations, and to refer those who

440 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

are specially iutorested in the subject to the paper itself. Basing Lis
views on the classitication of Claparede and Laclmiann, he elevates
their eight genera — Podophrya, Spliceroplirija, Triehoplmja, Acineta,
Solenophri/a, Dendrosoma, Dendrocometes, and Ophryodendron — into
eight families, to which he adds the Urnulida ; of these the Tricho-
phrida are regarded as the lowest, and the relations of these to
the rest, and of the rest to one another, are indicated in a phylogenetic
table.

As to the affinities of the group, the formation of internal embryos,
the ciliation, and migratory habits of these embryos, are, with certain
other points, indications of their affinities to the Ciliata, from which
they seem to have been derived.

With regard to the more detailed observations, of which only a
brief mention can be made ; Acineta tuherosa does not possess differen-
tiated prehensile processes or suckers ; all the tentacular organs, to
which M. Fraipont gives the name of prehensile suckers, are similar
in character ; they are arranged in tufts on ten points of the body,
and are only not rigid when they arc seizing their prey, at which time
they exhibit a high power of rapid movement. As a rule, it never
possesses more than one contractile vacuole ; the only mode of repro-
duction observed is that by internal gemmation. The new species
Podophrya Benedeni is described as a magnificent form, in which four
contractile vacuoles can be made out, and in which the two kinds
of tentacular processes already described may be observed : repro-
duction is effected by external gemmation. The other new species
described are Acineta crenata, Acineta vorticelluides, and Podophrya
truncata. The first is of a dirty yellow colour, and has, as a rule,
only one contractile vacuole, and there may be as many as twenty-six
prehensile suckers : reproduction appears to be effected by external
gemmation.

A few notes are also offered on Podophrya Lynghyi Ehrenberg, in
which the pedicle is about five times as long as the body, the prehensile
suckers stout and numerous, and the protoplasm, as in so many of this
group, coloured dirty yellow ; one or two vacuoles are to be observed,
and the nucleus has the form of a short rod, bent on itself. No
observations are made as to the reproduction or development of this
sj)ecies.

The Noctilucae. — In addition to the observations of M. Eobin, to
which we have referred at p. 331 of vol. i. and p. li)5 of this volume,
the Noctilucce have been studied by M. W. Vignal. *

There is an entire disagreement between the results of Hobin and
Vignal on the subject of their contractility. According to Robin,
there is nothing analogous to muscular contractility. He says that
he has proved with Cadiat, that " induction currents have no influence
whatever on the contractions of the tentacle, notwithstanding its
striated condition, nor on the contraction of the flagellum or that of
the sarcodic contents."

* " Rechcrches Histologiques ct Pliy»iulogi(iuet) sur Ics Nocliliiques,"
'Ai-chivcs tie Physiologic,' 10th Nov., 1S78.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

441

Vignal is, on the contrary, convinced of tbe muscular nature of
the tentacle, " On the establishment and breaking of the current," he
says, "the flagellum (the tentacle of Eobin) contracts in its usual
manner ; the contraction is more rapid and energetic at the breaking
of the current. When I applied an induced current with rapid inter-
ruptions, the flagellmn became tetanically contracted, and continued
in this state for three or four minutes, then it gradually relaxed under
the influence of fatigue." There would therefore be, according to
Vignal, " analogy between the contractions of the tentacle, and those
presented by the muscles of animal life." However that may be, the
movements of the tentacle never lead the Noctiluca to change its
place ; they merely cause it, as Sm-iray has already shown, to oscillate
in its place.

As for the phenomenon of phosphorescence, it is due, according to
Yignal, to a property of the protoplasmic mass, to the exclusion of
the other parts of the body. We know that the phosphorescence
attains its maximum by the agitation of the water ; according to Vignal,
this is an effect of which the cause is merely the mechanical iri'itation
of the Noctilucce : experiment has shown him that if oxygen intervenes
in the phenomenon, it is as a necessary agent to life, and not as an
oxidizer. Whilst studying the influence of heat on photogeny, he
observed that a temperature of 37^ (C.) augments the phosphorescence
and, above all, renders it more persistent, whilst a temperatiu-e of 39°
kills the Noctilucce almost immediately. Finally, Vigual maintains
that electricity suj)plied by a Grenet pile, or by an induction apparatus,
neither increases nor lessens the brilliancy of the light emitted, a
result contradictory to those formerly obtained by De Quatrefages,
Eobin, and Legros.

In an analysis of the two papers by M. G. Carlet, from which we
take the above, he remarks that neither Eobin nor Vignal have
observed the existence of the anus admitted by Professor Huxley, and
it would seem, therefore, to be clear that the alimentary residues are
rejected by the oral aperture, the sole orifice of the body. Professor
Huxley also described in the Noctilucce permanent stomachs, which it
must be considered do not really exist — these are vacuoles in the
interior of the body, of variable number and volume, which are dis-
placed by the movements of the protoplasm; they contain diatoms
and other alimentary corpuscles, and represent only temporary
stomachs.*

The dead bodies of Noctiluca miliaris left upon a beach in Beau-
maris Bay by the receding tide, are said to have been of an orange-red
colour. I

Flagellum of Euglena viridis. — In a " Notice to Correspondents,"
in ' Science-Gossip,' | the editor mentions that the flagellum of a
specimen of Euglena viridis sent to him terminated in a bulb. The
bulb was used occasionally as a kind of sucker against the glass sides
of the zoophyte trough.

* ' Rev. lutcmat. Sci.,' iii. (1879) 47.

t • Sci.-Goasip,' No. 173, p. 113. X I'jW., P- 11!>-

442 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology
of the Phanerogamia.

Chemical Composition and Function of Leaves. — A paper on
tliis subject, by M. Corenwinder, appears in the 'Anuales des
Sciences Naturelles,' * of which the following is a summary : —

The leaves of plants, in their relation to the external air, are the
seat of two distinct functions.

1. By tbeir protoplasm they absorb oxygen, and are perpetually
producing carbonic acid.

2. By their chlorophyll they inhale carbonic acid during the day
only, and exhale oxygen.

When young the protoplasm predominates in the cells, the
quantity of chlorophyll being small ; during this period therefore the
function of res^jiration overbalances that of assimilation, and leaves
consequently exhale carbonic acid without interruption.

In proportion as the leaves increase in size, the protoplasm dimi-
nishes and the chlorophyll increases ; the power of exhaling carbonic
acid then rapidly decreases, and they begin to give off more oxygen.
After this the process of respiration can be detected only by placing
the plants in the dark, or at least in diffused light, i. e. by suspending
more or less the action of the chlorophyll.

These observations, therefore, completely confirm the doctrine
now taught by nearly all vegetable physiologists ; that there is in
plants only one kind of respiration, and that this is identical with the
process of respiration in animals, viz. an absorption of oxygen and
disengagement of carbonic acid ; and that the function of chlorophyll
is one of assimilation.

Fermentation in the Tissues of Plants. — Professor de Luca, of
Naples, publishes f the results of a series of experiments on the pro-
duction of alcohol in the leaves, flowers, and fruits of certain plants.
They may be summed up as follows: —

1. Fruits in closed vessels remain unchanged for a longer or shorter
time, whether in carbonic acid or hydrogen, in a vacuum or in a
limited supply of aii-.

2. Under these conditions fruits undergo a slow fermentation, with
disengagement of carbonic acid gas, nitrogen, and, in certain cases, of
hydrogen, and with formation of alcohol and acetic acid, but without
the intervention of any ferment. In closed vessels these changes are
only incompletely effected, in consequence of the strong pressure of
the gases developed and compressed into a small volume.

3. In a limited supply of air and in closed vessels the final results
are identical with the preceding ; but the oxygen of the air is absorbed
by the organic substance of the fruits.

4. Leaves and flowers present the same phenomena as fruits in a

♦ (Botanique), vi. (1878) 303.

t 'Ann. des Sci. Nat. (Bot.),' vi. (1S7S) 28(3.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 443

limited supply of carbonic acid, hydrogen, or air, or in a vacuum and
in perfectly closed vessels. The gases developed exercise a strong
pressure, under which an incomplete decomposition of the carbo-
hydrates takes place, resulting in the formation of alcohol and acetic
acid, but without the assistance of any ferment.

5. The same results ensue with fi-uits, flowers, and leaves, under
the ordinary pressure, with a limited supply of carbonic acid, hydro-
gen, or air ; but the decomposition is carried out so completely that,
when the disengagement of gas ceases, neither sugar nor starch
remains, but, in their place, abundance of alcohol and acetic acid.

6. Fruits, flowers, and leaves placed, under the ordinary pressure,
in a limited supjily of air, carbonic acid, or hydrogen, do not remain
unchanged for any considerable time, but deteriorate, and the fruits in
particular become reduced to a brown and gelatinous mass.

7. When the leaves, flowers, and fruits of certain plants disengage
hydrogen during fermentation, and under the conditions specified,
this gas probably arises from the decomposition of mannite, which is
a sugar with excess of hydrogen. In fact, fruits, flowers, and leaves
which contain mannite, when fermenting, disengage hydrogen in
addition to carbonic acid and nitrogen.

8. When the receivers resist very strong pressure, and the sub-
stance: s are introduced in very small quantity, the sugar is almost
completely decomposed.

Assimilation of Soda by Plants. — M. Deherain, continuing his
researches on the assimilation of mineral substances by plants, has
now turned his special attention to soda.* The following are the
chief results arrived at : —

1. That sodium chloride may be absorbed by plants that do not
ordinarily contain any soda.

2. That when the roots come into contact with a complex solu-
tion, this absorption takes place ouly when sodium chloride occurs in
considerable proportion in this solution, a condition not presented by
ordinary arable lands. Hence the occasional absence of sodium from
the ashes of terrestrial plants.

3. That the absorption takes place much more readily when the
sodium chloride is presented only to the roots; but in this case it
ceases to be indifferent ; it is, on the contrary, utilized by the plant,
as may be demonstrated by the following considerations : —

a. Haricots (on which the experiments were chiefly made) exhaust
their cotyledons when their roots are plunged in a solution containing
sodium chloride.

h. Haricots plunged in a very dilute solution take up the salt in
much larger proportion than the water. The combination efiected
in this case between the salt and the tissues explains its more ready
absorption.

These facts are readily explicable on the ordinary theory of difi'u-
sion (osmose). M. Deherain completely confirms the previous obser-
vations of Peligot as to the feebleness of the tendency of plants to
absorb soda.

* 'Ann. dcs. Sci, Nat. (But.),' vi. (1878) 340.

444 NOTES AND MEMOEANDA.

Nutrition of Phanerogamic Parasites. — M. Chatin forwards to
the Frcucli Academy * the result of some investigations on the mode
in which parasitic flowering plants derive their nutriment from the
host. This is effected by means of a kind of conical pivot or peg,
performing the double functions of an ordinary root, viz. to fix the
plant, and to absorb nutriment. The extremity of this cone, although
consisting entirely of parenchymatous tissue, has a remarkable power
of forcing itself through the tissue of the host, even when this is of
very great hardness. In certain cases, and especially in the mistletoe,
lateral suckers are formed, in addition to the terminal one. The
structure is the same in all important points whether the parasite
obtains its nourishment from the root of the host, as in the case of
Thesium and Pedicularis, or from the stem, as in Cuscuta, Cassytha,
and Viscum.

Polyembryony, true and false, and its relation to Partheno-
genesis.— Professor Strasburger's researches f upon the fecundation of
the angiospermous Phanerogams show that the embryo-sac very seldom
produces more than one embryonal vesicle which is fecundated or
cajjable of being fecundated. The single constant excepticm to this rule
known to him is that of Santalum album, which produces two, besides
one or two orchids in which the embryonal vesicle occasionally
divides into two. True polyembryony must therefore be very rare in
Angiosperms. But seeds containing more than one embryo are of
common occurrence in the orange, Funhia, Allium, Nuthoscordum,
&c. According to Strasburger, all supernumerary embryos in such
cases are adventitious, originate outside the embryo-sac, by a kind
of prolification in the nucleus, and are not fecundated at all. They
appear in the form of minute cellular protuberances, which lengthen
by degrees and push into the embryo-sac by a sort of hernia, or pierce
their way into it, becoming in the ripe seed veritable embryos, which
it is not easy to distinguish from the one resulting from the fecunda-
tion of the embryonal vesicle itself. Independent as these adventitious
embryos are of fecundation, yet Strasburger could not obtain them in
Nothoscordum when he had removed the stamens before flowering,
and prevented access of pollen. But it appears that Ccdehogijne is a
case of this kind, namely, one in which an adventitious embryo is
habitually produced, instead of the normal embryo, which fails from
the want of fecundation, the male plant not being in cultivation. It
is stated that this is not a mere inference, but that Strasburger has
traced the development of the embryonal vesicle in the ovule of
Ccclebofjync, followed by its disappearance and resorption, and by the
independent production of adventitious embryos in the manner above
described.

This, then, gives an explanation of the long-disputed partheno-
genesis of Ccelehogyne, and therefore of the less notable instances.

Parthenogenesis, it is then concluded, is only so in appearance ; it
is sometimes, and perhaps in all cases, " a prolification of the nucleus."

* 'Comptes Rendus,' Ixxxviii. (187i)) 108.
t ' Jen. ZeitscLr. f. Nat.,' v. (1878) (Ji7.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

445

Now wo should insist that since the result is "a true embryo"
(equivalent in structure, position of radicle, and ultimate growth to
the normal embryo), and not a bud, parthenogenesis is the correct
term ; and the very interesting and important conclusion attained is,
that parthenogenesis results, not from the development of an un-
fecundated embryonal vesicle, as was supposed, but from the develop-
ment of other and extraneous cells into an embryo ; also that it is not
very rare, since the adventitious or supernumerary embryos of various
seeds are cases of this parthenogenesis.

Not the least interesting consideration is, that we have here a
counterpart of what De Bary terms apogamy, instead of an analogue
of it. Apogamy is a vegetative prolification from what should normally
result in the product of sexual rej)roduction. Parthenogenesis proves
to be the inverse of this, a vegetative production in the ovule of the
normal result of sexual reproduction, viz, the embryo. And, finally,
we have in these two modes, taken together, what was quite to be
expected — a manifest and significant rendering of the hiatus between
vegetative and sexual reproduction which Mr. Darwin may turn to
account.

Some applications of this new knowledge may be made. It is
quite possible that more embryos than we are aware of may be adven-
titious. Kather more than a year ago an abstract was given in the
' American Journal of Science and Arts,' of Mr. Francis Parkman's
interesting paper on the hybridization of lilies. It may be remem-
bered that the greater part of his hybrids exactly reproduced the
female parent. The explanation suggested by him, and which he
refers to in his paper, was that those plants were not really hybrids
at all, but were from embryos originated without male influence.
What then seemed the least improbable explanation, would now appear
to be the one altogether probable.*

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Luerssen's Handbook of Cryptogamic Botany. t — The crying
want so long felt by all botanists of a good handbook of cryptogamic
botany, brought down to our present state of knowledge, is at length
supplied, as far as German readers are concerned, by the excellent
book before us. Though the work is designed in the first place for
pharmaceutists, and is intended to deal especially with pharmaceutical
products and their sources, this programme is far exceeded in the present
volume. Starting from the classification of Sachs in the fourth
(German) edition of his ' Lehrbuch,' the author takes every class and
order of Cryptogams in succession, and supplies the reader with an
accurate, succinct, and at the same time sufficiently full account of the
morphology, physiology, and life-history of each. The result is a
thick volume of 657 pages, with 181 admirable woodcuts, many of
them new. It is easy to criticize Sachs's classification in many of its

* 'Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts,' xvii. (1879) 334.

t ' Medicinisch-pharmaceutiscbe Botanik : zugleicli als Haiidbuch der ey.ste-
matischen Botanik, fiir Botaniker, Aerzte u. Apothcker.' Bearbeitet von Dr.
Chr. Luerssen. 1 Band, Kryptogamen. Leipzig, 1879.

446 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

details, and in some points it will certainly not be followed by future
systematists ; but it is far in advance of its predecessors, and the
author of the present work was probably wise in following to so
large an extent a system that has so many recommendations. In some
minor points he has adopted evident imjirovements, as in the removal
of Volvox from the Zygosporefe to the OosporeaB, in accordance with
the recent observations of Cohn. He also removes Characefe from
Carposporeee to Oosporeas, which is perhaps better, if they are to be
retained among Thallophytes, But will it be possible to do this ? If
a single criticism is admissible, we may append one which so often
occui's in reading German books : — Why is there no index ?

Anomalies in the Development of the Lowest Organisms. — Some
researches lately made by W. Schmankewitsch, of Odessa,* on the
development of fungus spores under changed external conditions, show
the relation of certain colourless Flaijdlata on the one hand to Fungi,
on the other to Ahjce. The author's observations, if confirmed, will
certainly tend to break down the distinction between these groups.

1. Spores of Penicillium were sown in a drop of filtered and
boiled sea-water, the drop being placed on the under side of a cover
slip serving as the roof of a small moist chamber. The chamber was
exposed to sunlight, and the air in it was occasionally renewed, and
was kept moist. The spores swelled up in the usual way prior to
germination, but did not send out hyphae. Their contents became
sharply differentiated from the cell-wall, acquired a granular appear-
ance and a distinct green colour, and developed a nucleus. The
spores then divided like unicellular algfe, each into two daughter-cells.

2. Spores of Aspergillus were sown in the same way, in a drop of
fresh water. A little distilled water was placed on the floor of the
chamber, in a place darkened by a diaphragm, and in it was sown other
spores of the fungus as generators of carbonic acid. The first drop
of water was exposed to light from the concave mirror of the Micro-
scope, and the air in the chamber was renewed weekly. After five
weeks such sj)ores as had not germinated, as well as the swollen cells
of the hyphfe which others had sent out, had altered their appear-
ance, their contents becoming green and granular, and sharply
separated from the cell-wall, and afterwards dividing into four
segments. The protoplasm also contained granules, which the
author hints may be starch granules.

3. Some examples of a flagellate infusor (probably Biitschli's
Anisonema acinus) were placed in a similarly disposed drop of fresh
water. They soon ceased moving, and the secreted granules in
their protoplasm (Secretkornchen, Biitschli) began gradually to turn
green, and many of them to increase in size, while some slowly made
their way out of the body of the Anisonema. The latter, when full of
these green granules, closely resembled the unicellular alga Chloro-
coccum during its multiplication by still gonidia. In the largest
green granules a cell-wall could be distinguished. The author states
that he has observed the converse of this case, namely, the trans-

* ' Zool. Anzciger,' ii. (1879) 91

NOTES AND MEMOEANDA. 447

formation of the gonicUa of CMorococcum into colourless monads, and
be considers that the " Secretkornchen " of such flagellates as
Anisonema are the homologues of the still gonidia of Chlorococcum.
When the Anisonemce were placed in the dark, the green granules
became colourless, and then resembled ordinary fungus spores.

4. In a similar chamber colourless monads, probably undeveloped
Anisonemce, were observed to send out mycelial filaments, which after-
wards broke up into short pieces ; these subsequently assumed an oval
form.

5. Aspergillus spores were sown, in water, on the bottom of a
shallow chamber, and exposed to light. These spores became
brighter and quite colourless ; then, after three or four weeks their
contents became granular, and a nucleus-like body appeared : the cell-
wall at the same time became mucilaginous and the spores assumed
an oval form. They then divided in the direction of their length
into two parts. If the water evaporated somewhat, the spores
elongated still more, becoming spindle-shaped ; the division planes
became more oblique, and, in each spore, a second division-plane
appeared, intersecting the first, so that the two planes, as seen under
the Microscope, crossed one another like the two arms of an X. The
spores thus became divided into four elongated bodies, and thus closely
resembled the alga Scenedesmus. Other spores became dark green in
colour, and divided into four, like Pandorina.

6. Aspergillus spores, sown in water, became colourless, their cell-
wall dissolved, and they became transformed into amoebiform masses,
and then into true Amoehce of light greenish colour. These Amoehce,
later, contracted into darker green spheres which divided, forming
motile green bodies quite like the unicellular alga Chlamydomonas.
In other cases the contents of the spores divided into colourless
granules, the spores then resembling the cysts of certain monads.

The author concludes with some general observations on these
very startling results.

Influence of Light on the Movements of Mobile Spores.— Along
with the movements of mobile spores, caused by currents of water,
which Sachs has succeeded in imitating by emulsions ('Flora,' 1876,
Nos. 16-18), by which spores placed in water congregate near the
edges of the vessel, and form the figures which Nageli has shown, zoo-
spores also possess, through their own innate force, a movement at
once progressive and rotatory. Eesearches recently made by E. Stahl *
have convinced him that the direction of the forward movement is
determined by light, and is absolutely independent of the passive
currents of water above mentioned.

The following are given by Stahl as the principal results of his
researches, which he intends to amplify later.

Light exercises an influence on the forward movement of many
mobile spores which have been called heliotropic spores. Other zoo-
spores are absolutely indifferent to light.

The movement of heliotropic zoospores changes periodically in

* ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvi. (1878) 715.

448 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

cHrection, since the same individual sometimes directs itself towards the
light, and sometimes away from it. In the movements here spoken of,
the colourless portion which bears the cilia is always directed forwards.
It depends on the i:)ower of the light whether the forward or the back-
ward movement is the more rapid ; if the light is feeble, the forward
movement is almost always the most marked, and the contrary when
the light is strong.

The final result will therefore be, that after some time, in the one
case, the zoospore will approach the light, and in the other it will go
away from it. The intensity of the light has moreover an influence
on the ulterior movements, since mobile spores of the same species,
which have attained the same phase of development, will behave
differently under the same conditions of light, depending on whether
they have been previously kept for some time in darkness, or on the
contrary exposed to a strong light.

The sudden removal of the source of light which determines the
direction of the movement of mobile spores is immediately shown
by the abandonment of the direction 2'>i'eviously followed ; in many
cases the forward movement ceases suddenly. This phenomenon is
produced in both phases of the periodic movement, that is to say, in
the individuals which are at the moment directed towards the light,
and in those which are moving in the opposite direction.*

Entophytic and Entozoic (parasitic) Species of Cryptogams. —
P. F. Eeiusch contributes to the ' Botauische Zeitung,' f an accoimt
of the parasitic Algfe and Fungi which he has himself detected as
growing within the tissues of animals and plants. Those hitherto
observed as entozoic within the bodies of living animals belong to the
lowest classes of Algae and Fungi, viz. Phycochromacese, OscillatorieaB,
Leptothrichete, Schizomycetes, and Hyphomycetes, and especially to
the genera Protococciis, Pleurococcus, Gkroococcus, Sarchia, Vibrio,
Spnillum, and Bacterium. In addition to these he records the
following: —

1. A Floridea parasitic on Sponges and Bryozoa. — This has been
detected by M. Eeinsch in the form of red threads, growing within
tlie tubes of sjionges and of Sertidaria pluma, the latter itself growing
on some of the large Fucacete of the Atlantic coast. The parasite
enclosed within the thallus of the sponge forms elongated, usually but
slightly branched threads, isolated or collected into bundles, pene-
trating the medullary and cortical substance of the sponge, never
breaking through to the outside. No reproductive organs were de-
tected. The parasite found within the tubes of Sertularia and Tubu-
laria was different in form. It occurs as a weft of branching filaments
covering the interior of the tubes, some of the filaments penetrating
through the tissue of the tubes themselves. The reproductive organs
occur in the form of tetrasporangia placed on short unicellular or
bicellular pedicels, which were found only in the Sertularia and not
in the Tubularia. These indicated a close afiinity on the part of the
parasite to Callithamnion.

* 'Eov. Internrit. Sci.,' iii. (1879) 66. t xxxvii. (1S79) 17 and 33.

NOTES AND MEMOBANDA.

449

2. A Chytridiacea parasitic on FloridecB. — In the tissue of Eucheuma
isifornus (from Key West) were observed cells of a difierent character
from those of the tissue of the seaweed, and presenting the nearest
resemblance to those of a Chytridium already known as a parasite on
Desmidieaj.*

3. AsterosplioericB parasitic on Mesocarpus scalar is. — These occur in
the form of minute globular cells found in pairs within the cells of
the Mesocarpus, one of each pair being usually smooth, and the other
covered with spines. When the parasite is fully develoijed, the
infected cell of the Mesocarj)us is swollen into the form of a bladder,
and all its pr(jtoplasmic contents have disappeared. The parasite
probably enters in the form of a zoospore which pierces the cell-wall
of the host, the orifice subsequently again closing up. The green
colour of the infected cell gradually disappears as its protoplasm is
absorbed by the parasite. Ultimately a kind of conjugation takes
place between the smooth and spiny parasitic cells, the contents of
the former passing into the latter. The ultimate fate of these latter
is uncertain, and it is possible they may be merely stages in the
development of some higher organism.

4. Nostochacece and Oscillatorie<B in Gromia and in the Ova of Fresh-
water Snails. — An Oscillatoria is not uncommon within the siliceous
carapace of Gromia, consisting of a coiled filament with a diameter of
about 0*0084 mm. The two ends grow slowly, it is not enclosed in
a gelatinous sheath, and is probably a Hypheothrix. In another
species of Gromia a much coiled filament was observed completely
filKng its cavity, apparently a Cylindrospermura ; it had abundance
of chronospores. The ova of a small fresh-water snail found on the
leaves of a Potanogetou, enclosed in a thin transparent calcareous
shell, and about 0 • 13 mm. in diameter, were found to contain well-
developed sporiferous filaments of a Spermosira ; the spherical or
elliptical spores, -0056 mm. in diameter, were double that of the
filament. The parasite had apparently developed after the escape of
the young mollusc from the shell.

5. Anahcena and Chlorococcum, in the perforated Cells of Sphagnum,
— The green spherical cells of these two algfe were found in the
large colourless empty cells of Sphagnum latifolium from Cape Cod.
As the diameter of the smallest of them was double that of the per-
forations of the Sphagnum cells, they must have developed in that
situation.

6. Anahcena in the Leaf of Azolla canariensis. — The hollow of the
leaf of Azolla is, in at least one case out of three, filled with filaments
of an Anabtena, which can only have penetrated from without through
the open channel into the cavity.

7. Oscillatoria parasitic in the Oogonium of CEdogonium. — This
is one of the most singular cases of parasitism. The specimen,
apparently one of CEdogonium Bothii, had a well-developed, perfectly
closed oogonium of normal structure, into which had penetrated
a twice-coiled Oscillatoria-filament, probably a Hypheotbrix. As
the oogonium was perfectly closed, the parasite must apparently have

* Reinscl), in Pringsheim's ' Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot.,' xi. 18.
VOL. II. 2 G

450 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

been nonrished by its contents, wliich had completely disappeared,
witb the exception of a few mucilaginous particles.

8. An intracellular Floridea parasitic on the Thallus of a Por-
jjhjra. — On the margin of the thallus of Porphyra vulgaris (from
Marblehead, Massachusetts Bay) were seen minute reddish specks
formed by a peculiar parasite. Under a high power they were found
to consist of a single cell of singular form with a number of branches
radiating from its centre. The parasite had in these spots completely
consumed the tissue of the host. Most of the radiating branches of the
parasite were united in their growth with segmented bundles of cells
running through the thallus of the host, which are metamorphosed
cells of the Porphyra itself. The phenomenon presents the pecu-
liarity that the parasitic cell has taken up in its growth, not the
contents only but the cell-wall also of the infected cell. From this
the aiithor concludes, on physiological grounds, that the parasite
cannot be a fungus, but must be a Floridea nearly related to Porphyra
itself.

9. Fungus-mycelium parasitic ivithin the Hen's Egg* — A hen's egg
of ordinary size, and presenting nothing abnormal in the structure of
the shell, skin, albumen, or yolk, showed, when held up to the light,
small bright dots on the shell ; the albumen and yolk were quite free
from foreign bodies, and the shell was without any fnngus-filaments,
and showed no perforations under the Microscope. The parasite con-
sisted of four hemispherical bodies with a diameter of from 4 to 4*5
mm., three of them of a greyish-brown colour, the other clear and
nearly transparent. They were composed of a densely interwoven
tissue of much-branched nearly transparent filaments, indistinguish-
fible from the mycelium which is ordinarily formed after a time in au
albuminous solution. The contents of the cell were quite clear, with
a few large colourless granules. The author suggests that the spores
must have entered the egg during its formation within the body of
the bird.

10. Dactylococcus De Baryanus and floorer/.— These parasitic algfe
were first observed on small species of Copepoda (Cyclops and Lepi-
durus), where they occur in enormous quantities, appearing and again
disappearing with great rapidity, and giving them a distinct green
colour to the naked eye. The earliest condition of the parasite is that
of a tolerably large motile cell, with nmosba-like power of extension
and contraction, between 0-02 and 0*03 mm. in diameter. The con-
tents consist of green granules, among which is always one red one.
When stretched to its full length, one end of the cell is free from
granules, and at that end is a single rapidly vibratile cilium with club-
shaped apex. After a short time the cells lose their motility, and then
fix themselves to some part of one of the Entomostraca which are moving
about among them. The point of attachment of the parasitic cell
develops into a short clear pedicel, and the imion with the body of the
host becomes very close, and is effected with great rapidity. It does
not appear, however, to have any injurious effect upon the host. In
the female Cyclops hicaudatus the ovary in the last segment of the

* See also this Journal, ii. (1870) 315.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. -^51

abdomen is always free from the parasite. The further development
has been observed in both German and American examples, and con-
sists of a separation of the contents in the largest diameter of the cell,
and the formation of three or more daughter-cells ; but the origin of
the amoeba-like cells has not yet been observed.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Germination of the Schizaeaceae. — This interesting and singular
family of Ferns has been made a subject of careful invt stigation by
Bauke,* as far as concerns the structure of the prothallium and its
development from the spore ; his observations having been made
chiefly on Aneimia PhylUtidis, collina, and cheilantlwides, and Mohria
caffrorum. The following is a summary of his conclusions :—

1. In all the genera examined, Schiza3a, Lygodium, Aneimia, and
Mohria, the spores are of a tetrahedral form.

2. In Aneimia and Mohria, the exospore is invariably furnished
with characteristic ridges, which are either smooth or covered with
conical protuberances.

3. The germination of the spore of Aneimia and Mohria does not
differ essentially from that of the Polypodiaceae and Cyatheaccaj,
except that the filament which is the first result of germination
develops into the plate of cells which constitutes the protliallium, by
the formation of longitudinal walls by the other cells of the filament,
at the same time that this takes place in the apical cell, or even
earlier.

4. The apical cell of the filament divides longitudinally into two
more or less unequal segments. One of these becomes a plate of
cells increasing by marginal gi-owth. The other, usually the larger
one, is either distinctly marked as a wedge-shaped apical cell (Mohria),
in which septa arise inclined alternately to the right and left ; or
(Aneimia) several parallel septa are formed at right angles to the first
division-wall, commencing from below upwards. Even where there
was a distinct ajiical cell, it was not observed to become segmented
more than three times.

5. In the first segment-cell of the apical cell formed in the last-
named manner, there is usually produced, after a time, a marginal cell
of characteristic form, which grows in the direction parallel to the
margin of the prothallium, and becomes divided by transverse septa.
This is the origin of the " cushion " of the prothallium.

6. Independently of this lateral row of cells, which ultimately
becomes the cushion, the plate of cells increases by ordinary marginal
growth, advancing in a direction at right angles to the margin. This
proceeds actively, so that ultimately the lateral row of cells is
removed to a considerable distance from the base of the prothallium.

7. At the time of the formation of the cushion, the form of the
prothallium is, in Aneimia, more or less distinctly reniform, the
lateral row of cells lying always on the concave side ; in Mohria it is
at first broadly spathulate, ultimately roundish.

8. In Mohria, and sometimes in Aneimia, the cells of the lateral

* Piiiigshcim's ' Jalirb. f. wiss. Bot.,' xi. (187S) 603.

2 G 2

452 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

row also divide. The innermost of the cells thus formed, together
with the adjoining cells of the flat portion, then further divide by
walls j)arallel to the j^lane of the latter, and thus form the cushion.
The marginal cells of the original row become, in Aneimia, the
" apical edge " of the cushion, growing in a direction at right angles
to the margin, but maintaining their narrow form. In Mohria no
such apical edge is formed.

9. Both in Aneimia and Mohria the cushion is formed at the side
of the prothallium, rarely, in the former genus, at its apex.

10. A common characteristic of the pruthallium of both genera is
the occurrence of papillfe ; in Aneimia only on the margin, and curved
towards the ajncal edge of the cushion ; in Mohria caffrorum, on the
contrary, almost exclusively on the surface of the prothallium. The
first papilla is always formed in close proximity to the lateral row of
cells.

11. The rhizoids make their appearance on the oldest cells of the
germinal filament, and next most abundantly on the lower margin of
the prothallium, and especially on the same side as the row of cells
already mentioned. Subsequently, as in other cases, they spread over
the lower sm-face of the cushion.

12. The antheridia are distinguished, in both genera, by the
formation of a bell-shaiied membrane when the central cell is sepa-
rated from the wall. The " stigmatic " or covering cell appears to be
always thrown off in Mohria caffrorum, while in Aneimia it is ruptured
in the form of a star. The first antheridia are produced in both
genera, like the rhizoids, on the margin below the lateral row of
cells, spreading thence to the surface of the cushion.

13. The construction of the archegonia offers no striking pecu-
liarity. In Aneimia the neck was usually found straight ; in Mohria,
curved towards the base of the prothallium.

14. From the time when the cushion is formed, the divisions
parallel to the surface of the prothallium continue in a backward
direction ; while the part which takes no share in the formation of the
cushion continues its marginal growth, and in Aneimia becomes more
and more arched upwards.

15. In those prothallia of Aneimia where, from deficiency of
antherozoids or any other cause, fertilization is not effected, the
cushion always projects laterally in the form of an outgrowth of
usually nearly uniform breadth, and continues to grow at the apical
edge until either fertilization takes place or the prothallium perishes.

16. Under certain unfavourable conditions the production of arche-
gonia on the cushion ceases, the cushion continuing its growth ; and
its lower side then becomes covered instead with antheridia ; thus
showing that the continued growth of the cushion need not necessarily
result in the formation of archegonia.

17. While in the PolypodiaccfB and Cyatheacefe there are not
usually any adventitious shoots on the normally cordate prothallium,
such shoots are almost invariably formed, in both Aneimia and
Mohria, on the cushion of older prothallia, originating in cells belong-
ing to the flat portion.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 453

Fungi.

Relationship of Oidium albicans and Mycoderma vini. — The
relationship to one another of the various forms of the fungi known as
Schizomycetes which cause or accompany the phenomenon of fermen-
tation has been much debated. In an article in Virchow's 'Archiv' *
Grawitz concluded, from Cienkowski's descriptions and figures, the
identity of the " Soor-pilz," Oidium albicans, or Saccharomyces albicans,
with the " Kahmpilz," variously known as Mycoderma vini, Myco-
derma cerevisicB, Saccharomyces Mycoderma, Eormiscium vini, and
Hormiscium cerevisice. In the ' Sitzungsbericht der phys.-med. Soc.
zu Erlangen,' 1878, Eeess now contests this view, and maintains the
complete distinctness of the species. The two ferments can, he states,
be cultivated side by side under precisely similar conditions of nutri-
tion, supply of air, temperature, &c., without one of them passing over
into the other. The Mycoderma can be cultivated in cherry-juice or in a
strongly acid aqueous solution of ammonium acetate with a little yeast
and solution of cigar-ash ; even when agitated daily, the cells and
groups of cells never assume the forms which Oidium would take
under similar conditions. In the same manner cultures of Oidium in
solution, well supplied with nutriment and with air, can be kept for
as much as six weeks without any development of Mycoderma taking
place ; the surface of the fluid remains clear. The masses of Oidium
consist mostly of roundish cells formed iu much-branched groujjs,
mixed with which are less often to be found short filaments which bud
at the sej)ta. These are not to be confounded with the filaments of
Mycoderma produced in similar circumstances. Eeess gives a detailed
account of the series of experiments on which he relies for the
establishment of the position laid down above. f

Alcoholic Fermentation. — M. P. Miguel % has made some
experiments which confirm M. Pasteur's views on fermentation.
When the must of grapes, which has been sterilized, is exposed to
the air in September, in vineyards in the south of France, and
put iu vessels free from germs, it generally begins to ferment after a
few days. This is due, he considers, to gnats, who carry through the
air the yeast of the vine, attached to their proboscis and to different
parts of their bodies. If the must is preserved, boiled and clean,
from the insects, at the same time permitting the air to circulate
freely with its numerous microbia, the must most often becomes
mouldy and does not ferment.

This fact shows therefore that all the cases of spontaneous alco-
holic fermentation cannot be attributed to the organized " dust "
of the air ; on the other hand, experiments prove that air in motion
does carry the alcoholic yeast. It was found to abound in the
vineyards, whilst at Paris not a single case of spontaneous alcoholic
fermentation could be obtained. In Paris also it is not difficult to
obtain microbia exactly resembling the alcoholic yeasts. In some
attempts at sowing these organisms, introduced into the sterilized

* Ixx. (1877) Part 4. t 'Hedwigia,' xvii. (1878) .56.

X ' Comptes Rendus,' Ixxxvii. (1878) 759.

454 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

must with the spores of mould which accompanied them, fermentation
did not result, and we may therefore 8uj)pose either that they helong
to Cryptogams whose physiological functions differ from those of
the alcoholic yeasts, or that their germination may be hindered by
the rajiid development of the moulds. In the course of the experi-
ments several cases were observed of fermentation suspended by the
excessive growth of microphytes.

Experimental Researches on a Leptothrix found during life in
the blood of a woman suliering from a severe (and mortal) attack of
puerperal fever. — A note on this subject by M. V. Feltz, is to be found
in the ' Comptes Eendus.' * Two days before death a number of
transparent, immobile filaments, which were simple or jointed, straight
or curved, were found in the blood of the patient ; they were • 003 to
•006 mm. long, and '0005 to "0003 mm. broad; they differed from
the Leptothrix found in the mouth in the absence of the mobile spores
from which the latter are developed. While they are destroyed by
putrefaction, they increase in great quantities when introduced into
the blood of the living animal. The state thus induced is marked
by an incubation period of varying length, and a diseased stage, in
which there is a slight rise in temperature, and an affection of the
mucous membranes, and difficulty of respiration, terminating in
death by asphyxia. Post-mortem examination reveals the presence of
an enormous quantity of immobile rods, by which the small vessels
may be obliterated. Multiplication is most rapid in the rabbit.
Small, and even infinitesimal doses produce the same effects, but
successive inoculations do not, as in septicoemia, increa.se the viru-
lence of the attack. The poisonous matter does not dialyse, and
neither desiccation nor cooling has any effect on it. Solutions
containing the poisonous body may be rendered innocuous by filtra-
tion in vacuo through thick layers of charcoal. "When cultivated in
alkaline urine, the develoj^ment of the rods from ovoid spores may
be followed out ; the rods become granular and break up under the
action of alcohol or the prolonged action of carbonic acid, as well
as by heating to 130° or 140°.

The Lejitothrix of the gums does not produce any toxic effect on
the blood of the rabbit, and the form now under description appears
to be inoffensive to the dog.

Sexuality of the Ascomycetes. — The Italian cryptogamist Borzi,
in accordance with the views of De Bary, Woronin, Janczewski,
and others, but in opposition to those of Tulasne, maintains "j"
the existence of a sexual mode of reproduction in these fungi. He
confirms the view of previous observers that the sexual organs are
to be found on the scolecite, a mycelial branch so called in conse-
quence of its vermiform shape, at present known only in the Dis-
comycetes. Janczewski has already described this organ in five
species, Ascobolus pulcJierrimus, A. furfuraceus, A. carnens, A, saccha-
rinus, and A. pilosits ; to which Borzi now adds five more, viz. A. im-
mersus, A. cerucjineus, Saccobolus violascens, Ascophaniis gramdiformis,
* Ixxxviii. (18710 610. f ' Giorn. Bot. Ital.,' x. (1878) 43.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 455

and Byparohius, sp. n. Borzi describes the scolecite oiAscoholus pilosus
as composed of three parts. The first consists of the apical cell only,
which is hemispherical, and contains a transparent protoplasm. The
second part also consists of a single cell, termed the ascogenous cell
or ascogonium, which is of about double the diameter, and nearly
spherical; its protoplasmic contents are much more granular. The
third and lowest part of the scolecite is composed of a row of from
four to seven much smaller cells, gradually decreasing in size towards
the base ; they also contain a finely granular protoplasai. From the
hyphfe which surround the base of the scolecite springs a single
branch which runs obliquely up the scolecite, and, at about two-
thirds of its height, i. e. near the base of the ascogonium, branches. To
this body, which does not difter morphologically from the other cells
of the hymenium, but to which a fertilizing agency has been attri-
buted by De Bary, the term pollinodium has been applied. Borzi,
however, disputes this interpretation, and considers that the organ in
question has no function but one of protection to the scolecite. The
ascus ultimately develops from the ascogonium, the first indication
being presented by the appearance on its surface of a number of minute
pajjillse. These gradually elongate and divide transvei'sely into short
filaments; the terminal cells of some of these filaments acquire a club-
like form, and are the young asci. The ascogonium, and indeed the
whole scolecite, then disappears. That the ascus and ascospores are
the result of a process of fecundation, Borzi was unable actually to de-
termine, though he has little doubt that this is the case. His own
view is that the male organs of fecundation are the spermatic cells of
minute size produced on special hyphal branches in the neighbour-
hood of the scolecite, and this last organ he looks on as a carpogo-
nium, the terminal cell being a trichogyne, through which the fecun-
dating particles are conveyed to the ascogonium ; the lower multi-
cellular portion of the scolecite being simply a support for the
female sexual organ. The apotheciura of Ascobolus Borzi considers
to consist of three parts : — the cortical layer, which involves the whole
apothecium except the upper part ; the excipnlum, the cells of which,
uniform in size, compose a pseudo-parenchymatous tissue ; and the
hymenium, consisting of the asci, and of paraphyses, elongated
barren filaments, ramifying at the base. The asci spring from the
lower or sub-hymenial portion of the hymenium. They have at first the
form of club-shaped cells containing abundance of protoplasm ; the
ascospores are formed in them by free cell-formation. The ejection
of the spores is the result of the constantly increasing pressure of
the hymenium on the mature asci. In addition to the ascospores,
Ascobolus pulcherrimus produces another kind of germinating cell, the
chlamydospores, produced probably non-sexually, at the apex of .^hort
mycelial filaments. In several species of Peziza, Borzi claims to
have observed phenomena altogether similar to those of Ascobolus.

Polymorphism of Agaricus melleus. — In his researches on the
chestnut-tree disease,* J. E. Planchon was struck with the difficulty

* This Journal, ii, (1870) 107.

456 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

of determining the species of Agaricus, the mycelium of which is the
canse of the disease. In a note read before the French Academy,*
he now identifies it as Agaric7is melleus Vahl, of which he considers
A. griseoftiscus DC, and A. Mori Fr., to be mere varieties. The
mycelium of this fungus, known to older authors as Bhizomorpha
fragilis, attacks the roots of a variety of trees, as the mulberry, chest-
nut, horse-chestnut, lilac, apple, and vine. This mycelium occurs in
three different forms — (1) filamentous or byssoid, which has been
seen to proceed directly from the spore, and which attacks especially
the root of the vine ; (2) radiciform or rhizomorphic (Rhizomorpha
fragilis suhterranea of authors), smooth and brown, with tufts of red
filaments, comparable to the sclerotia of other fungi ; and (3) mem-
branaceous or hymenoid (Bhizomorpha fragilis coriicalis), which pene-
trates in the form of flat expansions, between the layers of the bark,
into the cambium zone, and even into the wood itself.

Conidia of Fistulina hepatica. — As long ago as 1864, Seynes
described certain spore-like bodies which he found on the upper
surface of the receptacle of this fungus ; and the observation was con-
firmed by Leveille, Thuret, and Bornet. G. Arcangeli has submitted
these bodies to a fresh examination,! and confirms in all important
points the observations of Seynes. The conidial region of the recep-
tacle is easily recognized by its more intensely red colour. The
conidia are oval or ellipsoidal, varying in length from 0*006 to
0-01 mm., and in breadth from 0-004 to -005 mm.; and they are
borne, in larger or smaller numbers, on delicate conidiophores,
the whole being of a tawny colour. Arcangeli has no doubt that
these conidia belong to the Fistulina itself, and not to another fungus
parasitic upon it. He considers that the presence of these organs
indicates a transition from the Polyporei to the Gasteromycetes which
are furnished with more than one kind of reproductive organs.

Algae.

Morphology and Biology of the Phycochromaceae. — Professor
Borzi,| of Vallombrosa, has worked out a classification of one of the
lowest and least studied groups of chlorophyll-containing Thallo-
phytes, the Pbycochromaccfe (known to some writers as Phyco-
chromophycefe), called by Cohn Schizophyta, to correspond with the
analogous Schizomycetes of the non-chlorophyll-containing Thallo-
phytes. This group he classifies as follows : —

Ord. I. Nematogen^ Eabh. Cells united into linear filaments.
Sub-ord. 1. Hormogeneae Thr. (Nostochinece pi. auct.). Multi-
plication by means of hormogonia (mobile fragments of
filaments).

Fam. 1. Nostochacece Eabh. Filaments of cells vermi-
form, simple, usually interrupted by heterocysts;
increase indeterminate ; spores.

* ' Comptes Rcndiis,' Ixxxviii. (1870) 65.

t ' Nuov. Giom. Bot. Ital.,' x. (187S) oUl>. J Ibid., 236.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA 457

Fam. 2. Scytonemacece Borz. (Sajtonemece Tlir,, Scytone-
macece and Sirosiphonacece Eabb.). Filaments filiform,
simi^le, or more often branched, interrupted by bctero-
cysts ; increase apical and indefinite ; spores.

Fam. 3. Rrvulariacece Eabb. (Calotrichece Tbr.). Fila-
ments filiform, simple or branclied, often with
heterocysts ; increase apical and limited ; spores.

Fam. 4. Oscillartacece Rabh. ex part. {Lynfjhyce Thr.).
Filaments filiform, simple, without heterocysts ; in-
crease indefinite ; no sjjores.

Sub-ord. 2. Cystogoneae Borz. Multiplication by means of
isolated, immobile, vegetative cells.

Fam. 5. ChamoesiphoiiacecB Borz. Filaments filiform,
simple ; increase apical, indefinite ; no heterocysts ;
spores (?).

Ord. II. GiiCEOGENiE Cohn. Cells distinct, cither isolated or
collected into larger or smaller families.

Fam. 6. Chroococcacece Eabh. ex part. Cells multiplying
by indefinite bipartition in three directions, at all
events at the moment when the colonies are first
formed ; spores.

The paper referred to contains an exhaustive account of the
biology and morphology of the first of these families, the Nostocliacew,
under which Borzi includes the following genera :—Nostoc Vauch.,
Anahcena Kiitz., Isocystis Borz., Sjohcerozyga Elfs., Cylindrospermum
Elfs., Nodularia Mart., and Aphanizomenon Morr.

In a subsequent paper in ' Flora,' * Sig. Borzi makes some further
remarks on his proposed new genus Isocystis, of which he gives the
following character : — Filaments solitary, a larger or smaller number
irregularly and more or less densely interwoven into an indefinitely
extended layer, never united in parallel growth, often very delicate and
perceptibly narrowed at the apices ; cells elliptical or spherical, some-
times oblong-quadrate from mutual compression, sometimes angular or
disk-shaped, closely connected or distinct ; spores, where known, glo-
bose, sub-globose, or oval, of a bluish-olive or dusky golden colour ;
exospore thin or moderately thick, very smooth or scabrous. The
typical species is very similar in external appearance to an Anabfena,
but is distinguished by the invariable absence of heterocysts, and by
the tendency of the filaments to unite into small bundles, like those of
Aphanizomenon. The genus includes four species, three of them
now described for the first time, the fourth previously regarded as an
Auabseiia (A. infusionmn). They represent the simplest and lowest
type of the Nostochaccfe, scarcely ever forming colonies of any
considerable size. The very delicate moniliform filaments are found
floating on the surface of the water, either solitary or in interwoven
masses ; the mucilage which envelops them is very small in quantity,
and disappears completely at a very early period. Borzi considers

* ' Flora,' xxxvi. (1878) 4G5.

458 NOTES AND MEMOBANDA.

the genus of cousidcrablo importance from a systematic point of view,
as exhibiting a clear affinity with the lower forms of the Schizomy-
cetes, especially the Bacteria.

Halosphaera, a new Genus of Unicellular Algae (Plate XVI.). —
Dr. F. Schmitz gives an extremely interesting description of a new
form of unicellular marine algje, under the name Halosphcera viridis*

It presents the appearance of minute green points just visible to
the naked eye, the largest being a little more than half a millimetre
in diameter, floating on the surface of the water in the Bay of Naples,
and long known under the designation "punti verdi." It is to be
found regularly in the spring from the middle of January to the
middle of April, when it disappears. The light green globule, which
has no independent power of motion, is enclosed in a tolerably thick,
smooth, and perfectly colourless membrane ; the inside of this mem-
brane is clothed with a thin layer of protoplasm, enclosing a single
very large central vacuole with colourless cell-saj). Imbedded in the
protoplasmic layer are a small number of minute chloroi)hyll-grains,
and a single globular nucleus with a somewhat darker nucleolus.

The process of cell-division which takes place during the develop-
ment of this alga is very interesting, and altogether in accordance, in all
essential points, with that described by Strasburger in his ' Zellbild-
unf und Zelltheilung' as occurring in the tissue of more highly
organized plants. As the cell increases in size, the nucleus divides
into two, which gradually separate from one another, and again undergo
division (Fig. 1) ; and, as this process is rej)eated many times, a very
large number of nuclei, from 200 to 300, come to be tolerably regularly
dispersed throughout the protoplasm of the mother-cell. The mother-
cell has now attained its full size, and the division of its contents into
daughter-cells commences, the protoplasmic layer gradually collecting
around the nuclei, so that each becomes the centre of a new jirimordial
cell (Fig. 2). This process takes place slowly, so that its various stages
can be closely followed. The space between the daughter- cells appears
to be occupied only by a colourless cell-fluid ; the cells having the
form of hemispherical balls in close contact with the inner mem-
brane. They are of a bright green colour, but no seixarate chlorophyll-
grains are to be detected in them. These become the mother-cells of
the zoospores. The outer membrane of the entire cell has in the
meantime become differentiated into two distinct layers, of which the
outer one now bursts by a nearly circular slit, and slips off the inner
membrane, which now itself clearly consists of two layers. This
layer next begins to swell up and deliquesce, and at length becomes
resolved into mucilage. As soon as this change commences, the hemi-
spherical green daughter-cells begin gradually to detach themselves
from the outer membrane, and to distribute themselves over the
interior of the cell (Figs. 3, 4, 6). Each of them usually divides into
two zoospores, though sometimes a larger number, and sometimes only
one, are developed from each daughter-cell (Figs. 7-15). In the
ordinary case the green primordial cell first of all contracts in the

* 'Mittiieil. Zool. Station Neapcl,' i. (1878) G7.

JCTJn.R.MlC.SOC.VOX.IIJ^l.XVI.

-'3-^

r^

'k>

#

^

^^t'-

«l

\/

\ >5

■^-^

'We^t,2lc.^iHa.rtS,Co . 7^,.

Halospliaera.a. new Genus of Uni c ellular AL

g^.

NOTES AND MEMOKANDA. 439

middle into an hour-glass shape, and then divides in the centre into
two bodies of conical shaj)e, each with a nearly flat but toothed base
and a pointed apex. To a colourless elevation in the centre of the
nearly flat base are attached two long vibratile cilia ; the zoospores
thus ditfering considerably in form from any known elsewhere.
Various stages of this process are to be observed at one time within
the external membrane of the same mother-cell, which is now gradually
dclitiucscing, so that the zoospores are set free into the surrounding
water, where they move about for a time with a comparatively slow
motion, and then fall to the bottom. Their further development
Dr. Schmitz has been unable to follow.

With regard to the systematic position oi Halosphcera, notwithstand-
ing its external resemblance to Volvox, its internal 'ructure forbids its
location among Volvocinese. It bears more resemblance to De Bary's
genus of ConjugatfB Eremospluera ; but until its life-history is more
completely known, its genetic affinities must remain in obscurity.

Plate XVI. Fig. 1. — Single cell of Halospluera viridis ; the nucleus
has formed a great number of nuclei by repeated bipartition.

Fig. 2. — The same. The parietal layer of protojilasm has col-
lected round the very numerous nuclei into flatly hemispherical

Fig. 3. — The same. The outer cell-wall layer has burst after the
daughter-cells have been completely formed ; the inner layer
has stretched considerably ; within it the daughter-cells have
become separated from the cell-wall.

Fig. 4. — Formation of the daughter-cells. The thin parietal layer
of protoplasm between the sei)arate hemispherical masses of
protoplasm is beginning to separate ; a number of cavities have
already made their appearance in it.

Fig. 5. — Abnormal formation of two daughter-cells, whose nuclei
have nearly coalesced.

Fig. 6. — Daughter-cells immediately after the division of the
mother-cell, still in close contact with the cell-wall.

Figs. 7-9. — Division of the daughter-cells in the formation of
zoospores.

Figs. 10, 11. — Zoospores. Fig. 10 in optical longitudinal section.

I'ig. 12. — Division of a daughter-cell into four zoospores.

Figs. 13-15. — Abnormal formations. Two (Fig. 15), five (Fig.
13), and twelve (Fig. 14) zoospores are formed by incomplete
division from a single daughter-cell ; they have become com-
pletely separated from one another.

(Figs. 1-3 X 100 ; Figs. 4-11 x 300 ; Figs. 12-15 x cir. 150.)

Black Mildew of Walls.— Professor Leidy, at a meeting of the
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science, referred to an article in
' Hardwicke's Science-Gossip ' for August by Professor Paley, entitled
" Is the Blackness on St. Paul's merely the effect of Smoke '? " Accord-
ing to the author, the blackness is mainly dae to the growth of a
hitherto undescribed lichen which appears to flourish on limestone, and
in situations uuaflectcd by the direct rays of the sun. Professor Leidy

460 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

said that liis attention had been called a number of years ago to a
similar black appearance on the brick walls and granite work of houses
in narrow shaded streets, especially in the vicinity of the Delaware
river. Noticing a similar blackness on the bricks above the windows
of a brewery, from which there was a constant escape of watery vapour,
in a more central portion of the city, he was led to expect that it
was of a vegetable nature. On examination, the black mildew proved
to be an alga closely allied to what he supposed to be the Protococcus
viridis, which gives the bright green colour to the trunks of trees,
fences, and walls, mostly on the more shady and northern side. It
probably may be the same plant in a different state, but, until proved
to be so, may be distinguished by the name of Protococcus luguhris. It
consists of minute round or oval cells, from 0-006 to 0*009 mm. in
diameter, isolated or in pairs, or in groujis of four, the result of
division ; or it occurs in short irregular chains of four or more cells
up to a dozen, occasionally with a lateral offset of two or more cells.
By transmitted light the cells appear of a brownish or olive-brownish
hue. In mass, to the naked eye, the alga appears as an intensely black
powder.*

MICEOSCOPY.

Employment of Wet Collodion for Microscopic Sections. —
M. Mathias Duval points out t the difficulty of finding any body which
would firmly hold delicate objects, in which there are a large amount of
hollows and cavities, such, for example, as embryonic tissues ; it is
obvious that the best substance would be one, which though solid is
not friable, and which at the same time is homogeneous ; these con-
ditions are not satisfied by the ordinary imbedding mixtures, such as
gelatine, wax and oil, or soapy boilies ; one that has been largely used is
gum solidified by the action of alcohol, and this has been recommended
by Dr. Klein ; in the directions appended to their ' Treatise on
Embryology' (of the Chick), Foster and Balfour expressly state
that they do not recommend it for the study with which they are
there particularly engaged, nor does the experience of other embryo-
logists seem to do otherwise than confirm their opinion. Nor, again,
do the methods ordinarily in use allow of the advantages which Avould
be gained by the use of a transparent imbedding substance.

Already used in its dry state for certain observations, collodion
has been found to have much to recommend it, but it is too hard for
delicate bodies; when, however, a small quantity is treated with
alcohol at 36°, it is foimd to retain its volume, while presenting a
large amount of consistency, elasticity, or tiansparency. Having
used the substance for six months, M. Duval now feels justified in
recommending it to the attention of students ; the embryos to be
examined are first hardened by osmic acid, alcohol, or some other
method, are stained with carmine, and then placed in alcohol ; they
are placed for a few minutes in ether, and are then removed to
the liquid collodion, in which they remain for a period varying from

* ' Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.' (1S7S) p. 331.
t ' Journ. Anat. et Phys.' (Robin), xv. (1879) 183.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 461

ten minutes to twenty-four hours. When withdrawn from this, they
have attached to them a piece of elder-pith, or are, if their size and
state permit of their heiug cut without any such aid, thrown at once
into alcohol ; the body now becomes surrounded with an elastic mass
of collodion, which solidifies without alteration of volume, and
encloses the pith if this has been already added. Thus treated, the
tissue is ready for immediate section, or may be kept in alcohol for
an indefinite period without danger.

As the sections are made in the ordinary way, that is, the body
itself and the razor being both wetted with alcohol, it is obvious that
the collodion will be prevented from becoming dry ; there is no need
to remove the imbedding substance, and the section may be imme-
diately placed on a slide ; a drop of glycerine and a cover-glass are
then all that is necessary for the observer to find himself delighted
with an object, the optical properties of whose imbedding substance
are exactly the same as those of glass. Another advantage remains
to be noted, the collodion has not in M. Duval's sections lost its trans-
parency after a period of six months.

A similar method may be used for foetal cerebral structures, and in
the study of the eye or of the cochlea and similar delicate parts.

Method of Preserving the more delicate and perishable Animal
Tissues. — In a valuable article * on the development of the earth-
worm, Lumbriciis trapezoides Dugos, M. Kleinenberg says that whilst
a great part of the earliest formations of the egg can be made out in
the living state, the protoplasm being sufficiently transparent to
allow the internal parts to be seen, yet afterwards the precise outlines
of the cells disappear, and nothing can be seen but the grosser
structure. To make out the more delicate structure it is necessary
to employ reagents.

Osmic acid applied in the state of vapour gives good results ;
but the preparations obtained by the use of a mixture of picric with
sulphuric acid are more satisfactory. It has, however, the same
drawback as osmic acid, of occasionally producing swellings in the
primitive blast(»mcres, which, if it only slightly alters the normal
conditions, renders the preparations less sightly. This difficulty is
overcome by the addition of a little kreosote.

M. Kleinenberg, however, after many experiments, recommends
strongly the following method of preservation, which he used for the
particular researches treated of, and for the majority of other animal
tissues, especially for the more delicate and perishable.

Prepare a saturated solution of picric acid in distilled water,
and to a hundred volumes of this add two volumes of concentrated
sulphuric acid ; all the picric acid which is precijDitated must be
removed by filtration. One volume of the liquid obtained in this
manner is to be diluted with three volumes of water, and, finally, as
much pure kreosote must be added as will mix.

The object to be preserved should remain in this liquid for three,
four, or more hours ; then transferred, in order to harden it and

* ' Quart. Jomn. Micr. Sci.,' xix. (1879) 206.

462 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

remove the acid, into 70 per cent, alcohol, where it is to remain five
or six hours. From this it is to be removed into 90 per cent,
alcohol, which is to be changed until the yellow tint has either
disappeared or greatly diminished. Alcohol of 90 per cent, is better
than absolute for preserving the more delicate structures for a long
time uninjured, and for keeping the preparation at the proper degree
of hardness.

For colouring, crystallized hsematoxylin is to be used, dissolved in
the following mixture : — Prepare a saturated solution of calcium
chloride in 70 per cent, alcohol, with tlie addition of a little alum ;
after having filtered, mix a volume of this with from six to eight
volumes of 70 per cent, alcohol. At the time of using the liquid
pour into it as many drops of a concentrated solution of hfema-
toxylin in absolute alcohol as are sufficient to give the required
colour to the preparation of greater or less intensity, according to

This mixture, notwithstanding its chemical irrationality, gives
good results. Aqueous solutions, especially when they contain traces
of ammonia, are to be avoided, since they are very hurtful to many
delicate tissues. The object must remain in the dye for a period
varying from a few minutes to six hours, according to its size and to
the nature of the tissues composing it. It is a good rule, when
intending to make sections, to stain deeply and to cut them very thin.

When removed from the dye the preparation is to be washed in
90 per cent, alcohol, in which it may remain from six to twelve hours.
Finally, to remove every trace of water, it should remain for half or a
whole day in absolute alcohol.

If the preparation is to be cut it must be removed from absolute
alcohol to essential oil of bergamot, in which it should remain for
some hours, in order to fit it for being imbedded in paraf&n, which is
removed from the sections when cut by means of a mixture of four
parts of essence of turpentine with one part of kreosote. Finally,
the sections are mounted in resin dissolved in essence of turpentine.

Histologists are warned not to use a solution of resin in alcohol.
The preparations mounted in this are at first beautiful but soon
become spoiled, in consequence of the precipitation of crystals or of
an amorphous substance. He lost in this manner many hundreds of
preparations, and the same results have occurred in the Zoological
Station at Naples.

Preparation and Preservation of the Lower Organisms. — M.
Eaphael Blanchard, of Paris, referring to the process employed by
Koch to preserve and photograph Bacteria,* saysf that more than
two years ago, he preserved Bacteria in lasting preparations by using
with excellent results osmic acid instead of the process of desiccation
employed by Koch, which he considers a very bad one.

In a few hours, or two days at the longest, the surface of water in
which an organized substance (vegetable or animal tissue, &c.), has
been macerated, becomes, as is well known, covered with a slight

* See this Journal, i. 195. f ' Rev. Intemat. Sci.,' iii. (1870) 24.5.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 468

pellicle composerl of a more or less compact mass of Bacteria, en-
veloped in a hyaline, transparent substance of slight consistence. This
membrane is so fragile that the slightest movement or breath which
ripples the surface of the water tears it. A tolerably large piece of
this membrane can be obtained by carefully introducing into the liquid
beneath it a glass slide, and raising it with caution.

If we then add, wdth a pipette, one or two drops of a concentrated
solution of osinic acid (or even a solution of 1 in 100) to the mem-
brane on the slide, it immediately acquires a much greater consistency
and can be covered without fear of tearing it. A drop of a solution
of violet of methylaniline should be placed at the side of the cover-
glass, drawing away the osmic acid by a cigarette paper on the
opposite side. In about half an hour the Bacteria assume a fine violet
tint, the fundamental siibstance remaining colourless ; if the impreg-
nation lasts longer the Bacteria assume a deeper hue, and the funda-
mental substance becomes tinted. We can then replace the violet of
methylaniline by glycerine, which does not render the preparation
colourless, as Koch says, if we add a small quantity of the violet. A
concentrated solution of sulphate of calcium can also be used with
advantage to preserve the preparations. M. Blanchard's collection
contains preparations made thus in 1876, which are as bright in colour
as at first.

The violet is not the only aniline colour which can be used, but
it seems to be more durable than others.

A solution of hfematoxylin can also be used with advantage.
When a "proliferous membrane' (F. A. Pouchet) has been treated
with osmic acid, it is left for twenty-four hours under a damp bell-
glass, in a watch-glass containing a few drops of hjematoxylin. There
is then formed an iridescence which spoils the clearness of the prepa-
ration, but which can be easily removed by repeated washings. The
membrane is then mounted in glycerine (with or without the addition
of hfematoxylin), or in a solution of chloride of calcium, and preserves
indefinitely a fine violet tint.

If the Bacteria are free in the liquid, the process of mounting
them would be exactly the same.

To prepare Infusoria, or any of the lower organisms, osmic acid
should be used, but in a strong or even concentrated solution which
instantly kills the animalculfe. A group of Vorticella thus fixed will
retain their natural form, some of them being completely extended and
others more or less retracted. Amoebfe, Ehizojioda, &c., have no time
to retract their protoplasmic filaments, and die spread out on the glass
in their living aspect.

Ciliated Infusoria do not lose their cilia, and except a slight
blackish hue they are in no way modified by the reagent. Some
Opalinfe found more than a year ago in the intestine of a Triton have
preserved to this day the delicate cilia with which their body is
covered.

The contact of the osmic acid must not be prolonged, or the objects
will blacken with age. After the animalculfe are covered with the thin
glass, a few drops of picro-carmine or htematoxylin can be added.

464 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

The picro-carmine does not sensibly colour Bacteria, but it
colours very clearly the nuclear formations contained in the bodies of
the Infusoria. After the colouring glycerine can be added, and the
preparation is complete.

In the study of the lower vegetable forms with naked protoplasm,
Myxomycetes, for instance, osmic acid and picro-carmine and hema-
toxylin can be equally well used. By the action of osmic acid the
currents in the protoj)lasm of the Myxomycetes are instantly sus-
pended, and in a few instants the protoplasm is sufficiently hardened
to make sections possible.

There are certain exceptional cases in which osmic acid has no
direct action. A Nematode, for instance, Anguillula aceti, can live a
long time in a liquid containing osmic acid. In the case of a female
the eggs develop and hatch, and the embryos grow at the expense of
the mother, until nothing remains of her body but the outer cuticle,
which resists all attacks of the acid. When the young Anguillulte
have piei'ced the cuticle and are free, they swim apparently unharmed
by the acid, though they generally die in a few days.

A similar example is furnished by the larvae of the Diptera,
CMronomns plumosus Linn., which lives in water strongly mixed with
osmic acid, owing to its cuticle resisting the acid.

Another Method of Preserving Bacteria, &c. — " T. C," in
' Science-Gossip,'* says that he has experimented upon a method for
obtaining permanent preparations of Bacteria, Vibriones, &c., and after
some years of patient research has found the following excellent
method : — The requisites are a bottle of thin Canada balsam diluted
with chloroform, a hot-water plate, and the fixing solution, which
consists of 25 cc. of chromic oxidichloride acid to which is added
50 cc. of water with 50 cc. permanganate of potash. A ring of white wax,
much larger than the cover-glass, is drawn on the slide, within which
the organisms are placed with some water. When they have attached
themselves to the slide, some of the solution is added, which will
instantly fix the specimen. After three minutes the w^ater may be
poured out, and a few drops of chloroform added and poured ofl', the
cover-glass placed carefully on, and a few drops of dilute Canada
balsam added, so as to flow i;nder the cover, and the preparations
placed on the hot-water plate to dry. Thus prepared they retain all
the features of the living animal.

Mounting Noctiluca miliaris. — Some Noctilucce having been col-
lected last summer in Beaumaris Bay, Mr. J. E. Lord says | that he
and Dr. Worrall tried mounting them in shallow cells, with various
preservative media to compare the results. Balsam, glycerine, fresh
and sea-water, glycerine jelly. Dean's medium, and several others
were tried. One or two of the slides rapidly deteriorated, others held
out for a longer period, but the specimens mounted in sea-water
retained all their features to this date (not siiecified). As the animals
retain their shape, it would appear that there has been no endosmose
or exosmose action going on.

* ' Sci.-Gossip,' 1879, No. 173, p. 111. t Ibid, p. 113.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 465

Searching for TrichinaB. — Mr. George W. Morehouse, of Way-
land, N.y., says * that it is undeniahle that microscopists waste a
good deal of valuable time by the use of higher powers than are
necessary, and by imperfect preparation of objects for examination.
In nothing is this more forcibly illustrated than in the examination
of pork for trichinae. For this purpose it is customary to use powers
of 75 diameters and upwards (seldom as low as 50), and the meat is
not always made sufficiently transparent for ready detection of the
parasites. A power of 25 diameters, obtained with a good 2-inch
objective, and 2-inch ocular, is amply sufficient. With the 2 inch
we have greater depth of focus, the object is still shown with great
clearness, and, most important of all, we are able to do as much
searching in one hour as it would take about nine hours to accom-
plish with a g-inch objective.

As to preparing pork for present, rapid, and accurate observation, he
has found the following method to work well : — Cut thin longitudinal
sections from the extremities of muscles, and from other favourite
localities where the worms, in migrating, stop in greatest abund-
ance, and place the sections in a ^vatch-glass, covering them with
acetic acid. In a few minutes the tissues will be transparent enough
to enable one to see the letters through the specimens when the
watch-glass is placed on a printed page. Drain off the acid, add
water and examine, or wash and transfer to a glass slip (large, with
large cover, for a number of sections at once), either in water
or glycerine, and cover. For permanent preservation, while the
sections are still in glycerine, press them for several days between
plates of glass, and mount at leisure in pure glycerine. When thus
prepared, the parasites remain coloured more highly than the sur-
rounding muscular fibres, and readily attract the eye. They are so
plain, that none, when brought into the field of view, can escape
instant detection. The process is simple, takes but little time, and
is inexpensive.

Method of Studying the Structure of Vegetable Matter.—
M. Merget, of Bordeaux, finding that mercurial vapour easily per-
meates disks of wood, recommends it as a means for studying the
structure of vegetable matter. If wood, after exposure to the vapours
of mercury, is brought in contact with a sensitive paper (obtained by
saturating paper with an ammoniacal solution of nitrate of silver) a
distinct design of the fibro-vascular bundles and of the medullary rays
will be obtained. We may thus design the stomata of a leaf, and show
that in the case of those possessing stomata on both surfaces the air
circulates from one epidermis to the other.f

Thin Stages. — It is, we think, a matter for surprise that with all
the attempts that have been made to produce stages of excessive thin-
ness, to allow of the use of light of extreme obliquity, opticians have
never provided their Microscoijes with any contrivance for allowing
the slide to be attached to the under side of the stage. Such a con-
trivance would cost a very trifling sum, and by its adoption the

* 'Am. Journ. Micr.,' iv. (1879) .30. f 'M. Journ. Sci.,' i. (1879) 389.

TOL. II. 2 H

466

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

utmost possible limits of obliquity would be attaiuecL This is the
more important at the present time, when the apertures of object-
glasses arc being so largely increased.

Contrivance for holding Objects beneath the Stage.— Since the
preceding note was in type the ' Monthly Journal of Science ' has
published * a note on a simple contrivance for holding the object
beneath the stage of the Microscope when extreme obliquity of illumi-
nation is required. It is the device of Mr. John Phin, of New York,

and has the advantage of being easily adapted to any Microscope.
The little "sub-stage" (shown in the annexed woodcut) with clips
attached slides into the aperture in the stage, and the mode of use is
obvious. Mr. Phin states that the plan of holding the object beneath
the stage is not new, having been invented by Mr. C. S. Spencer about
twenty years ago.

New Microtome. — Several years ago, wishing to make some thin
sections of animal tissue, and not having the educated hand, Dr. S.
W. Fletcher, of Pepperell, Mass.,1 set about devising an instrument
for doing such work. The conditions to be fulfilled appeared to him
to be : to attach the cutting blade to a carrier so arranged as to draw
rejteatedly the edge of the blade over the specimen with any desired
inclination and in exactly the same course ; to prevent every part of
the blade, except the edge actually cutting, from touching the prepa-
ration ; to immerse the object in alcohol or other preservative fluid
whilst being cut ; and to approach the specimen to the blade to any
desired extent, the whole instrument being made heavy and firm
enough to prevent any considerable trembling under ordinary use.
These conditions he has endeavoured to fulfil in the following
manner : —

X X, Fig. 1, is a wooden frame 16 inches in length, 8 inches in
width, and 5^ in height ; to the top of this is clamped the wooden
bar K R by means of the bolts 6 and 7, which pass through the slots
cut in the arms which project from each end of it. B is a piece of thick
plate-glass cemented to the side of the bar R R, and C and D are similar
pieces of glass cemented to the top of the frame X X. In the centre of

* ' M. Journ. Sci.,' i. (1879) 392.
t ' English Mechanic,' xxix. (1879) 108 (from
Journal ').

Boston Medical and Surgical

NOTES AND BIEMORANDA.

467

the frame is the brass pan E. Near the centre of this pan is a well,
1 inch in diameter and 2 inches deep. At one side of the well is a
clamp, 4, which by the screw 1 is pressed tightly against the speci-
men to be cut. Over this pan is the iron tripod T T (see Fig. 2), beneath
which is suspended a brass plate A by means of the bolts 8 and 9.

Fig. 1.

This plate is made to incline more or less towards the glass plate C,
and is fastened firmly in position by the set screws 11 and 12. By
these any desired inclination can be given to the cutting blade, which
is clamped to the under surface of the plate A. He commonly used
a wide Le Coulter razor blade for cutting. The legs of the tripod have
ivory pins driven firmly into holes drilled deep in their ends ; these

Fig 2.

pins project one-fourth of an inch, and their points, 3, 4, 5, rest on the
glass plates C and D. From the sides of two of the legs ivory pins
l^roject in the same way, and their points, 1 and 2, rest against the
glass B. The oj^posite sides of the well are grooved on their outer
surfaces, and in these grooves rest brass guide-pieces, which are
firmly bolted to the frame X X, and connected with these guide-
pieces is a screw, the point of which presses against the lower part

2 11 2

468

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

of tlie bottom of the well. The threads of this screw are forty-eight
to the inch, and the circumference of its head is divided into fifty equal
parts.

Fig. 2 represents the tripod seen from below, showing the ivory
points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, the brass plate A, and the blade K fastened by
the clamps m and n.

Fig. 3 shows the shape of the heads of the bolts 8 and 9, Fig. 1,
and the manner in which they are let into the plate A.
Fig. 4.

_J5j

Fig. 4 represents a section through the pan, showing the arrange-
ment of the well W, clamp L, and screw for raising the pan. H is
a rubber tube, leading from the bottom of the well, for drawing off
the alcohol in the pan after using the instrument.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 represents the frame X X seen from below, showing the
pan, well W, screw F, rubber tube H, and brass guide-pieces, and the
manner in which they are attached to the frame.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

469

The ivory points being well oiled, fill the pan with alcohol, so as
to cover the top of the specimen 0 ; place the tripod over the pan,
and as far to the left as possible ; turn up the screw F until the top
of the object to be cut reaches the blade ; push the tripod forward
from left to right, and the blade will shave the top of the preparation ;
draw the tripod from the glass B for half an inch, or raise the leg of
the tripod resting on D half an inch ; it can then be pushed to the
end of the glass plates fi'om which it started without the knife touch-
ing at any point. Now let the tripod approach the glass B until the
points 1 and 2 touch the glass ; turn the screw F so as to elevate the
pan more or less, according to the desired thickness of the section ;
again repeat the moving of the tripod as already described, and a
section is obtained of uniform thickness and any desired thinness the
blade is capable of cutting. With a well hardened specimen and a
very thin, sharp blade, sections three-fourths of an inch wide, 1 inch
long, and l-2100th part of an inch thick can readily be made. Very
delicate objects need to be imbedded in wax or paraffin ; ordinary
ones are held by the clamp L without any such preparation.

The whole instrument weighs about 16 lbs., and costs about
twenty-five dollars, not including the blades. The cost of four or
five blades is not far from five dollars, or one dollar each.

Electrical Mounting Table.— Mr. F. M. Eogers, of Moorgate
Station Buildings, E.G., communicates the following : — Microscopists
who mount their own objects must have felt the want of a mounting
table that would automatically run at any desired rate of speed,
while allowing the mounter free use of both his hando. The instru-
ment represented in the woodcuts, which has been devised by him,
supplies these requirements, the motive power being electricity,
derived preferably from a small and very inexpensive bichromate
battery.

Fig. 6.

Upon joining up the two connecting wires from the battery to the
terminals marked A, Figs. 6 and 7, a current flows through the
insulated wire A- surrounding the bar of soft iron B, which is
pivoted to the spindle D, and carries the table E. The bar is thus
rendered powerfully magnetic, and instantly turns towards the top of
the nearest inclined armature, of which there are six, C^ (Fig. 8), cast

470

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

in the case C. By means of a circular contact-breaker F, Fig. 7,
fixed to the spindle D, but insulated from it, the current is only
allowed to excite the magnet when its poles are at the foot of any of

Fia.

the inclined armatures ; as it tui us towards the top, or point nearest
its poles, the current ceases, and with it any retarding action upon
the magnet. Acquired momentum carries it to the foot of the next

incline, and the process is repeated, a steady rotary motion resulting,
which can be regulated by exposing more or less of the zinc in the
battery to chemical action.

English Microscope for Students of Mineralogy and Petrology.
— Mr. Frank Eutley describes * a new Microscope, specially suited
for mincralogical and petrological research, constructed for him by
Mr. T. W. Watson, of Pall Mall.

An examination of one of the Microscopes devised by Professor
Eosenbusch and manufactured by Fuess, of Berlin, showed that,
although that instrument possessed many features of great merit, it

* 'Nature,' xx. (1879) 13.

NOTES AND MEMOEANDA.

471

also had certain defects which could be best overcome by adopting and
modifying a good English model.

The great defects in most of the Microscopes built on the conti-
nental patterns consist in their fixed vertical position, the smalhiess of
tlieir stages, and, very commonly, in the absence of any means of
coarse adjustment, except by a sliding movement of the body or tube,
which, if working stifliy, is very inconvenient, while, if sliding easily,
it is apt to be shifted by a very slight toucli.

The instrument now manufactured by Mr. Watsan is in most
respects quite equal in performance to Rosenbusch's, so far as the
mechanical a^ipliaucos and adjustments are concerned, and is, in point
of convenience, decidedly superior to the latter instrument.

The general form of the instrument is sufficiently shown in the
accompanying woodcut. In the stand first made the milled head of

472 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

the fine adjustment was divided for the measurement of the thickuess
of sections, but in future it is proposed to effect this object in a
different manner by divisions engi'aved ujion the limb and the sliding
portion of the coarse adjustment (a vernier). The right trunnion
carries a clamp to fix the instrument at any angle. The head of the
tube or body carries a bevelled disk which is divided to 10^ spaces.
A corresponding disk with an index is attached to the bottom of the
analyzer-fitting, and rests directly upon the fixed divided disk ; so that
the analyzer can be set in any required position, and any amount of
revolution imparted to it can also be registered. The eye-piece, when
inserted, is kept in a fixed jjosition by a stud, which falls into a small
Blot. Crossed cobwebs are fixed within the eye-piece for the purpose
of centering the instrument. A small plate of calc-spar, cut at right
angles to the optical axis, is mounted in a little metal ring, which can
be placed between the eye-glass and the analyzer for stauroscopio
examinations.

At the lower end of the Microscope-tube a slot is cut to receive a
Klein's quartz plate or a quarter-undulation plate, both of which are
set in small brass mounts. When these are not in use the aperture
can be closed by means of a revolving collar.

The stage is circular, and capable of concentric rotation, and it is
divided on the margin to 360'^. A vernier is attached to the front of
the stage, giving readings to one minute. The edge of the stage is
milled, and rotation is imparted by hand.

The polarizer slides into a fitting which is fixed to an arm jii voted
on the lower, movable surface of the stage, so that it can readily be
displaced when ordinary ti*ansmitted illumination is required, and
replaced with equal facility.

Two little lenses, affording a strongly-convergent pencil of light,
are set in metal rings which drop into the top of the fitting which
surrounds the polarizing prism. When these are employed and the
analyzer is used, without lenses in the eye-piece (a separate fitting is
supplied for this purpose), examinations of the rings and brushes
presented by sections of certain crystals, can be advantageously carried
on, and a quarter-undulation plate can also be employed when needful.
The lower end of the fitting which carries the polarizer is surrounded
by a divided disk, turning beneath a fixed index, so that any jiosition
of the prism can be recorded, and the rotation imparted to it can be
measured.

From the foregoing description it Nvill be seen that this instrument
is capable of performing the fimctions of an ordinary Microscope,
a polariscope, a stauroscope, and, to some extent, a goniometer. A
spectroscope could be fitted to it if needful, as well as an apparatus
for heating sections of crystals.

Female Microscopical Society. — We gather from a report of a
*' regular meeting " of the Microscopical Society of Wellesley
College, U.S., on March 15, reported in the 'American Journal of
Microscopy,'* that it consists exclusively of lady members. The

* ' Am. Journ. Micr.,' iv. (1879) 71.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 473

President, Miss Cook, was in the chair. Miss Dickinson read a paper
upon animal and vegetable hairs, which was illustrated by slides of
horizontal sections of the scalp prepared by Miss Nunn, Professor of
Biology ; Miss JBeattie presented a i^aper on Bacteria ; Miss Whipple
gave a demonstration of the method of cutting and double staining
vegetable sections, beginning by describing the proper method of
honing a razor ; slides mounted by Misses Cummings and Whipple
were exhibited ; Miss Whiting called attention to the receipt of fifty
of Smith's slides of Diatomacefc ; and, finally, the report is attested
by " Marion Metcalf, Corresponding Secretary."

Oblique lUumination. — Mr. C. Hue says that he has obtained
highly successful results where extreme obliquity of illumination is
required, by the use of the parabolic illuminator, in conjunction with
a small super-stage, similar to that of Dr. Matthews.

Limits of Accuracy in Measurements with the Microscope.—

Professor Eogers calls attention to the note on p. 345 of vol. i., and
says that the error referred to consists in the report from which wo
quoted having given 32 millionths instead of 32 ten-milliouths.

Royal Society Conversazione. — On April 30th, at the above Con-
versazione, the following were the exhibits relating to microscopy : —

Messrs. Powell and Lealand : — Their new ^ oil-immersion lens,
with P. angulatum.

Mr. F. Ward : — New micro-spectroscope, in which a rectangular
quartz prism is substituted for the usual metallic slit, (This Journal,
vol. i. p. 326.)

Mr. J. Mayall, jun. : — Zeiss's new y^^ oil-immersion lens, with
Amj)hipleura pellucida (in balsam) ; and the improved immersion
illuminator designed by the exhibitor with special reference to the
Eoss-Zentmayer stand.

Mr. Crisp : — Powell and Lealand's new ^ oil-immersion lens, with
Frustulia Saxonica (dry), and a similar illuminator.

( 474 )

BIBLIOGEAPHY

of Invertehrata, Onjptogamia, Embryology, Histology,
Microscopy, dte.

JOURNALS, TRANSACTIONS, &c., received since the last number,

THE CONTENTS OF WHICH, AND OF NeW BoOKS, ARE INCLUDED IN THE FOLLOWING
LSlBLIOGRAI'HY.

England.

Anuals and Magazine of Natural History, Fifth Series, Vol. III., No. 17
(May).

Hardwicke's Science-Gossip, No. 173 (May).

Journal of Anatomy and Physiology (Humphry), Vol. XIII., Part 3 (April).

Journal of Botany, N. B., Vol. VIII., No. 197 (May).

Journal of Physiology (Fdster), Vol. II., No. 1.

Midland Naturalist, Vol. II., No. 17 (May).

Monthly Journal of Science, Third Series, Vol. I., No. 65 (May).

Naturalist, N. S.. Vol. IV., Nos. 42 to 46 (January to May).

Nature, Vol. XIX., No. 495 (24th April), Vol. XX., Nos. 496 to 498 (May
1st, 8th, and 15th).

Zoologist, Third Series, Vol. III., No. 29 (May).

Linnean Society— Journal (Zoology), Vol. XIV., No. 78.

Royal Society— Proceedings, Vol. XXVIII., No. 193.

United States.

American Journal of Microscopy and Popular Science, Vol. IV , Nos.
3 and 4 (March and April).

American Journal of Science and Arts, Third Scries, Vol. XVII., No. 101
(May).

American Naturalist, Vol. XIII. , No. 5 (Blay).

American Quarterly Microscopical Journal, Vol. I., No. 3 (April).

Boston — Society of Natural History — Proceedings, Vol. XX., Part 1.

Cambridge — Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College —
BuUetin, Vol. V., No. 10.

Cincinnati — Society of Natural History — Journal, Vol. I., No. 4 (January).

Philadelphia — Academy of Natural Sciences — Proceedings, 1878, Parts
1 to 3.

Germany.

Archiv fiir Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte (His.), 1879, Part 1-2.

Archiv fiir die Gesammte Physiologic des Menschen und der Thiere
(Pfliiger), Vol. XIX., Parts, 1, 2-3, 4-5*, 6-7*, S-9*.

Archiv fiir Mikroskopische Anatomie, Vol. XVI., Part 3.

Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, Vol. XLV., Part 2.

Archiv fiir Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologic und fiir Klinische
Medicin (Virchow), Vol. LXXVI., Parts 1 and 2*.

* These do not contain any paper relating to the suhjects which tlie
Bibliography includes.

BIBLIOaRAPHY. 475

Botanische Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiet der Morphologie und
Physiologie (Hanstein), Vol. IV., Part 1.

Botanische Zeitung, Vol. XXXVII., Nos. 13*, 14 to IG (M;nch 2Sth,
April 4th, 11th, and 18th).

Flora, Vol. LXII., Nos. 12*, 13, and 14 (April 21st, May Ist and 11th).

Hedwigia, Vol. XVIII., Nos. 3* and 4 (March and April).

Morphologisches Jalirbuch, Vol. V., Part 1.

Natiirforscher, Vol. XII., No.s. 1 to 10*, No. 11, Nos. 12 to 13* 14, 15 to
20* (January 4th to March Sth, 15th, 22nd to 29th, April 5th, r2th to May 17th).

Zeitschrift fur die Gesammten Naturwissenschaften, Vol. LII., January-
February, Marcli -April .

Zeitschrift fiir Mikroskopie, Vol. II., Part 2.

Zoologischer Anzeiger, Vol. II., Nos. 18 to 27 (January 13th to May 5th).

Berlin — K. Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften — Monatsbericht,
January * and February.

Wiirzburg— Botanisches Institut— Arbeiten, Vol. II., Part 2.

Physikalisch-Medicinische G-esellschaft — Verhandlungen
N. S., Vol. XIII., Parts 1-2 and 3-4*.

,, Zoologisch - Zootomisches Institut — Arbeiten, Vol. II

Part 4.

Austria-Hungary.

Oesterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift. Vol. XXIX., Nos. 1, 2*, 3 to 5
(January to May).

Vienna — Embryologisches Institut der K. K. Universitat— Mittheil-
ungen, Part 3.

Vienna and Trieste — Zoologisches Institut der Universitat Wien \ nd
Zoologische Station in Triest — Arbeiten, Vol. II., Part 1.

Switzerland.

Lausanne— Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles — Bulletin,
Second Series, Vol. XVI., No. 81.

France.

Annales des Sciences Naturelles (Zoologie), Sixth Stries, Vol. VIII.,
No. 2-3.

Archives de Zoologie Experimentale et Gen§rale (Lacaze-Duthiers),
Vol. VII., No. 3.

Brebissonia, Vol. I., No. 9 (March).

Journal de Micrographie, Vol. III., No. 4 (April).

Eevue Bryologique, Vol. VI., No. 3.

Revue Internationale des Sciences, Vol. III., Nos. 1 to 4 (January to Apiil).

Paris — Academie des Sciences — Comptes Rendus, Vol. LXXXVIII.,
Nos. 13 to IG (March 31st, April 7th, 14th, and 21st).

,, Laboratoire d'Histologie du College de France — Travaux de
I'Annee 1877-78.

„ Societe Botanique de France — BuUettn, Vol. XXV., Part 2.

Italy.

Milan — Societa Crittogaraologica Italiana— Atti, Vol. I.

Twcm — R. Accademia deUe Scienze — Memorie, Series II., Vol. XXX.

* These do not contain any paper relating to the subjects whic^h the
Bibliography includes.

476 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

ZOOLOGY.
A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology
of the Vertebrata.
Agassiz, J. L. K., Biographical Notice of. (Portrait.)

Nature, XIX., No. 495.
Baky, Prof. A. De. — The Phenomenon of Symbiosis. 8vo. Strassburg, 1879.
Bary^ Prof. A. De. — On Symbiosis. (Translated from ' Naturforscher.')

Bev. Interned. Set., III., No. 4.

Engelmann, Th. W. — On the Excitation of Contractile Protoplasm by Sudden

Illumination. Arch. Phys. {Pfluqer), XIX., Part 1.

Ilacckcl, Prof. ^.— Tiie Soul of Cells and the Cells of the Soul. (Translated

from his ' Freie Wissenschaft und freie Lehre.') Rev. Internat. ScL, III., No. 1.

HoBVATT, Dr. A. — Contribution to the Theory of Winter-Sleep (continued).

Verh. Phys.-Meel. Gesell. Wiirzhurg, XIII., Part 1-2.
Paekek, a, T. — Experiments on Spontaneous Generation. (1 plate.)

Proc. Boston Soc. Neit. Hist., XX., Part 1 ,

Eauber, Dr. A. — Do Compound Organisms exist among the Vertehrata'i

(2 plates.) Morphol. Jahrh., V., Part 1.

SiMROTii, Dr. H. — On some Double Formations in Animal Organs usually

Single. Zeitsch. Ges. Naturwiss., LII., March-April,

Valentin, G. — A Contribution to the Knowledge of the Refractive Relations

of Animal Tissue. Arch. Phys. {Pflwjer), XIX., Part 2-3.

Balbiani, Prof. — Fecundation of the Vertebrata, III.

Journ. de Micr., III., No. 4,
Blanchaed, R. — Communications on the Structure and Development of the
80-called Finger-formed Gland iu the Cartilaginous Fishes. (2 plates.)

Mittheil. Emhryol. Inst. Wien, Part 3.
Dastee, M. — On the Amylaceous and Amyloid Granules of the Egg.

Comptes Pendns, LXXXVIII., No. 14.

FiCK, A. E. — On the Development of the Ribs and Transverse Processes.

(2 figs.) Arch. Anat. Sf Entw. {His.), 1879, Part 1-2.

FouLis, J., M.D. — The Development of the Ova and the Structure of the

Ovary in Man and other Blammalia, with special reference to tlie Origin and

Development of the Follicular Epithelial Cells. (3 plates.)

Journ. Anat. ^ Phys. {[lumphry), XIII., Part 3.
Gassee, E. — The Primitive Streak iu the Embryos of Birds (Hen and Goose).
(10 plates.) 4to. Cassel, 1879.

KoLLiKEE, A. — Embryology of Man and the Higher Animals. Part 2.
2nd ed. (606 figs.) 8vo. I^eipzig, 1879.

LiEBERKCHN, N. — Contribution to the Anatomy of the Embryonic Eye.

(2 plates.) Arch. Anat. 4' Entw. (His.), 1879, Part 1-2.

Lowe, Dr. L. — On the Development of the IMammalian Kidney. (1 plate

and 2 figs.) Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., XVI., Part 3.

Marshall, A. Milnes, M.A., D.Sc.— Note on the Development of the

Olfactory Nerve and Olfactory Organ of Vertebrates.

Proc. Roy. Soc, XXVIII., No. 193.

Paekee, Prof. W. K., F.R.S.— On the Development of the Skull and its

Nerves in the Green Turtle {Chelone Midas), with remarks on the Segmentation

seen in the Skull of various types. Proc. Roy. Soc, XXVIII., No. 193.

„ „ On the Evolution of the Vertebrata, I., II.

(Abstract of Hunterian Lectures delivered at the College of Surgeons. ) (3 figs.)

Nature, XX., Nos, 497 & 498.
EuGE, G. — On the Development of the Sternum. Preliminary Communica-
tion. Morphol. Jahrh., V., Part 1.
ScHENK, Prof., and Dr. W. R. Birdsall.— On the Theory of the Development
of the Ganglia of the Sympathetic. (3 plates.)

Mittheil. Emhryol. Inst. Wien, Part III.

Schuster, Dr. H.— On the Development of the Hip and Knee Joints. (2

plates.) Mittheil. Emhryol, Inst. Wien, Part, III.

BIBLIOGEAPHY. 477

Stohr, Dr. Ph.— On the Development of the Skull of the Urodela.

Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 24.

Sfrasbiirger, E. — General Observations on Fecundation. (Translated from
' Ueber Befruchtung und Zelltheilung.') Bev. Internat. ScL, If., No. 2.

Urfantschitsch, Dr. V.— Observations on the Formation of the Articulation
of the Malleus and Incus. (1 plate.) Mittheil. Embryol. Inst. Wicn, Part III.

Belfield, W. T., M.D.— Has the Mammalian Blood-corpuscle a Nucleus?

Am. Journ. Micr.^ IV., No. 3.
BiGELOW, Dr. "W. S.— Note on the Process of Division in Cartilage Cells, and
on the Structure of Hyaline Cartilage. (1 plate.)

Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., XVI., Part 3.

Chambard, E.— Contribution to the Study of the Histological Lesions of the

Liver consequent on the Ligature of the Choledocus Duct. — Alterations in the

Hepatic Cells. (2 plates.) Trav. Lab. Histol. Coll. France, 1877-78.

Gage, S. H., B.S.— The Ampulla of Vater and the Pancreatic Ducts in the

Domestic Cat (concluded). (2 plates.) Am. Quart. Micr. Journ., I., No. 3.

Henneguy, F. — Note on the Constitution of the Spermatozoid of the Toad.

Journ. de Micr., III., No. 4.
Heetwig, Prof. O.— On the Dermal Skeleton of Fishes. II. The Dermal
Skeleton of the Ganoidei (Lcpidosteus and Polypterus). (3 plates.)

Morphol. Jahrh., V., Part 1.
Klein, E. — [Note on] " Observations on the Structure of Cells and Nuclei " in
' Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.' Arch. Zool. (Lacaze-Diithiers), VII., No. 3,

Landois, Dr. L. — Compendium of Human Physiology, including Histology
and Microscopic Anatomy. 1st half. (78 figs.) 8vo. Vienna, 1879.
Lowe, Dr. L. — On Connective Tissue {contimwd). (1 plate.)
[§ 4 and 5, The Parenchymatous and Intra-parenchymatous Connective
Tissue.] Arch. Anat. ^ Entw. {His.), 1879, Part 1-2.

NussBAUM, Dr. M. — On the Structure and Action of Glands. III. For-
mation of Ferments in Glands. (1 plate and 1 fig.)

Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., XVI., Part 3.
Peremeschko, Prof. Dr. — On the Division of Animal Cells. (1 plate.)

Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., XVI., Part 3.

Rawitz, B. — On the Constrictions [in nerve fibres] described by Ranvier and

Lautermann. (1 plate.) Arch. Anat. Sf Entw. {His.), 1879, Part 1-2.

RoHON, J. N. — Researches on the Structure of a Microcephalous Brain.

(2 plates.) Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Wien ^ Triest, II., Part 1.

B. INVERTEBRATA.

CouES, Dr. E., and Dr. H. C. Yabeow.— Notes on the Natural History of Fort
Macon, N.C., and Vicinity. (No. 5.) Froc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil, 1878, Part 2.

Eyferth, B. — See Botany, B.

Fkeuericq, Dr. L. — The Digestion of Albuminoid Substances by certain
Invertebrata. [See this Journal, II., p. 274.]

Arch. Zool. (Lacaze-Diithiers), VII., No. 3.
Fries, Dr. S. — Notes on the Fauna of Sunless Regions (Dunkel- Fauna).

Zool. Anzeig., II., Nos. 19, 20, 23 & 24.
Kruhenherg, C. J. W. — [Note on] " Researches on the Digestive Ferments in
Invertebrates," in 'Untersucli. der Phys. Inst, der Univ. Heidelberg.'

Arch. Zool. {Lacaze-Duthier-i), VII., No. 3.
Bastian, H. Charlton.— Organisms in the Blood and the Germ Theory.
[Review of Lewis's ' Microscopic Organisms found in the Blood of Man and
Animals, and their Relation to Disease.'] Nature, XX., No. 498.

Marion, A. F. — Dredgings in the Offing of Marseilles. (4 plates.)

Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.), VIIL, No. 2-3.
Rossmassler, E. a. — The Invertebrate Animals of the Forest. New ed.
(3 plates and 97 figures.) (8vo. Leipzig, 1879.)

Stcdeb, Dr. Th. — The Fauna of Kerguelensland (concluded).

Arch. f. Naturg., XLV., Part 2.

478 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

White, C. A., M.D.— Descriptions of new Species of Invertebrate Fossils from
the Carboniferous and Upper Silurian Kocks of Illinois and Indiana.

TActinozoa, 1 ; Echiuodermata, 3 ; Polyzoa, 1 ; Conchifera, 2 ; Vermes, 1.]
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1878, Part 1.

MoUusca.
Feilden, H. W.,F.G.S.— The Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of the Maltese
Group. Zoologist, III., No. 29.

Hanley, S., F.L.S.— Description of Two New Shells.
\Melania Limborgi and Leptomya gravida.']

Journ. Linn. Soc. {Zuol), XIV., No. 78.
Hautog, Marcus M. — On the Organ of Bojanus in Anodon.

Journ. Anat. ^ Phys. (Ilninphrg}, XIII., No. 3.
Ihering, Dr. H. Von.- Some New Observations on Mollusca.

Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 23.
Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. — Note as to the Position of the
Genus Segnenzia among the Gastropoda. [Adheres to his opinion that it belongs
to the Solarium and not (as R. B. Watson considers) to the Trochus family.]

Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), XIV., No. 78.
Korea, J., and D. C. Danielsren. — Descriptions of New Species belonging to the
Genus Solenopus. with some Observations on their Organization. (Translated
from ' Archiv for Mathematik og Naturvidenskab.')

An7i. 4 Mag. Nat. Hist., III., No. 17.
Leidy, Prof. J., M.D.— On Don'ix fossor. (Verbal.)

[See this Journal, II., p. 303.] Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 3.

„ ,, Remarks on MacLr t. (Verbal.)

Proc. Acad. Not. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 3.
Lewis, J., M.D. — Unio sihrostrat'is Sav.

'Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phda., 1878, Part 2.

Stearns, R. E. 0. — Description of a New Species of Lolabella, irom the Gulf of

California, with Remarks on otiier rare or little-known Species from tlie same

region. (1 plate.) Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 3.

Watson, Rev. R. B., B.A., F.R.S.E., &c.— Mollusca of H.M.S. 'Challenger'

Expedition.

I. Preliminary Report to Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thomson, F.R S., &c., on

the Mollusca dredged during the Exploring Voyage.
II. Tlie Soleuoconchia, comprising the Genera Dentalium.Siphodentalium,
and Cadiilus. [Dentalium (18 j, 12 sp. nov. ; Siphodentalium, 7 sp. nov. ;
Cac?M/Ms (11), 9 sp. nov.j
III. Trochidse, viz. the Genera Seguenzia, Basilissa, Ga^.a, and Bemhix.
\_Seguenzia (4), 2 sp. nov. ; Basilissa, gen. nov. (6 sp.) ; Gasa, gen.
nov. (1 sp.) ; Bemhix, gen. nov. (1 sp.)]

Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool), XIV., No. 78.

MoUuscoida.
Allman, Prof. G. J., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.— On the Relations of Rhahdoplcmri.
(1 fig.) [See this Journal, II., p. 84.] Journ. Linn. Soc. {Zool.), XIV., No. 78.
Joliet, L. — On the Presence of a Segmental Organ in the Endoproct Bryozoa.
(Translated from ' Comptes Rendus.') [See this Journal, II., p. 301.]

Ann. 4' Mag. Nat. Hist., III., No. 17.
Rathbdn, R. — The Devonian Brachiopoda of the Province of Para, Brazil.
[New species : Lingida, 1 ; Productella, 1 ; Chonetes, 2 ; Orthis, 1 ; Spirifera,
4 ; Rhynconella, 1.] Proc. Boston Soc. Nat, Hist., XX., Part 1.

Repiachoff, W. — On the Embryology of Tendra zostericola.

Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 20.
Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.
Bairstow, S. D. — Ichneumonidse. (1 plate.) Naturalist, IV., No. 46.

Bohretzky, Dr. N. — [Note on] " On the Formation of the Blastoderm and the
Mesoblasts in Insects," in ' Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.'

Arch. Zool. {Licnxe-Dutkicrs), VII., No. 3.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 479

BucKTON, G. B., F.E.S., &c.— Monograph of the Briti.-h Aphides. Vol. II.
(50 plates.) 8vo. London {Ran Socictij), 1879.

(Jhambeks, V. T. — Note to the paper "On the Tongue (Lingna) of some
Hymenoptera." [Correcting typographical and other errors.]

Journ. Cincinn. Soc. Nat. Hht., I., No. 4.
Ckesson, E. T. — Descriptions of Ichneumonidae, chiefly from the Pacific Slope
of the United States and British N. America. [93 species — 64 nov. sp.]

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 3.
,, „ Description of New Species of North American Bees.

\_Trigona, 4; Tetrapedia, 1; Bombus, 15; Aiithophora, 11; Mclissodes, 49;
Tctmlonia, 2 : llegacilissa, 2.] Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 2.
Dewitz, Dr. H. — Monstrosity in tlie Insecta. Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 23.

., „ Natural History of Cuban Butterflies according to Observa-

tions of Dr. Gutidlach. (1 plate.) Zcitschr. f. Gcs. Naturwiss., LII., March-April.
FoREL, Dr. A. — Myrmecological Studies in 1879. Part II. fl plate.)

Bidl. Soc. Vand. Sc. Nat., XVI., No. 81.
Hagen, Dr. H. A. — Museum Pests observed in the Entomological Collection
at Cambridge. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., XX., Part 1.

,; „ On Larvae of Insects dischijrged through the Uretiira.

Proc. Boston Soc. N^at. Hist., XX., Part 1.
Kkauss, Dr. H.— Otocyst-like Organ in Tabanus aatamnalis Linn.

Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 27.
Leidy, Prof. J., M.D.— A Louse of the Pelican. (Verbal.)

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 187S, Part 1.
Mayer, Dr. P.— On the Theory of the Sense Organs of Insects.

Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 25.
McCook, Rev. H. C. — The Mode of Recognition among Ants. (Verbal.)
„ „ Toilet Habits of Ants. (Verbal.)

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 1.
Meehan, T. — Boring of Corollas from the outside by Honey Bees. (Verbal.)
Pi-oc. Acad. Ned. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 1.
„ ,, Habits and Intelligence of Vespa nvicnlata. (Verbal.)

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 1.
Meldola, L. — Butterflies with Dissimilar Sexes.

[Kpicalia Acontius — Abstract of paper by Fritz MiiUer in ' Kosmos.']

Nature, XIX., No. 495.
Mills, H. — Corethra Plumioomis. (1 plate.) Am. Journ. Micr., IV. No. 3.
MtJLLER, F. — On [Larval Cases of] Phrygaiieidse.

[See this Journal, II , p. 408.] Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 19.

„ „ On Phryganeidse. Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 25.

Miiller, F. — See Meldola, L.

MtJLLEE, Dr. H. — Biological Note on Insects. Zool. Amcig., II., No. 19.

Pierce, N. B. — Sound-producing Organs of the Cricket. (2 figs.)

Am. Nat., XIII., No. 5.

Rydek, J. A. — Description of a New Species of SmynthuruslS.quadrimaculata'].

(1 fig.) Proc. Acad. Nat. Set. Phila., 1878, Part 3.

Scuddee, S. H. — A Century of Orthoptera, Decades, VIII. (Acridii —

Melanoplus), IX. (Acridii — I'ezotettix), X. (Locustariae— Cowoce^j/w/^s).

Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., XX., Part 1.
Taschenberg, E., sen. — The Species of the Genus Myrmccoleon Br. and
Ascalaphus of the Zoological Museum of the University of Halle.

Zeitschr. f. Gcs. Naturwiss., LII., March- April.
Taschenberg, Dr. O. — On the Synonymy of Goniocotes hologaster. (2 figs, of a
plate.) Zeitschr. Ges. Nat., LII., Jan. -Feb.

,, ,, Onthophagus laminat'is. „ ,, „

TiCHOMiROFF, A. — On the Development of the Silkworm.

[See this Journal, II , p. 409.] Zool. Anieig., II., No. 20.

Waterhouse, C. O.— An Account of a small Series of Coleoptera from the

Island of Johanna. Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., III., No. 17.

„ „ Descriptions of New Coleoptera belonging to the Genera

2Iononwia, Siiis, and Lithinus. Ann. 4' Mag. Nat. Hist., III., No. 17.

480 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Watkrhouse, F. H. — Descriptions of New Ooleoptera of Geographical Interest
collected by C. Darwin, Esq. [6 sp. nov. (1 gen. nov.)]

Joiu-n. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), XIV., No. 78.

Wilson, A. S.— Insect Galls-buds. Nature, XX., No. 498.

WoLLASTON, Mrs. T. V. — Notes oa the Lepidoptera of St. Helena, with De-
scriptions of New SpcciuS (^continued). Ann. tj^ Mcy. Nat. Hist., III., No. 17.

j8. Myriapoda.

Ryder, J. A. — On Fohjxenes fasciculatus. (Verbal.)

Pruc. Acad. Nat. Set. Phil., 1878, No. 2.

SoGRAFF, N. — Preliminary Communication on the Organization of the

Myriapoda. [See this Journal, II., p. 295.] Zool. Anzeitj., II., No. 18.

■y. Arachnida.

BoHM, Dr. E. — On the Pycnogonida3 of the Royal Zoological Museum at
Berlin, especially the species collected by the ' Gazelle.' (2 plates.)

MB. K. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, February.
McCooK, Rev. H. C— Note on the probable Geographical Distribution of a
Spider by the Trade Winds. (2 fig.-*.) Proc. Acxid. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1878, Part 1.
„ „ The Basilica Spider and her snare. (9 figs.)

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1878, Part 1.

„ „ Supplementary Note on the Aeronautic Flight of

Spiders. (Verbal.) Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil, 1878, Part 3.

Karsoh, Dr. F. — On a New Arrangement of the Tarantulidse (Phrynidse aut.).

Arch. f. Naturg., XLV.. Part 2.
Kramer, Dr. P. — On the Genera of Mites, Lcptognathiis Hodge, Raphignathus
Dug., Caligonus Koch, and the New Genus CnjptognatlMs. (1 plate.)

Arch. f. Naturg., XLV., Part 2.

„ „ On some Differences between Full-grown and Young

Gamasidse. Arch. f. Naturg., XLV., Part 2.

5. Crustacea.

Glaus, Dr. C— The Organization of the Phronimidse. (8 plates.)

Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Wien ^ Tricst, II., Part 1.
DoGiEL, Prof. J. — The Structure and Functions of the Heart of Crustacea.
(1 plate and 6 figs.) Trai\ Lab. Histol. Coll., France. 1877-8.

Fraisse, Dr. Paul. — Entoniscus Cavolinii, n. sp., with Remarks on the Metamor-
phosis of and Classification of the Bopyridse. (2 plates.)

Arbeit. Zool.-Zoot. Inst. Wiirzbwg, IV., Part. 4.
Haller, Dr. G. — On the Knowledge of the higher Crustacean Faima of the
Mediterranean. Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 26.

„ „ Preliminary Diagnoses of some Peltidia from Messina.

Zool. Anwig., II., No. 25.

Haller, Dr. G. — Preliminary Notice on the Systematic Zoology of the

Caprellidre of the Mediterranean. Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 27.

Kingsley, J. S. — List of Decapodous Crustacea of the Atlantic Coast. Api^eu-

dix to Drs. Coues and Yarrow's paper. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1878, Part 2.

„ ,, Notes on the North American Caridea in the Museum of the

Peabody Academy of Science at Salem, Mass. [15 species, 9 nov. sp.].

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1878, Part 1.
Leidy, Prof. J., M.D.— On Crustaceans at Cape May, N.J. (Verbal.)

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1878, Part 3.
LuNEL, G. — See Vermes.

Martens, E. v.— Profandry in Parasitic Isopoda. Naturf., XII., No. 14.

Milne-Edwards, A. — Memoir on the Decapodous Crustacea of the Genus
Dynomene. (3 plates.) Aim. Sci. Nat. {Zool.), VIII., No. 2-3.

Streets, T. H., M.D.— Pelagic Amphipoda. (1 plate.)

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1878, Part 2.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 481

Weber, Dr. Max. — On Asellus cavaticus Scbiodte in 1. teste Leydig {As.
Slcholdii do Roun;emont). Zool. Anzeig., it., No. 27.

Yung, E — Kesearches on the Intimate Structure and the Functions of the
Central Nervous System of the Decapodous Crustacea.

[Ste this Journal, II., p. 419.J Arch. Zool. (Lacaye-Duthkrs'), VII., No. 3.
Wetherby, a. J. — Description of a New Family and Genus of Lower
Silurian Crustacea. [^Enoi^loura balanoidcs Meek.]

Jo'irn. Ciii?inn. Soc. Nat. Hist., I., No. 4.
Wbzesniowski, Prof. A. — Preliminary Communications on some Amphipoda.

Zool. Amcig., II., Nos. 25 & 26.
Vermes.
COBBOLD, T. S., M.D., F.R.S.— Parasites of Man {contomcd).

Midi. Nat., II., No. 17.
Dc Plessis, Prof. Dr. G. — On some New Turbellaria of the Deep Fauna
fof the Lake of Geneva]. Third Notice. (' Materials for the Study of tlie Deep
Fauna of the Lake of Geneva.' 5th series, § XLV.)

Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., XVI., No. 81.
Galeb, Prof. Dr. O. — Organization and Development of the Oxvurida (^con-
timied). (10 plates.) [See this Journal, II., p. 289.]

Arch. Zool. {Lacaze-Duthiers), VII., No. 3.

Graff, Prof. Dr. L. — Short further Communication on Turbellaria. II. (I.

in ' Zeitschr. f wiss. Zool.' Vol. XXX., Supp.) Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 26.

Jensen, O. S. — Turbellaria ad Litora Norwegiso Occidentalia, (8 plates.)

Fol. Bergen, 1878.

Joseph, Dr. G.— On the Eotifera inhabiting the Stalactite Cave of Carniola.

Zool. An,c!g.U.,^o. 20.

Kennel, J. v. — Contribution to the Knowledge of the Nemertcans. (3

plates.) Arbeit. Zool.-Zoot. Inst. Wiirzburg, IV., Part 4.

Leidy, Prof. J., M.D. — Notice of a Tetrarhi^ncus. (Verbal.) \_T. tenuicaudatas.'\

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 3.

„ „ Notices of Gordi'is in the Cockroach and Leech. (Verbal.)

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 3.

„ „ On Parasitic Worms in the Shad. (Verbal.)

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 2.
„ „ On Tcenia mediocanellata. (Verbal.)

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 3.
LiNSTOW, Dr. v.— Helminthological Studies. (2 plates.)

Arch. f. Naturg., XLV, Part 2.

LtFNEL, J. — Parasites and Intestinal Worms of the Fishes of the Lake of

Geneva. (Materials for tlie Study of the Deep Fauna of the Lake of Geneva.

5th series. § XLVIII.) Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., XVI., No. 81.

M'Intosh, W. C, M.D., F.R.S.— On the Circulatory System of Maqelona.

Journ. Anat. 4- Ph/s. {Humphry), XIII., No. 3.
Mojsisovics, Dr. A. von. — On the Hypodermis of the Lumbricidse.

Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 21.
Petri, A. — Table of all tlie Pigs killed at Rostock in 1878, and examined
for Trichinae. [Killed, 7305 ; Trichintc found, 0.]

Arch. path. Anat. J- Phi/s. (Virchow), LXXVL, Part 1.

Perroncito, Prof. E. — On a New Species of Tape- Worm (Twnia alba).

(1 plate.) Arch. f. Naturg., XLV., Part 2.

Taschenberg, O., jun. — On the Classification of the Monogenetic Trematoda.

Zeitschr. f. Ges. Naturwiss., LIL, March-April.

Vejdovsky, Dr. F. — Preliminary Communication concerning his further

Researches on the Oligochseta. I. Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 25.

ViLLOT, A. — Organization and Development of some species of Marine Eodo-

parasitic Trematoda. (6 plates.) Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.), VIII., No. 2-3.

,, „ Migrations and Metamorphoses of the Tcenix of the Shrew-mice.

(1 plate.) Ann. Sci. Nat. {Zool), VIII., No. 2-3.

Echinodermata.

Cotteau, M. — Considerations on the Echinida of the Cenomanian Formation
Df Algeria. Comptcs Rcndus, LXXXVIII., No. 15.

VOL, XL 2 I

482 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Duncan, Trof. P. IMartin, F.K.S., &c.— On the Zoological Tosition of tlie

Ophiuvans, obtained by Dr. Wallich, F.L.S., during the Voyage of H.M.S. 'Bulldog'

in I860. Ann. t|- Mai/. Nat. Hist., III., No. 17.

LrDWiG, Dr. H. — Some Eemaiks on Dr. H. Pohlig's paper '■'■ Aspidura, a

Mesozoic Genus of Ophiuridse," in 'Zeitsclir. f. wiss. Zool.'

Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 19.

„ „ Trichaster elegans. Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 18.

Ludwhj, Dr. //.—[Note on] " On the Genus Brisinga," in 'Zeitsclir. f. wiss. Zool.*

Arch. Zool. (Lacaze-Dnthiers), VII., No. 3.

Martens, E. v. — Regeneration of Lost Parts in tie Starfishe.s.

Naturf., XII., No. 11.

SiiADEN, W. P. — Astrophiura jjermira, an Echinodcrm intermediate betwetn

Ophiuroidea and Asteroidea. Zool. Amcig., II., No. 18.

Wachsmuth, C, and F. Springer. — Transition Forms in Crinoids, and

Description of Five New Species. Froc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1878, Part 2.

Coelenterata.

Bergh, R. S.— Studies on the Early Development of the Egg of Gonothyra:
Lowni (Allm.) (2 plates.) Mwpknl. Jahrb., V., Part 1.

Clarke, S. F. — Report on the Hydroida collected during the Exploration of
the Gulf Stream and Gulf of Mexico by Alexander Agassiz. 1877-78. (5
plates.) £"ll. Mus. Cump. Zool. Camb., V., No. 10.

Du Plessis, Prof. Dr. S. — Study on Cosmetira salinarum, a New Paludicolous
Medusa of the Environs of Cette. (1 heliograph.)

Bidl. Soc. Yard. Sci. Nat., XVI., No. 81.

Du Plessis, Prof. Dr. S. „ „ „ (Translation.)

Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., III., No 17.

Haacke, Dr. W. — Some Consequences of the Formation of Colonies in Corals.

Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 22.

Kling, Dr. O.— On Craterolophus Tcthys. A Contribution to the Anatomy
and Histology of the Lucemariad^e. (3 plates.) Morphol. Jahrh., V., Part 1.

Korotneff, Maj. A. — Development of Myrinthda. Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 25.

Eathbun, R. — Notes on the Coral Reefs of the Island of Itapar.ca, Bahiu,
and of Parahyba do Norte. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., XX., Part 1.

Schiiffer, E. A. — [Note on] " Observations on the Nervous System of Aurclia
aurita" in ' Proc. Roy. Soc' Arch. Zool. {Lacaze-Duthicrs), VII., No. 3.

Porifera.

. Carter, H. J., F.R.S., &e. — Contributions to oiir Knowledge of the Spongida.
(^continued). (2 plates.) Aim. <^ Mag. Nd. Hist., III., No. 17.

Hyatt, A. — On a New SiJecies of Sponge. (1 plate.) \_Aplyslna pediccllata.']

Proc. Ac<al. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1878, Part 2.

Ryder, J. A. — On the Destructive Nature of the Boring Sponge, with Obser-

Tations on its Gemmules or Eggs. Am. Nat., XIII., No. 5.

Schulzc, F. E. — [Note on] " Researches on the Anatomy and Development of the

Sponges — the Metamorplioses of Sycandra }-aphami!>," in ' Zeitsclir. f. wiss. Zool.'

Arch. Zool. {Lacazc-Duthiers'), VII., No. 3.
ZiTTEL, K. A. — Studies on Fossil Sponges. V. Calcispongiaj (^continued).

Ann. 4- Mag. Nat. Hist., III., No. 17.

Protozoa.

Du Plessis, Prof. Dr. G. — First Note on the Heterotrichous Ciliated Infusoria
of the Littoral and Deep Fauna of the Lake of Geneva.

„ „ Note on the Rhizopnda observed in the Mud of the

bottom of the Lake. (' Materials for the Study of the Deep Fauna of the Lake of
Geneva.' 5th series, § XL VI. & XLVII.) Bidl. Sec. Va'id. Sci. Nat., XVI., No. 81.

Forrest, H. E. — Natural History and Development of the Vorticellidai
{continued). (1 plate.) Midi. Nat., II., No. 17.

Joseph, Dr. G. — On Grotto-Infusoria. Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 22.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

483

Leidy, Prof. J., M.D.— On Amceba. (Verbal.)

J'roc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 1.

„ „ On the Kelation of Arnceha quadnlineata and Amceha

verrucosa. (Verbal.) Froc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 2.

„ „ Species of U'lglypha, Trinema, Famphayus aud Cypho-

dcria, with Synonyma and Descriptions of New Forms. (Verbal.)

Froc. Acad. Nat. Set. Pliila., 1878, Part 2.
„ „ Foraininifera of the Coast of New Jersey. (Verbal.)

Froc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Fhila., 1878, Part 2.
„ „ Foraminiferous Shells of our Coast. (Verbal.)

Froc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 3.

ViGNAL, W. — Histological and Physiological Researches on the Noctiluca

{Noctiluca miiiaris). (2 plates.) Trav. Lab. Histol. Coll. France, 1877-8.

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology of the
Phanerogamia.

Bary, Prof. A. DE. — See Zoology, A.

Beal, Prof. W. J. — Experiments in Cross-breeding Plants of the same
Variety. Am. Jou n. Sci. ^ Arts, Vol. XVII., No. 101.

BiJHM, J. — On the Function of Vegetable Vessels.

Bot. Zeit., XXXVII., Nos. 15 & 16.
Cunningham, D. D., M.B. — On certain Effects of Starvation on Vegetable and
Animal Tissues. (11 figs.) 4to. Calcutta, 1879.

Just, Dr. L. — Botauischer Jahresbericht, Vol. V (1877), Part 1. 8vo. Berlin,
1879.

KvNEEL, A. — On some Features of the Power of Living Organs to conduct
Electricity. Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, II., Part 2.

Lanessan, J. L. nE.— The Nutrition of Plants. Fev. Internat. Sci., II., No. 1.
Langek, C. L. — Observations on the so-called Water Pores.

Oesterreick. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., No. 3-4.
Mer, E.— On the Absorption of Water by the Lamina of the Leaf.

Ball. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.
„ The Eiiects of Submersion on Aerial Leaves (continued).

Bull. Soc. Bot.^France, XXV., Part 2.
„ The Effects of the Water on Aquatic Leaves.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.
Prillieux, Ed. — The Action of the Vapours of Sulphuret of Carbon on Seeds
and on their Development. (2 papers.) Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.

Reinke, Prof. Dr. J. — Investigations on the Swelling of some Vegetable Sub-
stances. (4 plates.) Bot, Abhandl. {Hanstein), IV., Part 1.
Sachs, Prof. Dr. J. — On Orthotropic and Plagiotropic Organs. (1 plate and
figs.) Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wurzburg, II., Part 2.
„ ,, On the Combination of Geotropic and Heliotropic
Curvatures during Growth. (3 figs.) Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, II., Part 2.
„ „ On the Porosity of Wood. (2 figs.)

Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, II., Part 2.
Schulze, E. — On the Decomposition of Albumen in Vegetable Organisms.

Bot. Zeitumj, XXXVIL, No. 14.
Weber, C. — On Specific Assimilation-Energy.

Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, II., Part 2.

Hohnel, Dr. F. R. v. — Some Anatomical Remarks on the position of Inter-
cellular Spaces in relation to Vessels. Oesterreick. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., No. 5.
Hunt, J. G., M.D.— Sensitive Organs in Stapelia. (1 fig.) (Verb.il.)

Froc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Fhila., 1878, Part 2.
Meehan, T.— Irritable or Sensitive Stamens. (Verbal.)

Froc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Fhila., 1878, Part 3.

484 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

PiHiER, M.— Spiral Culls in the Roots of Nnphar advcnum.

Bull. Sue. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.
Potts, E. — Sensitive Organs in Asclcpias. (4 figs.) (Verbal.)

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878. Part 2.

RiTTHAUSEN, H. — On the Albuminous Bodies found in the Protein Granules

and Crystalloids of the seed of Ricinus. Arch. Phijs. (^Pflui/cr), XIX., Part 1.

Sachs, Prof. Dr. J. — On the Arrangement and Growth of Cells. (1 plate and

G figs.) Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wurzhnrg, II., Part 2.

Setnes, J. DE. — Note on Appendiculate Cells (^Cellules en Boucle).

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.
ViLLEFOix, M. DE. — Tiic Secretory Canals of the UmbelliferaB.

Bull. Soc. But. France, XXV., Part 2.

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Bastian, H. Charlton.— Sec Zoology, B.

Eyferth, B. — The Simplest Forms of Life (continued).

Am. Q. Micr. Juurn., I., No. 3.
GiLLOT, Dr. X. — List of Cryptogams collected during the Extra-ordinary
Session in Corsica in 1877.

[Mosses, 39; Hepaticse, 8; Lichens, 8; Fungi, 13 (only one hymeno-

mycetous Fungus seen); Algge, 21.] Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.

Luerssen, Dr. C. — Medical-Pharmaceutical Botaiiy: Handbook of Systematic

Botany for Botanists, Physicians, and Apothecaries. Vol. I. Cryptogamia. 181 figs.

8vo. 'Leipzig, 1879.

Schmankewitsch, Prof. Wl. — On some Anomalies in the Development of the
Lowest Organisms. [See this Journal, p. 446.] Zool. Anzeig., II., Nos. 21 & 22.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Bauke, H.— Some remarks on the Prothallium oi Salvinia natans. (1 plate.)

Flora, LXIL, No. 14.
Griffith, C. — Aspidium aculeatum in Pennsylvania. (Verbal.)

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 3.

Harrington, Prof. M. W., M.A. — Notes on the Structure of Ophioglossum.

(1 plate.) Am. Q. Micr. Journ., I., No. 3.

Hart, H. C, B.A., F.L.S.— On the Flora of North-western Donegal (concluded).

[Equisetaccc-c, 6 ; Filioes, 16 ; LycopodiaceJB, 4.] Journ. Bot., VIII., No. 197.

Muscineae.

Brook, Geo. ter, F.L.S. — Phcenological Observations on Mosses.

Naturalist, IV., No. 45.
Fergvsson, Rev. J. — The Wharncliffe Dicrannm. Naturalist, IV., No. 44.

„ „ Fontinalis gracilis Lind. [and Leptotrichum tortile'].

Naturalist, IV., No. 43.

„ „ Aulacomnium turgidum. [Note on Mr. E. M. Holmes' and

Messrs. Lees and West's papers.] Naturalist, IV., No. 46.

Geheeb, a. — A new Species of European Moss and its relation with an African

Species. Bev. Bryol., VI., No. 3.

Gobel, K.— On the Growth of Metzgeria furcata and Aneura. (I plate.)

Arbeit. Bot. Inst. WUrzburg, II., Part 2,
Holmes, E. M., F.L.S. — Note on the new British Moss Aulacomnion turqidum.

Naturalist, IV., No. 45.
Lees, F. A., F.L.S. — Observations concerning three new West Yorkshire
Mosses. (1 plate.)

{_Orthotrichuin rupestre Schleich. ; Aulacomnium tuiyidum, Schimp. ; Fontinalis
gracilis Lindt.] Naturalist, IV., No. 42.

Lees, F. A., and W. West. — The Autumn Flora of Whernside: an account of
an excursion in search of Mosses. Naturalist, IV., No. 45.

llAVAUD, L'Abl)e'.— Guide for Bryologists and Lichenologists in the neigh-
bourhood of Grenoble (continued). Rev. Brgol., VI., No. 3.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 485

Kenauld, p. — Notice on Kome Mosses of the Pyrenees (continued).

Eev. BryoL, VI., No. 3.
Stabler, G. — Notes on Yorkshire Mosses and Hepatics.

Naturalist, IV., No. 44.
Wesley, J. S., M.B. — Fontinalis gracilis Lind. Naturalist, IV., No. 43.

Whitehead, J. — Flagiothecium elegans (Hooker). Naturalist, IV., No. 46.

Characeae.

Allen, Dr. T. F. — CbaraceoB Americanns. Parti. (1 plate.) 4to. New York,
1870.

\_Chai-a gymnopus A. Br. var. elegans A. Br.]

Fungi.

Bainiee. — Note on Clianocarpus hypotrichoides, Le'v.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.
Bechamp, M. — On the Formation of Carbonic Acid, Alcohol, and Acetic
Acid, by Yeast alone, without Oxygen, and under the influence of this gas.

Comptcs Rcndns, LXXXVIII., No. 13.
CoRNU, Max.— Fungi Rare or New to the Flora of the Environs of Paris.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.
„ „ Note on some Fungi of the Environs of Paris.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.
„ „ Note on some Spring Fungi. {_Morchella, Verpa, Gi/romitra.'] .

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.

„ „ Presence of Podisoma Juniper i-Sabina; on Juniperus Virginiana and

other Junipers. Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.

Okie, L.— On the Formation of a peculiar Amyloid Matter in the Asci [of

some Pyrenomycetes. Comptcs Rendus, LXXXVIII., No. 14.

„ Researches on the Pyrenomycetes of the Islands of St. Paul and

Amsterdam. Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIII., No. 15.

Geddes, G., and /. C. Ewart. — [Note on] " On the Morphology of the Vibriones

(Spirillum)," in ' I'roc. Eoy. Soc' [See this Journal, I., p. 352."]

Arch. Zool. (Lacaze-Duthiers), VII., No. 3.
Genevier, G. — Notice of Morchella elata Fries.

Bidl. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.
Hick, Thojias, B.A., B.Sc. — The Sexual Reproduction of Fungi. (1 plate.)

Naturalist, IV., Nos. 42 & 43.
Howse, T., F.L.S.— The Cryptogamic Flora of Kent— Fungi (continued).

Journ. Bot., VIII., No. 197.
Huxley, Prof. T. H. — The Lowest Forms of Life. (Lecture to the Literary
and Philosophical Society of Lincoln.) Am. Journ. Micr., IV., No. 4.

LOKINSEE, Dr. F. W. — Agaricus (Lepiota) rugoso-reticulata. [New species.]

Oesterrcich. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., No. 1.
Ndgeli, Prof. C— Infectious Diseases and the Agents of Infection.

[Translated from ' Niederen Pilze.'] Rev. Internat. Sci., II., No. 2.

EiCHET, Ch. — On some Conditions of Lactic Fermentation.

Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIII., No. 14.
Saccardo, p. a.— Genera Pyrenomycetum Hypocreaceorum, hucusque cognita
systemate carpologico digesta. Atti Soc. Critt. Ital., I.

ScHiLZER, S. — On Fungi injurious to each other.

Oesterrcich. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., Nos. 4 & 5.
Setnes, J. De.— Observations on Peziza phlehophora Berk., and Ptychogaster
albus Cda. Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.

„ ,, On a New Genus of Sphseriacei.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.
„ „ On the Amyloid appearance of Cellulose in Fungi.

Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIII., No. 16.
TntJMEN, F. V. — Comments on De Bary's Criticism on Thiimen's • Fungi of
the Vine.' Oesterreich. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., No. 3.

,, „ Vossia Thiim, — A New Genus of Ustilaginei.

Oesterrcich. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., No. 1.

486 BIBLIOGKAPHY.

Winter, Dr. G. — Some remarks on the rapidity of the Germinatiou of the
Spores of Fungi and of tlie Growth of their Germinating Filaments.

Hedwyia, XVIII., No. 4.
ZoPF. — The Coiiidial Fructification of Fumago. Contribution to the question
oi the Pycnidia. 8vo. Halle, 1878.

Lichenes.

Leighton, Rev. W. A., B.A. — The Lichen-Flora of Great Britain, Ireland,
and the Clianncl Islands. .Srd Edition. 8vo. Shrewsbury, 1879.

Nylander, W. — Addenda nova ad Lichenographiam Europeam. XXXI.
(^Concluded.)

\_Pannana, 1 ; Placodium, 1 ; Lecanora, 8 ; Lecidca, 9; Cliiodecton, 1 ; Arthonia,
1 ; Melaspidea, 1 ; Verrucaria, 2.] Flora, LXII., Nos. 13 & 14.

Rabenhorst, L, — Lichenes Europsei exsiccati. Fasc. XXXVI. Dresden,
1879.

Algse.

Aedissone, F. — Studies of tlie Italian Algas of the Family of the Rhodome-
laceffi. (4 plates.) Atti Soc. Crltt. ItaL, I.

Castracane, F. — New'Forni of Mehsira Borrerrii Grev. Atti Soc. Critt. ItaL, 1.
Delpunte, J. B. — Specimen Desmidiacearum Subalpinarum. (15 plates.)

Turin — R. Accademia delle Scienze — Memorie, Ser. II., Vol. XXX.
Engelmann, Th. W. — On the Movements of Oscillatoriese and Diatoms.

[See this Journal, II., p. 182.] Arch. Fhys. {^Pflwjer), XIX., Part 1.

Engelmann, Th. W. „ „ ,, ,,

[Translated from ' Botanische Zeitung.'] Rev. Internat. Sci., II., No. 3.

Hacck, F. — Contributions to the Knowledge of the Adriatic Algse. XI.

Ocsterreich. Bat. Zeitschr., XXIX., No. 5.

Lanzi, Dr. M.— A few words in reply to M. Petit. [On "The Thallus of the

Diatomacese."] Brebisson'a, I., No. 9.

„ „ Diatomacea) collected in Ostia. Atti Soc. Critt. ItaL, I.

Leidy, Prof. J., M.D.— On the Black Mildew of Walls. (Verbal.)

[See this Journal, II., p. 459.] J'roc. Acad. Nat Sci. Phila., 1878, Part 3.

Leuduger-Fortjiorel, Dr. — Catalogue of the Diatomaceae of Ceylon. (9
plates.) 8vo. St. Brieuc, 1879.

Petit, P. — Observations on the Life-History of the Diatomacese.

[See this Journal, II., p. 181.] BidL Soc. Bot. France, XXV., Part 2.

RiNER, W. W. — A fine Diatom. ISurirella Litnosa.']

Am. Joum. Micr., IV., No. 3.

WoLLE, Rev. F. — Dubious character of some of the Genera of Fresh- water

AlgJB. (1 plate.) Am. Q. Micr. Joum., I., No. 3.

MICROSCOPY, &o.

Altmann, Dr. R. — On the Applicability of Corrosion to Microscopical

Anatomy. (3 plates.) Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., XVI., Part 3.

Blanchard, R. — On the Preparation and Preservation of the Lower Organisms.

Rev. Intern. Sci., II,, No. 3.
DosNADiEtr, Prof. A. L.— Organization of the Microscopical Laboratories at the
University of Lyons. (1 plate.) Joum. de Micr., HI., No. 4.

FoL, Prof. Dr. H, — Improvements in Salt-water Aquaria.

Zool. An^eig., II., No. 26.
Grenacher, Prof. Dr. H. — Notes on Methods of Staining, especially as applied
to Nuclei. Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., XVI., Part 3.

Henneguy, F. — Process for preparing the Embryos of Fishes.

[See this Journal, II., p. 325.] Rev. Intemnt. Sci., II., No. 2,

Koch, Dr. — Instructions for Observing, Preserving, and Photographing Bac-
teria. (Translated from Cohn's ' Beitrage zur Biologic der Pflanzen.')

[See this Journal, I., p. 195.] Rev. Internat. Set., II., No. 1.

KuRZ, Dr. W. — A Simple Box for Preparations. (1 fig.)

Zool. An-icig., II., No. 20.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 487

Lang, Dr. A.— Coinmuiiieations on Mioroseopical Technic : — (1) A New Stain-
ing Mctliod. [See this Journal, II., p. 163.] (2) Supplement to Note on the
Preservation of Animals by a Sublimate Solution. [See this Journal, I., p. 256.]

Zool. Anzeig., II., No. 19.

Lenz, Dr. H.— Improvement in the Aerating Apparatus of Marine Aquaria.

[See this Journal, II., No. IS.] Zool. Ameig., II., No. 18,

Seiler, Dr. C. — Practical Hints on Preparing and Mounting Animal Tissues

{continued). Am. Q. Alicr. Journ., I., No. 3.

Sharpus's Method of Mounting Echinoderms and other Objects.

Midi. Nat, II., No. 17.
T. C— A New Method of Preserving Infusoria. Sci.-Gnssip, No. 173.

Undekhill, H. M. J. — The preparation of Insects for Microscopical Examina-
tion. [1st part] &j.-(TOSii>, No. 173

DippEL, Prof. Dr. L. — Contributions to General Microscopy. I. Prof. Abbe's
Apertometer. (2 figs.) II. Tlie Objectives for " Homogeneous Immersion " of
Carl Zeiss, of Jena. (16 figs.) Zeitschr. f. Mi>:r., II., No. 2.

Hitchcock, R. — Micrometry. Am. Q. Micr. Jour., I., No. 3.

Hyde, H. C. — Presidential Annual Address to the San Francisco Microscopical
Society. Am. Jown. Micr., IV., No. 3.

Malassez, L.— Correction of the Distortions produced by the Camera Lucida

of Milne-Edwards and of Nachet. (3 figs.) Trav. Lab. HistoL Coll. France, 1877-8.

„ „ Note on the Measurement of Microscopic Amplifications.

(1 fig.) Trav. Lab. Bistol. Coll. France, 1877-8.

Mayall, J.,jnn. — Immersion Illuminators fur the Microscope.

[Translation of paper read before the Brighton and Sussex Natural History
Socifty.] Journ. de Micr., III., No. 4.

Pelletan, Dr. J. — New Laboratory Microscope. Jonrn. de Micr., III., No. 4.

KoGERS, Prof. W, A.— On Two Forms of Comparators for Measures of Length.
(1 fig.) Am. Q. Micr. Journ., I., No. 3.

Rotating Clips for Cheap Microscopes. (1 fig. )

Am. Journ. Micr., IV., No. 4.

Roy, C. S.— a New Microtome. (1 fig.) Journ F/u/s. (Foster). II., No. 1.

RuTLEY, F. — An English Microscope for the use of Students of Mineralogy
and Petrology. (1 fig.) [See this Journal, II., p. 471]. Nature, XX., No. 496.

Simple Contrivance for holding the Object beneath the Stage of the Micro-
scope. (1 fig.) ' M. Journ. Sci., I., No. 65.

Smith, Prof. H. L. — A few Remarks on Angular Aperture, and Description of
a "Universal Apertometer." (1 plate.) Am. Q. Micr. Journ., I., No. 3.

Sub-stage for Oblique Light. (1 fig.) Am. Journ. Micr., IV., No. 4.

ToLLEs, R.B.— Clear Working Distance. (2 figs.) Journ. de Micr., III., No. 4.

Vorce, C. M. — The Mechanical Finger. (1 fig.) Am. Journ. J/jcr., IV., No. 3.

Ward, Dr. R. H. — On a Standard for Micrometry. A7n. Nat., XIII., No. 5.

Wenham, F, H. — On the Formation of the Paraboloid as an Illuminator for
the Microscope. (3 figs.) Am. Q. Micr. Journ., I., No. 3.

Williams, W. M. — Spiders' Webs for Micrometers. (From 'Journal of the
Society of Arts.') A)n, Journ. Micr., IV., No. 4.

( 488 )
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting of 14th May, 1879, at King's College, Strand, W.C.
The President (Da. Beale, F.R.S.) in the CHiiiR.

The President on taking the Chair congratulated the Fellows
upon having obtained possession of their new room and upon the
appearance it presented. They were very much indebted to the
Library Committee for the successful manner in which they had
arranged the room, and it was also satisfactory to know that this liad
been eifected out of revenue, and without diminishing the capital
account of the Society,

The thanks of the Society were, on the motion of the President,
voted to the Library Committee.

The Minutes of the meeting of 9th April were read.

Mr. Michael said that though Mr. Stephenson's motion included
a declaration that the y ^-^ of a millimetre was too large a standard,
he and others who voted upon it understood that a suggestion of Dr.
Edmunds had been adopted, and that the latter part of the motion
only was intended to be jjut to the Meeting.

Mr. Ingpen confirmed this, and

The President, with the assent of the Meeting, erased the first
part of the motion (leaving it to stand, " That in the opinion of
this Society it is not expedient at present to prescribe by any formal
resolution the adoption of a fixed standard for micrometry "), and the
minutes were so confirmed and signed by the President.

The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges) received since the
last meeting was submitted and the thanks of the Society given to tlie
donors, viz. : —

From

Burgess, E. — The Anatomy of the Head and the Structure
of the Maxilla in the Psocidaa. (Reprinted from the
' Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History.'
Vol. xix. 1878) The Author.

' Index Medicus : a Monthly Classified Record of the Cur-
rent Medical Literature of the World.' Compiled under
the supervision of Dr. J. S. Billings and Dr. R. Fletcher.
Vol. i. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 (January, February, and
March.) 4to. New York, 1879 The Editor.

Triibner, N.—' Bibliographical Guide to American Litera-
ture.' 8vo. London, 1859 Mr. Crispy.

12 Slides of Insects from Nevis, West Indies Dr. J. Borell.

2 Slides of Lung of Sheffield Saw-grinder Mr. A. C. Cole.

15 Photographs of Blood-corpuscles of Man and Animals .. Dr. J. B. TreadivcU.

3 Carved Wood Chairs for the President and Secretaries.. Mr, Criq).

The President, in reading the names of further Societies recom-
mended by the Council under the bye-law as to Ex-officio Fellows, said

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 489

that the Council had been much gratified at the extremely cordial
manner in which the Societies previously nominated had received the
nominations. Two of them had done him the honour to elect him
an Honorary Fellow.

Photographs (15) of blood, sent by Dr. J. B. Treadwell, of Boston,
U.S. (through Mr. C. Stodder), were shown, and the following letter
from Mr. Stodder read : —

" Dr. Tread well's object is the measurement of the blood-disks and
comparison of size of human blood with that of other animals, and the
focussing is so done as to show the sharpest outline of the diameter.
I will call the especial attention of the Society to those photographs
on which there are two kinds of blood — blood from two animals.
Several devices have been used by others to accomplish this object,
one of much importance for obtaining in a picture the exact amplifica-
tion for both kinds of blood, and which, I believe, has not been S3
successfully before accomplished. I trust that these will be acceptable
to the Society. The mounting of the slides and the photographing is
all done by Dr. Treadwell."

Mr. A. W. Waters' paper " On the occurrence of recent Hetero-
pora" (see p. 390), was read by Mr. Stewart, who also described by
drawings on the black-board the slide of Memhranipora membranacea
brought by Mr. Dreyfus.

Mr. John Davis's paper on " A new species of Cothurnia '
read by Mr. Stewart, and the drawings enlarged on the board.

Mr. Wenham's " Note on Homogeneous Immersion Object-
Glasses " was read by Mr. Crisp (see p. 394) : —

" From a paper contributed by me to the ' Monthly Microscopical
Journal,' June 1st, 1870, I quote the following comments in favour of
' Homogeneous Immersion.' ' One advantage in the immersion
objective is that it almost prevents the loss of light from the reflection
of the upper surface of the cover and front of lens, and in part
neutralizes any error of figure and polish that may exist between
them. There is also another condition annexed, it has the singular
property of a front lens of adjustable thichiess, and therefore can be set
to the utmost nicety to balance the observations. Of course there is
no optical advantage attendant upon the use of imter. If a medium
of the same refractive power as the glass were to be employed, the
result woiild be better. Water having a low refractive index, an
adjustment is required for each thickness of cover, a'xl a difference of
adjustment is not so marked and sensitive as in the ordinary dry
objectives ; but if a medium of similar refraction to the glass were to
be used, no adjustment would be required for any thickness of cover,
supposing the test objects to be mounted thereon (which they generally
are), for in fact we should then view them all with a front of the same

VOL. II. 2 k

490 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

thickness — considering the cover, the front lens, and the intcr2)osing
medium as one.' "

Mr. Stephenson being absent from town the following note from
him was read by Mr. Crisp.

" I have read Mr. Wenham's note containing a reference to his
paper of 1870, of which, however, I was not aware when I brought
the subject of Homogeneous Immersion before the Society in 1878.

" I do not understand what it is that Mr. Wenham claims.

" The use of oil instead of water was suggested by Amici prior
to 1850 ; and it is equally clear that it was not until 1878 that any
homogeneous immersion objectives were produced in a practical form,
and then it was by Professor Abbe and Mr. Zeiss, and more recently
by Messrs. Powell and Lealand.

" As, during a great part of the period between 1870 and 1878,
Mr. Wenham has been actively engaged in the construction of immer-
sion object-glasses, it is evident that he did not appreciate the
practical advantages likely to follow from the introduction of oil-
immersion glasses any more than Amici and other previous experi-
menters on the subject did.

" This is not surprising when it is remembered that the very
essence of the homogeneous system depends under Professor Abbe's
able development on an optical princii:)le which Mr. Wenham has for
many years contended, and still contends, to be a physical impossi-
bility, viz. it gives an angle greatly in excess of even the ideal
maximum of a dry lens (180°).*

" Moreover, if Mr. Wenham had attempted to give practical effect
to his suggestion of 1870 he would have found that identity of
refractive index between the cover-glass and immersion fluid was
by no means consistent with optical homogeneity, one of the most
essential conditions of which is identity of dispersion."

Mr. Wenham said that it had not been his intention to raise any
controversy, but simply to record what he had done. If Amici had
given a distinct description of it he did not, of course, want to
claim it.

Mr. Crisp said, that he thought it must be considered beyond dis-
pute that Amici was the first to suggest and to use oil as an immersion
fluid for objectives, in which he was followed by Oberhauser, Harting,
and others. They all ai>parently thought, however, that oil-immersion
objectives, were not capable of practical application. He read the
following extract from M. Kobin's book : —

" We have seen that the principal obstacle to good resolution
arises from the violent refraction which the rays undergo on leaving
the cover-glass and passing into air, and again on their second
refraction by the front lens. Amici thought that to correct this
defect the front lens should form part of the cover-glass, but how
could the distance of the object from the lens be made variable ?
Simply by iuterj)osing between them an elastic medium having nearly
the same refractive index as the glass. He suggested that the lens

* See 'M. M. J.,' v. pp. 16-17 and 118; vi. pp. 84-86 and 292 ; vii. p. 272 ;
xi. p. 113 ; xii. p. 222 ; xiii. p. 35, &c.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 491

should be plunged in a, liquid of the same index as the cover-glass,
glycerine mixed with oil of aniseed, for instance, or even the latter
alone ; later he recognized that distilled water corrected very well
the feeble aberrations produced by the differences in the relative thick-
ness of the media, glass and water. . . . The experiments of Amici
on immersion objectives date from 1844. I saw in that year, or the
following one, at Oberhlluser's, an objective with which he showed
the advantages [of the immersion system] by interposing between it
and a preparation of Lepisma scales either a drop of neats' foot oil or
a drop of essential oil. He considered them to be preferable to
water, the employment of which he had already recommended as
giving good results with all kinds of objectives of short focus." *

Mr. Woodall called attention to the passage in Professor Abbe's
paper (see p. 256), in which he referred to Mr. Stephenson's sug-
gestion, that homogeneous immersion objectives would allow of
increased angular aperture, which suggestion led to the making of the
objectives.

, Mr. Ingpen thought they must all regret that Mr. Wenham had
not followed up his experiments in homogeneous immersion. Had he
done so, we probably should have long since had the oil-immersion
objective as an English instead of a foreign production. The refrac-
tive index of the immersion fluid employed was not the only con-
sideration— the selection of an oil of suitable dispersive power had
been made by Professor Abbe, after many experiments. Moreover, it
must be remembered that the great advantage of the oil lens was its
increased angle and consequent augmented resolving power, which
was not originally contemplated as a result of homogeneous immer-
sion. In the case of the new lenses they had not merely the results of a
series of experiments, but also their successful practical application in
the construction of improved objectives.

Mr. "Wenham wished to say one word as to the medium. At the
time referred to he had used oil of cloves. He did not care to make
any oil lenses then because he had a wholesome fear of it. If the
fingers were smeared with it and the instrument then touched, it took
off the lacquer, besides unsetting the cement and destroying the
objects.

Mr. Hue's suggestion for the more convenient use of oil with
homogeneous immersion objectives was explained by Mr. Crisp,
viz. to screw over the front of the objective a small receptacle contain-

* Prof. Ch. Eobin, ' Traite du Micmscope.' Paris, 1871. Pp. 191-192.
Prof. Harting, in liis work on the Microscope, thus referred to the use of oil : —
" If we could replace the layer of water by a fluid of still greater refractive
power, such as oil, further advantages must obviously be obtained. This ha.s
been successfully tried. It seems to me, however, a great risk to bring costly
objectives in contact with an oily fluid which would have to be again removed by
alcohol and ether. This would be hazardous with double lenses cemented with
Canada balsam. The immersion system has, it is true, been so arranged that the
front lens is not a double, but a single one of crown glass, and for these immersion
in oil would certainly be much less objectionable. Nevertheles.s, I must doubt
whether the oil-immersion system can ever come into more general use." — P.
Harting, ' Das Mikroskop' (2nd German edition). Brunswick, 1866.

492 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

ing tliG oil, having capillary holes in a ring round the front lens, so
that by screwing it up or down the oil would be forced out or drawn
back again.

Mr. Crisp said that he should have stated at the meeting of
12th March last that the immersion illuminator, consisting of a
hemispherical lens with movable setting (see p. 223), was the design
of Mr. J. Mayall, jun., and was specially applicable to the Ross-
Zentmayer stand.

Mr. "Watson exhibited Mr. Frank Eutley's petrological Microscope
(see p. 471), and the exhibition of Mr. J. M. Rogers' electrical
mounting-table was, at his request, postponed until the next meeting,
in consequence of his absence from England (see p. 469).

The President reminded the Meeting of the Scientific Evening on
the 21st inst., and said that if any Fellows wished to measure the
aperture of their objectives by Abbe's apertometer, Mr, Mayall would
have the ajiparatus at the meeting, and be prepared to do so.

The following were exhibited :—

Mr. A. C. Cole : — 2 sections of lung of a Sheffield saw-grinder
who died from the effects of his work, the lung being the typical
specimen on which the late Dr. J. C. Hall founded his successful
agitation for improved workshops.

Mr. Dreyfus: — Memhranipora memhranacea (Polyzoon).

Mr. C. Hue : — Parabolic illuminator and super-stage (see p. 473).

Dr. J. B. Treadwell : — 15 photographs of blood-corpuscles.

Mr. F. H. Ward : — Section of leaf of misteltoe, stained.

Mr. Watson: — Eutley's Petrological Microscope (see p. 471).

Mr. Crisp : — (1) Various microtomes : (a) the Rivet microtome
(in wood) ; {h) Schiefterdecker's microtome (' Q. Journ. Micr. Sci.,'
vol. xvii. 1877, p. 35) ; (c) Walmsley's adai)tation of Bevan Lewis's
ether-spray microtome ; (d) Army Medical Museum (U.S.) pattern
microtome. (2) Spawn of perch, showing embryo and peculiar
radial pin-shaped stride in the albumen (from Mr. Bolton). (3)
Melicerta tuhlcolarla (Hudson) (31. Troy), described by Dr. Hudson
in ' M. M. J.,' November, 1875, which Mr. Bolton had now found
again in another locality.

New Fellows :— The following were elected FeUoivs : — Messrs. J,
F. Hepburn, A. R. Kirby, W. R. Makins, F. Oxley, and J. H.
Puleston, M.P.

Walter W. Reeves,

Assist.-Secretary.

tT In consequence of the increase in the size of the Journal, the price to
Non-Fellows will after the present year be 4s. per Number.

4]/^ *^Sa^

T^Vol. II. No. 5.] AUGUST, 1879. [VricfsT

Journal

OF THE

Royal
Microscopical Society;

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

AND A RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA,
MICBOSCOPY, &c.,

INCLUDING EMBRYOLOGY AND HISTOLOGY GENERALLY.

Edited f under the direction of the Publication Committee, by

PRANK CRISP, LL.B., B.A., P.L.S.,

ONE OF THE SECRETARIES OF THE SOCIETY.

IT

WILLIAMS & NORGATE,

V^^ LONDON AND EDINBURGH. ^^ ^

■^i^« ep^^H

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AKD SONS,] [STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

JOUENAL

OF THE

KOYAL MICEOSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

VOL. 11. No. 5.

CONTENTS.

Transactions of the Society — paob
XXVI. On a New Species of Excavating Sponge (Aleotona

MiLLARl) ; AND ON A NeW SpECIES OF KhAPHIDOTHEOA

(E. AFFiNis). By H. J. Carter, F.E.S., &c 493

XXYII. On a New Genus op Foraminifeba (Aphkosina in-

FORMIS) ; AND SpICULATION OF AN UNKNOWN SpONGE.

By H. J. Carter, F.E.S., &c 500

XXVIII. On the Theory of Illuminating Apparatus employed
WITH the Microscope. Part I. By Dr. H. E. Fripp,

Ex.-Off. F.E.M.S 503

XXIX. Observations on Notommata Werneckii, and its Para-
sitism IN the Tubes of Vaucheria. By Professor

Balbiani .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 530

Ekoord of Current Eesearches relating to Invertebrata,

Cryptogamia, Microscopy, &c. .. .. .. .. .. 545

Zoology.

Nucleus in Blood-corpuscles 545

Division of Cartilage Cells 546

Final Changes in Meckel' t Cartilage 546

Histology of Nerve-fibre 546

Microscopical Phenomena of Muscular Contraction 547

Development of the Olfactory Nerve and Olfactory Organ of Vertebrates . . 547

Digestive Ferments of the Invertebrata 548

New Facts in the Anatomy of Molluscs 548

Generative Organs of the Cephalopoda 549

Observations on the Organization of Solenopus 550

Organ of Bojanus in Anodon 551

Development of the Salpidx 551

Affinities of the Poly zoa 553

Loxosoma 553

Barbed Hoohlets on Spines of a Brachiopod 553

Structure of the Cerebrum and Retina in the Arthropoda 554

Formation of the Blastoderm and of the Germ-layers in Insects 554

Mode of Recognition among Ants 555

Toilet Habits of Ants 556

Malformation in an Insect 558

Parasitic Insects 558

Notes on Phryganex 558

Habits and Intelligence of Vespa maculata 559

Observations on Peripatus 559

Basilica Spider and her Snare 559

Aeronautic Flight of Spiders 561

New and other Pycnogonida 562

Form of the Muscular Contraction in the Crayfish 562

Amphion and Polycheles ( Willemoesia) 563

Life-history of the Bopyrida} 563

Development of the Annelidea ■ 563

Anatomy of Magelona 567

Arrangement of the Nerve Cords in the Annelides 569

Gills of Serpuia 570

New Annelids from the Philippines 571

Trichinosis in a young Hippopotamus 571

New Diseases of Hot-house Rabiaceas 572

Female Organs of Echinorhynchus 572

Jensen's Turbellarian Worms of Norway 573

Reproductive Organs of the Marine Ect^arasitic Trematoda 573

Organization of Axine and Microcotyle 574

Life-history of the Tape-Worm of the Shreio 575

Eeoobd op Curbent Eesearches, &c. — continued. p^oe

^^ Comet-forms" of Starfishes 576

Genital Organs of Asterina gibbosa 579

Anatomy of Brisinga .. 579

Aspidura 581

Classification and Phylogeiiy of Actinozoa 581

New I'aludicolous Medusa 582

Charybdea raarsupialis 583

Halistemma tergestinum 584

Tubularia mesembryanthemum 585

Tlntinnus semiciliatus, a new Infusor 587

Blepharisma lateritia 588

Huptophrya gigantea, a new Opalinid from the Intestine of the Anourous

Batrachia " 588

Stein's ^ Organismus der Infusionsthiere' 590

^ of Light on Pelomyxa .. . . . . . . 591

Botany.

PermeabilHy of Pellicle Precipitates 592

Origin of Chlorophyll-grains 592

Heliotropism of Plants 593

Symbiosis 594

Is the Ovule an A xial or a Foliar Structure ? 594

Starch-transforming Ferments 595

Tannin in Vegetable Cells 595

Functions of Vessels 596

Embryology of Vascular Cryptogams 596

Adventitious Buds in Ferns 597

Production of the first vegetative Shoot of Equisetum palustre 597

Origin of Tubes in the Nostoc-colonies in Blasia 598

Endophytic Fungi in Pollen-grains 598

Bate of Germination of Fungus-spores and Growth of Mycelium .. .. 599

New parasitic Phycomycete 599

Tlie '' Carolo vero" and ^' Carolo bianco" of the Bice 600

Sporormia, a Subgenus of Sphxria .. [ 600

Sclerotium Orijzss 600

Structure of Depazeacese 601

Two New Vine-Parasites 601

Conjugation of Sivarmspores of Chroolepue 601

Formation of Conidia by a Bacillus 602

Fermentation of Cellulose 602

Besistance of Germs to a Temperature of 100° C 602

Observations on Microgonidia 603

LeigMon's Lichen-Flora 604

Microscopical Slides of Lichens 604

Structure and Mode of Beproduction of Cutleriacex 605

Neio Parasitic Alga 606

Siphonocladacex, a new Group of Green Algse 606

Besting Condition of Vaucheria geminata 607

Italian Algse 607

Subalpine Desmidiese 607

Algse from Lake Nyassa 608

Thallus of the Diatomacese 608

Systematic Position of the Volvocinem 609

Microscopy, &c.

Corrosion as a Eistological Method 610

Staining-fluids 612

Dr. SeUer's Staining Processes 613

Isolation of the Optic Nerve Fibres and Ganglion Cells of the Mammalian

Betina 614

Preparation of Diatoms in situ : means of avoiding Air-btibbles 616

Mechanical Turntables 616

Improved Turntables 617

Large Mi cro-pjhotographs 619

Dr. Sorby at Cambridge 619

Unit of Micrometry 620

Formation of the Paraboloid as an Illuminator for the Microscope .. .. 620

Black-Ground Dlumination 623

Botating Clips for Cheap Microscopes 623

Contrivance for holding Objects beneath the Stage 624

Bibliography .. .. ,. .. ,. ., .. ., 625

Proceedings of the Sooiety .. .. .. .. .. .. 645

HENRY CROUCH'S

FIEST- CLASS MICEOSCOPES

(JACKSON MODEL),

OBJECTIVES, AND ACCESSORIES.

HENRY OEOUOH, 66, Barbican, London, E.G.

Agents in Ambbica —
JAMES W. QUEEN & CO., 924, Ohestnut Street, Philadelphia, U.S. .

JOUR. R. MIC. SOC.VOL.n.Pl.XVII.

Fig. 7

Alectona Millari. n. sp.

Mintern Bros irap.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY

AUGUST, 1879.

TEANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

XXVI. — On a Neiv Species of Excavating! Sponge {Alectona
Milla7-i) ; and on a New Species of Rhaphidotheca (B. affinis).

By H. J. Carter, F.E.S., &c.

{Bead 11th June, 1879.)
Plates XVII. and XVIIa, Figs. 1-4.

At the request of Dr. Millar I undertake the description of these
sponges respectively, prefacing the former with his own observa-
tions, which are as follows : —

" In the month of May last, while looking for sponges on a
piece of Amphihelia oculata given to me by Dr. Duncan, I noticed
on it numerous small, cribrate, flattish papillae, of a pale ])inkish
colour, slightly raised above the surface, which, when detached and
examined microscopically, were found to be almost entirely com-
posed of spicules so hke those of a Gorgonia that, until tried with
acid, I could not be convinced of their siliceous composition. Seek-
ing for the form of the largest ones in the late Dr. Bowerbank's
' Monograph of the British Spongiadae,' I found them to correspond
with the spicule figured in No. 245,* which Dr. Bowerbank
believed ' to belong to a sponge not yet identified.'

" Having in vain attempted to extricate one of these papillas

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII.

Fig. 1. — Alectona Millari, n. sp. Longitudinal section of branch of coral of
Amphihelia ocu'ata. Dune, showing: — act, excavated portion occupied by Hio
Sponge; 6, cribriform papilla; cc, minute processes.

Fig. 2. — The same. Cribriform papilla, more magnified.
„ 3. — „ Skeleton-spicules.

„ 4. — „ Subskeleton-spicules.

„ 5. — „ Varieties of subskeleton-spicules.

„ 6. — „ Flesh-spicules.

„ 7. — „ Larger variety of flesh-spicules.

VOL. II.

Vol. i. pi. xi.

2i,

494 Transactions of the Society.

by mechanical means, I subjected a portion of the coral bearing one
to the influence of acid, when the papilla above mentioned was not
only eliminated in a perfect state, but numerous brown points
made their appearance at various depths from the surface of the
coral, which, as the latter became entirely dissolved by the acid,
were, together with the cribrate papilla, found to be processes of
membranous, cellular sarcode, presenting a brown colour (in its
dried state), which lined the centre of the coral, now reduced by
excavation from solidity to a mere shell in many parts. These
' processes ' which were conical and thus engaged in excavating the
coral, might also, on reaching the surface, grow into the form of
cribriform papillae if necessary.

"As the sponge appears to be nearly allied to Gummina
Wallichii* recently described and illustrated by Mr. Carter, which
he informs me has therein by mistake been called ' Corticium,'
I do not think I can do better than hand it over to him for
technical record."

Having thus premised Dr. Millar's remarks on his discovery,
I now proceed to comply with his request.

Alectona \ Millari, Crtr. n. sp.
Amorphous, excavating, membranous, cellular, consisting of
simple, fibreless sarcode (now, i. e. in its dried state, brown and
gum-like), charged with the spicules of the species and projecting
outwardly, in processes of different forms and different degrees of
length, until some reach the surface, where they appear like flat-
tened papillae. " Processes " of two kinds, viz. those which form
papillae on the surface, which are comparatively large, and those
which extend more or less into the substance of the coral, which
are minute. Papillary processes of two forms, viz. one with an
irregularly circular, more or less flattened, cribrate head, in which
the spicules of the species, imbedded in sarcode, produce a cribri-
form structure dividing the area of the head into a variable
number of minute apertures, each of which in all probability, when
fresh, is provided with a delicate sphinctral diaphragm of sarcode
(PI. XVIIa, Figs. 1 and 2) ; and the other, with a conical head in
which the spicules are arranged radiatingly, so that when retracted
in the living state, a single large aperture only would be presented.
Each form of the papilla when largest, about gV iiich in dia-
meter, but variable, down to ■^'^^ inch with holes in the latter
correspondingly small, viz. t-sVt7 to TSTio inch in diameter.
Minute conical processes or points engaged in excavating the coral,
but all charged to the extremity with spicules of the species,

* ' Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' vol. iii. 1879, p. S.^S.
t Alecto, one of the Furies.

Neiv Species of Excavating Sponge, &c. By H. J. Carter, 495

especially the largest, which will be described presently, Fig. 1, cc.
Pore - areae represented by the cribriform, and vents by the
conical papillae respectively. Spicules of four forms, viz, 1, the
largest or skeleton-spicule, acerate, abruptly curved or rather bent
in the middle, covered with tubercles arranged linearly and longi-
tudinally in twelve rows ; tubercle simply conical, or divided into
two or more portions at the extremity, arranged alternately in
adjoining rows extending over the ends of the shaft, so as to render
the latter obtuse and irregular ; medullary canal angular in the
centre and more or less undulating throughout; skeleton-spicule
about J^ by ^^^^ inch in its greatest dimensions (Fig. 3) ; 2, sub-
skeleton-spicule, acerate, also abruptly curved or bent in the centre,
more or less obtusely pointed at the ends, sparsely covered with
tubercles irregular in number and situation, sometimes absent
altogether, about ^}jjf by :fTj\rTr inc^i in its greatest dimensions,
but very variable in all respects (Figs. 4 and 5) ; 3, acerate
undulating, almost immeasurably fine, hair-like, wuth an enlarge-
ment in the centre barrel-shaped, inflated in the middle and at the
ends respectively, about s^^j inch long; 4, flesh-spicule, consist-
ing of a straight microspined shaft, interrupted in its course by
two circles of tubercles equidistant from the extremities and from
each other, about xttVct inch long, but very variable in size, and
in number and disposition of the tubercles (Figs, ii and 7 ). Spicules
scattered more or less generally throughout the sarcode of the
sponge, where they appear to be chiefly congregated, especially the
larger ones, in the projecting processes. Size indefinite, extending
in this instance throughout the main stem and branches of the
specimen of Amphihelia oculata which is about 5^ inches long and
2 inches in transverse diameter, the thickest branch being | inch
in diameter.

Hah. Marine, in the coral of Amphihelia oculata, Duncan,
Log. North Atlantic Ocean, between N. of Scotland and Faroe
Islands ('Porcupine,' 1869, Sta. 54) ; lat. N. 59^ 56' ; long. W.
6^ 27'; depth, 863 fathoms; bottom temp. 31° 4'.

Ohs. Examined in the dried state. This evidently is a
variety of, if not the same species as Gummina Wallichii (mendose
scrip. " Corticium " /. c.) under a shghtly difierent form of spicula-
tion, of which species it is stated * that " further observation "
could only determine its real nature, as so little of it had been
obtained, that this could not then be even satisfactorily inferred.
Curious enough, this had hardly been pubHshed before Dr. J,
Millar found the specimen above described in Amjjhihelia oculata,
which is so like Gummina Wallichii that no doubt can be enter-
tained of the latter belonging to the " excavating sponges," and
that, too, to one of the most devastating kinds that I have met

♦ Page 354 op. et I c.

2 L 2

496 Transactions of the Society.

with. Were we only to see a fragment of the brown substance
from the interior of the coral in its dried state, the homogeneous,
fibreless character of the then gum-like sarcode, although charged
with spicules, might induce one to think that it belonged to the
Gumminida, and so, provisionally, I called the species described in
the 'Annals' (I. c.) Gummina {mendose, Corticium) Wallichii;
but Dr. Millar's discovery undoubtedly proves it to be an " exca-
vating sponge," so the generic name " Gummina " will still have
to be changed to meet this in the way that will presently be
mentioned.

The spiculation in Aledona MiJlari (it is the only form that I
can give to " Alecto," which has been so often used, and as often
transformed, for other things), is somewhat different from what I
have figured of Gummijia Wallichii (I c), and these differences
are as follows: — In the skeleton-spicule (No. 1) the tubercles are
conical or divided at the extremity, and not smooth, round, inflated,
flattened and undivided as in G. WaUichii ; while the earlier
untubercled form of this spicule (pi. xxix. fig. 6, op. et I. c.)
coming so near in size to the large tubercled form, I have not seen
in A. Millari ; but there are much smaller ones, viz. No. 2, that
might stand for this, and amongst these every grade in form
between the large skeleton-spicule No. 1 and the minute flesh-
spicule No, 4. So that when compared with the spiculation of
Gummina WaUichii as a standard, the whole of the former, cha-
racterized by their extreme variability, can only be considered as
derivative from the latter, and hence my opinion that Alectona
Millari is only a variety of Gummina Wallichii.

At last, then, the nature of this sponge has been discovered,
whose singularly beautiful skeleton-spicules created such a desire to
know their origin ; and thus, as just stated, it becomes necessary to
change the name " Gummina " to the generic one of " Alectona."
With this, too, it seems desirable, now that three distinct genera
of " excavating sponges" are knoun, the whole should, from this
distinguishing peculiarity, be placed under one family, to which
hereafter it is very possible that more may be added. To effect
this I would propose the following classification, viz. : —

Order VI. HoLorvHAPHiDOTA.
Family. Eccoelonida.*
Char. Sponges burrowing in hard calcareous objects, organic
and inorganic, communicating with the exterior through small
fenestral openings ; sarcode fibreless, but spiculiferous.

Gen. 1. Cliona, Grant, 1826.
Possessing a pin-like spicule, with or without subskeleton and
flesh-spicules. riesh-sj)icule sinuous, smooth, or microspined.

* iKKoiKaivw, to hollow out.

New Species of Excavating Sponge, dtc. By H. J. Carter. 497

• Gen. 2. Thoosa, Hancock, 1849.

Form of skeleton-spicule undetermined (? '• multifid "). Flesh-
spicule nodular, consisting of a stout shaft, terminated at each
extremity by a globular inflation, and encircled by two rings of
similar inflations equidistant from the extremities respectively and
from each other.*

Gen. 3. Alectona, Crtr., 1879.

Skeleton-spicule acerate, abruptly curved or bent in the centre,
tubercled throughout, Flesh-spicule spindle-like, consisting of a
straight shaft, pointed at the extremities and encircled by two
rings of tubercles equidistant from each other and from the ends
of the shaft respectively, t

It is not improbable that Samus anonyma X may have to
come in as a fourth genus.

Lastly, I would observe, with reference to Aleetona Millari,
that on one part of the specimen of AmpTiihelia was an irregular
mass about two lines in diameter horizontally, and ^V inch
high, opaque and cream-coloured, looking very much like a bit of
Alcyonium, especially from the form of its spicules when viewed
under the Microscope, but which, on the application of acid, proved
to be entirely siliceous and identical in spiculation with A. Millari.
Thus, A. Millari, like Cliona celata, may leave its burrows and
grow up externally into a massive form.

The papilla, too, may be represented by a solid mass or plug
of spicules, when it appears to have become effete, and the whole mass
externally, composed of sarcode charged with spicules of the species
mixed with, and finally faced by foreign material, i. e. quartz-sand,
with a slight admixture of carbonate of lime, which causes it to
effervesce under the influence of acid ; thus entirely devoid of pores
or passages.

Rhaphidotheca, Kent, 1870.
(' Ann. and Mag. Nat. History,' vol. vi. p. 222, pi. xv.)

Rhaphidotheca affinis, n. sp.

Another sponge found and recognized by Dr. Millar upon this
specimen of Aynphihelia oculata is similar to that described and
illustrated by Mr. Saville Kent,§ which came from a specimen of a
like kind, viz. Lophohelia prolifera ; that is, it consists of an

* See Hancock's figure and description, ' Ann. and Mag. Nat. History,* 1849,
vol. iii. p. 346, pi. xii. figs. 2, &c. ; also ibid., 1879, vol. iii. pi. xxix. fig. 21.
t Ibid, ih., p. 353, pi. xxix. figs. 5-9, Corticimn, now Alectona Wallichii.
X Ibid, ib., I. c. p. 350, pi. xlix. fig. 1, &c. § Op. et I. c.

498. Transactions of the Society.

Esperia faced by a crust of pin-like spicules arranged perpendicu-
larly to the surface of the Esperia, with their heads outwards and
their pointed ends struck into the dermal layer of the latter like
pins into a pin-cushion, so that these spicules appear to have been
appropriated by the Esperia itself, as I have before stated.* But
the fragment found by Dr. Millar not being more than one-third
of an inch in diameter, and very imperfect, does not afford sufficient
character for a description of the general form of the sponge,
although the details are quite enough to prove that it is what I
have stated. Herein, however, consists the most important part,
for the heads of the pin-like spicules and the anchorates respectively
are different in form from those of Bhaphidoiheca Mars! tall- Hallii
Kent, t Thus, the head of the former is flask-shaped elongate
(Plate XVIIa, Fig. 1), while that of K Marshall- Hallii (Fig. 2) is
globular oblate ; % and the small end of the inequianchorate com-
paratively longer and truncate (Fig. 3), not round and comparatively
shorter as in that of B. Marshall- Hallii (Fig. 4).§ In every other
respect B,. affinis is almost identical with B. Marshall-Hallii, as
slight differences in the size of spicules, such as may be found in
the larger bihamates of B. Marshall-Hallii, go for nothing in
specific distinction ; while the head of a pin-like spicule and the form
of an inequianchorate often vary much, even in the same individual.
Still, the differences in the form of the anchorate here seem to me
to be sufficient to constitute a variety, if not another species of
Esperia, and hence I have designated it " affinis " ; while the
difference in the heads of the pin-like spicules respectively, still
further strengthens this view. The pin-like spicule and anchorate of
B. Marshall-Hallii from a fragment of the type-specimen, are
figured in the Plate by the side of those of B. affinis for comparison.

As, however, the form of the pin-like spicule both of B. Marshall-
Hallii and B. affinis, especially as regards its head, has, with
much search, not yet been found in any sponge possessing a pin-
like spicule, either as a Cliona about the specimen of Amphihelia,
or elsewhere, it becomes questionable whether the difference has
not been produced by the Esperia after these spicules had been
appropriated ; for the sarcode has the power of producing such
changes by the addition of more siliceous material in Sponges
where the spicules themselves have been produced.

Still the value of Mr. Kent's record now becomes evident, for
what he has stated Dr. Millar has found to be repeated in another
species, and therefore it may fairly be inferred that other instances
of a like nature may follow.

As regards the absence of the sinuous flesh-spicule in B. affinis,
while it is present in B. Marshall-Hallii, this does not militate

* 'Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' 1878. vol. i. p. 170.

t Ibid, 1870, vol. vi. pi. xv. J Ibid., /. c. fig. G. § Ibid, /. c. fig. 7.

New Species of Excavating! Sponge, &c. By H. J. Carter. 499

against the probable appropriation of these spicules; while the
presence of the Esperian rosettes in B. affinis (where they are
abundant), and their absence in B. Marshall-Hallii, is met by the
facts — first, that when in equianch orates have attained their full
development in the rosettes, the latter break up and they are
dispersed ; and second, the statement of Dr. Bowerbank that,
wherever there are inequi-smchoTSites there may or may not be
rosettes.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIIa. Figs. 1-4.

Fig. 1. — Rhaphidotheca affinis, n. sp. Pin-like spicule. Scale -^ to ^^^ inch.

Fig. 2. — R. Marshall-HaUH. Pin-like spicule. Same scale.

Fig. 3. — Rhaphidotheca affinis. Inequianchorate. a, front view ; 6, lateral
view. Same scale.

Fig. 4. — R. Marshall-Hallii, Inequianchorate. a, front view; 6, lateral view.
Same scale.

N.B. — The pin-like spicule and inequianchorate of Rhaphidotheca Marshall'
HalUi, drawn from a fragment of the type-specimen, are introduced here for
comparison.

500 Transactions of the Society.

XXVIL— On a New Genus of Foraminifera (Aphrosina informis),
and Sjnculation of an unknown Sponge.

By H. J. Carteb, F.E.S., &c.

{Read 11th June, 1879.)
Plate XVIIa, Figs. 5-12.

On the same specimeu of the coral of Amphihelia oculata wherein
Dr. Millar found Alectona Millari* I also found a species of
Foraminifera which I think must he considered the type of a new
genus. It had grown round a hole about three-quarters of an
inch in diameter formed by the sudden reunion of a branch which
had undergone division (Plate XVIIa, Fig. 5, d) ; and resembling a
bit of froth which consists of vesicles of different sizes, irregularly
spread abroad and heaped upon each other, I have designated it
thereafter, thus giving it the following name and description, vi2L :

Aphrosina'^ informis, nov. gen. et sp.

Amorphous, flat, spreading ; slightly convex and uneven
superiorly or on the free surface ; smooth and unil'orm below or on
the fixed surface, where it is attached to the object on which it has
grown ; margin thin and irregular. Composed of a great number
of vertically compressed chambers of different shapes and sizes
formed successively one after another, and sometimes one upon
another with the greatest irregularity, presenting on the surface a
number of convexities corresponding with the shapes and sizes of
the chambers below respectively (Fig. 6). Surface presenting a

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIIa. Figs. 5-12.

Fig. 5. — Aphrosina informis, n. gen. et sp. a, portion of tlie coral of Amphihelia
oculata ; b, hole formed by the reunion of the branch c ; d, Aphrosina informis in
situ. Natural size.

Fig. 6. — The same. Diagram. Fragment of the surface to show its con-
vexities opposite the subjacent chambers, a, puncta representing hemispherical
tubercles ; 6, apertures on the margin.

Fig. 7. — The same. Diagram. Vertical section to show — a, cavity of
chamber ; 6, intercaraeral aperture ; c, arch or upper wall ; d, floor or lower wall';
ee e, manner in which the chambers are successively added.

Pig. 8, — The same. Diagram. Fragment to show the apertures.

Fig. 9.— The same. Diagram to scale of ^^ to -^~^, inch showing linearly —
a a a, the polygonal division and its pore tesselating the surface ; and bbb, the hemi-
spherical tubercles ; all relatively magnified both as to size and position.

Fig. 10. — The same. Diagram of vertical section drawn to same scale, showing
— a a a, prismatic pillars and their tubes respectively ; 6 b'J), hemispherical
tubercles ; all relatively magnified both as to size and position.

Fig. 11. — The same. Aperture, on same scale.

Fig. 12. — Spiculation of unknown sponge, a, skeleton-spiciile; 6, bihamate j
c, equianchorate. Drawn to the scale of -^\ to -^Jj^-^ inch, and all relatively
magnified.

* Vide preceding paper. t ^<Ppos, sea-froth.

JOUR.R. MIC SOC.VOLJI.PI.XVII'

\^

ru4 a\

®

:^^

8.

^m^^^^

,9 OQOC/

-V ?.

10 \\\\\,

»^

"

til w

i-4-. Rhaphidottieca affinis Ti sp.
3-12 Aphro sma mformis nov gen «

On a New Genus of Foraminifera, etc. Bi/ H. J. Carter. 501

minute tesselation of polygonal areae in the centre of each of which
is a punctiiui or pore, and irregularly scattered over this again, a
great number of hemispherical tubercles (Fig. 9, a, h) ; polygonal
areae about ttjVo i^ich in diameter ; pore about -^^^^^ inch ; hemi-
spherical tubercle, which is hollow, from rjl^ inch to ^l^ inch in
diameter, and from y Jo itich to yiu inch apart (Figs. 9 and 10, a, h).
Infernal structure : largest chamber about ^V inch in horizontal
diameter and -fV inch high (inside measurement) ; more or less
filled, with (now) dry apparently homogeneous sarcode, that is,
without fragments of sponge-spicules or any other foreign material ;
arched over superiorly and more or less straight inferiorly, that is,
following the surface of the object on which it may be growing
(Fig. 7, a) ; upper wall about 7, ^jtr inch thick, constructed of vertical
prismatic pillars in juxtaposition traversed by a central tube
whose external end, together with that of the prismatic pillar, forms
the minute tesselated surface above mentioned, and its inner end
that of the roof of the chamber, through which, communication
between the external and internal parts of the test is effected ;
pillars arranged perpendicularly to the curve of the wall and
together with their tubes of the same diameters as the polygonal
areaj and pores of the surface respectively (Figs. 7, a, and 10, a).
Chambers communicating with each other by means of one or
more apertures (Fig. 7, h). Lower wall or floor (Fig. 7, d) less thick
than the roof, but still traversed more or less by the vertical
tubulation, and presenting a larger hole here and there which
must have allowed the sarcode of the chamber to come into direct
contact with the coral. Aperture in plurality on the margin
opposite the chambers respectively supported on a papillary pro-
jection about ^^0 inch in diameter ; the hole itself about ^^0 inch
(Figs. 8 and 11). Size of specimen about one inch in diameter,
that is, three times that of the circular space in the coral which
it surrounds ; maximum thickness about ^V inch.

Eab. Marine, on the coral of Amfhilielia oculata.

Log. North Atlantic Ocean, between N. of Scotland and Faroe
Islands (' Porcupine,' 18C9, Sta. 54) ; lat. N. 59^ 56'; long. W.
6° 27'; depth, 3t)3 fathoms; bottom temp. 31° 4'.

Ohs. Of this species I have already stated that it appears to be
new, and although it is to a certain extent like Carpenteria, it
nevertheless differs in the flat, vesicular character of its chambers
extended more or less horizontally over the same plane ; in the
absence of elongated branched apertures; and that of foreign
material (fragments of sponge-spicules, &c.) in its sarcode, with
which the chambers of Carpenteria are invariably filled. The
presence of hemispherical tubercles scattered over the poriferous
surface is a common occurrence or feature on the tests of many
Foraminifera ; while the prismatic structure of the wall in which

502 Transactions of the Society.

each prism is traversed by a tube, represents the so-called " pore
tubulation."

The vesication of Aphrosina informis forcibly recalls to mind
that of j¥]fhalium septicum, -whose active state is so like Amoeba ;
and whose form and appearance sometimes, are almost identical with
LieherJciihnia Wagneri*

SjpicuJation of an unknoivn Sponge.

On the surface of the foregoing species of Aphrosina informis
are plentifully strewn the spicular remains of an unknown sponge
remarkable for the size of the larger bihamates, which almost equal
in length the skeleton - spicule, and on this account it seems
desirable to record the fact, together mth an illustration of each
spicule drawn to the same scale, viz. ^^ inch to ^oVxr inch, in order
that their relative sizes may be at once realized.

Skeleton - spicule acuate, slightly fusiform, and sometimes
spinulate (Plate XVIIa, Fig. 12, a); large flesh-spicule bihamate,
simple, smooth, showing plainly the central canal (Fig. 12, h) ;
small flesh-spicule equianchorate, navicular, alae or flukes inflected
(Fig. 12, c).

Skeleton-spicules in successive bundles, indicating a fibrous
arrangement, among which the bihamates of various sizes are
plentifully scattered, together with a few equianchorates. The
spiculation somewhat resembles that of Esperia villosa.^

* Clap, et Lach., ' Etudes Infusor.,' vol. i. pi. 23.

t ' Annals,' 1874, vol. xiv. pi. xiii. fig. 13, &c. (' Porcupine ' dredgings).

( 503 )

XXVIII. — On the Theory of Illuminating Apparatus employed

ivi'th the Microscope. Part I.

By Dr. H. E. Fmpp, Ex.-Off. F.K.M.S.*

(Bead llth June, 1879.)

Whoever tries to explain the diverse practice of microscopists in
illuminating difficult objects, will find it equally hard to reconcile
the conflicting opinions upon which this practice is based, and the
contradictory results obtained by the methods employed. And
the question will naturally arise in his mind, whether all micro-
scopists accept in the same sense, and with the same confidence,
those optical principles whose validity is beyond question, but whose
practical import depends entirely upon their correct application.

For when the performance of the different kinds of illuminators
is under discussion, the sincerity of appeal to optical principle often
seems so dubious that one cannot but be impressed with the con-
viction of the expediency of reconsidering the whole theory of the
action of the various apparatus now in use.

If there be no common ground of accepted doctrine it is
obviously impossible to institute precise comparisons of the several
excellencies, defects, or relative fitness for the particular purpose
for which each illuminator is used (or designed), until some
general rationale of their optical action has been established, and
the more or less perfect realization of this optical rationale has been
demonstrated for each case. My aim, therefore, in the present
paper is to systematize as far as lies in my power those general
propositions which, if accepted as rightly representing the optical
aspects of the subject, may be used as a basis and standard of such
comparisons. But while it is necessary to keep in view the various
modes of action of the various apparatus used, in order to draw the
particular conclusions upon which general propositions may be
founded, I purpose to avoid all side issues involved in the attempt
to decide for or against the claims severally advanced by the
advocates of one or the other illuminator. It would indeed be
impossible to include within prescribed limits a reasoned estimate
of the performance of each separate invention, and equally fruitless
to enter upon bypaths of theory which only interest those who are
studying special objects and employing unusual methods of pro-
cedure according to the requirements of the illuminator used or
object examined. Any inferences here drawn on general theoretical
grounds respecting the real worth and use of the several classes of
illuminators, will turn not upon art and skill of construction, but
upon the optical intention and actual fulfilment of service in
perfecting the definition of the Microscope image. In a word, my
* President of the Bristol Naturalists* Society.

504 Transactions of the Society.

standpoint is the direct co-ordination of the illuminator and
objective considered as ixirts of the same instrument tending hy one
combined series of acts to a common result in which the function
of each part is a complement of the other.

But it may be objected that a theory of illumination is better
rej^laced by the p7'actice which has long been successfully carried
out by force of instinct aided by a little empirical manipulation, and
that every microscopist can thus gain sufficient insight and mastery
of his instrument to become independent alike of the restraints of
theory and the methods of science. Or that, if inclined to rest his
practice on a firmer foundation, he has only to turn to some
" manual " and find therein all needful guidance. Such, indeed, is
the general belief; and he who dissents from it in the face of
current opinion and " authority " will scarcely escape the imputation
of prejudice or presumption. Nevertheless I put in my plea of
" not guilty," and proceed to offer reasons for dissent from the
popular creed.

1. The microscopic image cannot be interpreted by mere
intuition or insight of indisputable self-evident realities, but is the
outcome of a prolonged study of optical phenomena occurring under
unusual conditions, and presented to the eye in an unusual form.
Visual perception may be correct as regards the optical efi'ects
presented, but this does not ensure accuracy of inference regard-
ing the objective facts which are their antecedent. Experience
teaches us that a perfect optical image requires a critically perfect
illumination of the object ; but a knowledge of optical effects as
complete as exact science can make it is required before this
illumination can be effected with certainty and constancy. No
amount of practice will confer the power of discriminating between
adventitious effects (which are yet true in an optical sense) and
those which really characterize some structural detail of the object.
The fact that a clearly seen and perfectly defined image is in a
large number of cases not conformable with the object itself has
been demonstrated beyond possibility of dispute.*

2. Yet our handbooks have nothing to say on these matters
which can assist even the novice in his theoretical studies. The
ordinary schoolboy crib from some elementary treatise on dioptrics
transferred with no little parade to the introductory chapters of
our handbooks as optical principles of the Microscope (!) is simply
an evasion of the obhgation (confessed, indeed, in the attempt) to
explain the formation and character of the Microscope image.
And. so far as the theory of illumination is concerned, catoptric
problems of fundamental significance, such as the action of plane

* For further observations on this subject I beg to refer to various articles
in the Bristol Naturalists' Society's ' Proceedings,' and particularly to an essay on
the question, '■ Is there a Science of Microscopy ? "

Theory of Illuminating ApiMvatus. By Dr. H. E. Frij^p. 505

and concave mirror, are either omitted altogether or treated in a
manner which is at variance with the first principles of optical
science. The same erroneous teaching is even chargeable against
some of the diagrams illustrating refraction and reflection of light,
while the general poverty of diagrams explanatory of optical
problems is scarcely redeemed by figures of lamps and instruments
interesting only to the maker and mechanical draughtsman. So
again, when practical directions are substituted for theory, inconsis-
tencies which crop up while consulting " authorities " demonstrate
the present uncertainty of rule and inconstancy of result. On the
part of the general body of microscopists, this leaning towards
authority weakens the power of and trust in personal observation,
and proportionally lengthens the reign of divided doctrine and
opinion. Thus it happens that the first difficulty encountered by
the beginner — namely, the fitting illumination of objects viewed
through the Microscope — still remains the last difficulty to be over-
come by the experienced microscopist.

B. Since then we look in vain for any systematic exposition of
the principles of action upon which the performance of the several
classes of illuminator (reflecting, refracting, or combined apparatus)
depends, it seems expedient to collect such evidence as our micro-
graphy may afford of the current doctrine and practice in England,
in order that we may form a just estimate of the subject before
attempting any alternative theoretical views. The extracts here
quoted are chosen solely on account of the optical principles,
implied though not always expressed, on which the practical
remarks are based. In the present paper the consideration of the
theory and practice of illuminating opaque objects is omitted, as
this part of the subject is more conveniently treated separately,
though not involving any essential difference of principle.

Mr. Eoss pertinently remarks, " The manner in which an
object is lighted is second in importance only to the excellence of
the glass through which it is seen." And again, " The principal
question in regard to illumination is the magnitude of the illu-
minating pencil, particularly in reference to transparent objects.
Generally speaking, the illuminating pencil should be as large as
can be received by the lens, and no larger. Any light beyond this
produces indistinctness and glare. The superfluous light from the
mirror can be cut off by a screen having various sized apertures
placed below the stage" (diaphragm).

Mr. J. Smith says, " In viewing transparent objects the plane
mirror is most suitable for bright daylight ; the concave for a lamp
or candle, which should have the bull's-eje lens, when that is used,
so close to it that the rays may fall nearly parallel on the mirror.
If the bull's-eye lens is not used the light-source should not be
more tlian five or six inches from the mirror. This latter is seldom

506 Transactions of the Society.

required to be more than three inches from the object, the details
of which are best shown when the rays from the mirror fall upon it
before crossing, and the centre (of mirror) should be, especially by
lamplight, in the axis of the IMicroscope. For obscure objects
seen by transmitted light and /or outline a full central illumination
is commonly best ; tjut for seeing delicate lines (e. g. on insect
scales) it should be made to fall obliquely and in a direction at
right angles to the lines to be viewed. The diaphragm is often of
great use in modifying the light and stopping such rays as would
confuse the image (especially with low or moderate powers), but
many cases occur when the effects desired are best produced by
admitting the whole from the mirror. If an achromatic condenser
is employed instead of the diaphragm its axis should correspond
with that of the body, and its glasses when adjusted to their right
place should show the image of the source of artificial light, or by
day, that of a cloud or window-bar in the field of the Microscope
while the object to be viewed is in focus."

The above directions are quite compatible with a correct theory
of illumination, though it cannot be said that they constitute any
systematic expression of such a theory. If we now turn to the
practical directions given by Sir D. Brewster in his article on
the Microscope in the seventh edition of the 'Encyclopaedia
Britannica,' * we find certain directions relating to the position
of the observer, the condition of the conjunctiva of the eye, the
proper direction of lined objects in relation to the flow of moisture
over the conjunctiva, which may be passed over, and certain rules
to be observed in managing the illumination, which I here quote.

Firstly. The eye should be protected from all extraneous light,
and should not receive any of the light which proceeds from the
illuminating centre except that portion of it which is transmitted
through or reflected from the object.

Fifthly. The field of view should be contracted so as to exclude
every part of the object excepting that which is under immediate
examination.

Sixthly. The hght employed for illuminating the object
should have as small a diameter as possible. In the daytime it
should be a single hole in the window-shutter of a darkened room,
and at night it should be an aperture placed before an argand
lamp.

Seventhly. In all cases, and particularly when very high
powers are requisite, the natural diameter of the light employed
should be diminished and its intensity increased by optical con-
trivances.

The eiyhth direction refers to the use of homogeneous light.

Sir D. Brewster's essay on the Microscope marks an important

* Vol. XV. )S42.

Theory of Illuminating Apparatus. By Br. H. E. Fripp. 507

date in the history of English invention of Microscope apparatus,
for since this date the claim of construction upon scientific
principles has been steadily preferred. It is therefore woith while
to look upon the theory and practice of the present day from the
standpoint of those who are its earlier founders, and whose mastery
of optical science is acknowledged.

Sir D. Brewster states the case as it stood in 1820 with candid
accuracy, as follows: —

" But the nature of the light employed, the magnitude of the
pencil (thrown on the illuminator), its condition with regard to
parallelism, divergency, or convergency, and. the diameter of the
pencil employed (i. e. thrown on the object), or the direction in
which it falls upon the object, and upon which the performance of
the finest instrument essentially depends, have never been discussed
as matters of science."

The deduction by which Sir D. Brewster arrives at his theory
of illumination is based upon the following physical and phy-
siological grounds. If, he says, the object upon which a Micro-
scope is focussed be lit by a surface containing an infinite number
of radiant points, the images formed on the retina of the shadows
caused by the intervention of opaque parts of the object will not be
coincident, because these opaque parts cannot possibly be situate
exactly in the focal point of the crossed rays, and also because of
the spherical aberration which gives difierent conjugate foci for
images formed by pencils passing through the lens at difierent
distances from its central axis. Hence the indistinctness of the
total efiect produced by a number of not accurately coincident
(that is overlapping) images, and the importance of illuminating
the object from one point only. And this theory is embodied in
the practical directions above quoted.

From what follows it will be seen that this physical and
physiological reasoning is untenable. It is sufiicient to point out
here that the " condenser " which Sir D. Brewster designed with
the special object of lighting the object from a point, upsets his
own theory; as the source of light is practically the surface of the
lens nearest to the object — a relatively large surface from which
pencils of considerable angular value are directed at various
mclination to the axis ! consequently the illumination by daylight
from a single hole in a window-shutter has no support from the
practice of artificial illumination, while it is self-evident that when
a mirror only is employed the illumination is simply enfeebled by
exclusion of light.

It is therefore not a little remarkable that in discussing the
proper method of illuminating objects for the solar Microscope (by
"reflected " light), Sir D. Brewster discards the illumination from
a single point, because " in consequence of the light arriving- from

508 Transactions of the Society.

one direction only' the surface of the iUnminated object is covered
with deep shadows, and the intensity of illumination is by no means
sufficient when the power of the instrument is considered." Hence
he proposes '• that the sun's light should be reflected by a very large
mirror through four apertures, each of which is furnished with an
illuminating lens. By these means the light would fall upon the
object in four different directions, and by shutting up one or more
of the four lenses (or parts of them) we shall be enabled to find the
particular direction of the light which is best suited for developing
the structure."

In 1829 Dr. Wollaston's observations were made public, and a
drawing of his condenser given in the ' Philosophical Transac-
tions ' ; and we next quote from Sir D. Brewster's essay * the
following passage : — " The marked difference between the methods
of illumination proposed by Dr. WoUaston and Sir D. Brewster,
induced the latter to publish in 18^1 a paper " On the Principle of
Illumination of Microscopic Objects." In this paper the mistake
committed by Dr. Wollaston is clearly pointed out. The rays which
Dr. Wollaston throws upon the object, in place of being rays
actually converyed to a focus, as they ought to be, are rays which
diverge from a focus situated between the object and the lens.
He makes the focal point of the circular margin of the perforation
(that is, the diaphragm) fall upon the object without considering
that the rays which pass through that perforation do not diverge
from it, and therefore cannot be collected in the conjugate focus
corresponding to the perforation. In Dr. Wollaston's diagram t
the rays which are incident on the mirror are actually drawn as
parallel rays, and it is quite clear that he meant them to be
parallel rays issuing from the bull's-eye lantern which he recom-
mends. But if we suppose that a common flame is used, the error
is just of the same nature. It is a distinct image of the flame that
should be thrown on the object, and hence the perforation (diaphragm
aperture) should be placed close to the flame, the source of light
and the illuminated object forming the conjugate foci of the lens."

It is not for the sake of controversy, but because the sharp
criticism of Dr. Wollaston's invention by Sir D. Brewster offers a
starting-point for a more progressive discussion of the theory of
illumination, that the present writer ventures in a humble way to
re-enact the part of sartor resartus.

It is first of all tt) be noted that the original intention of an
illuminator which should collect light on the object was not to
condense it, but to exclude any other rays from the field of vision
except such as came through or from the object. Dr. Wollaston
lays down the following proposition which Sir D. Brewster accepts

* 'Encvclop. Brit.,' vol. xv. p 49, 7tli cd.
t ' I'hif. Trans.,' 1S29, plitc ii. fig. 1.

Theory of Illuminating Apparatus. Bij Dr. H. E. Fripp. 509

as the same, " thougli not so fully developed," as his own proposi-
tions enunciated in 1 and 5. " In the illumination of microscopic
objects, wliatever light is collected and brought to the eye beyond
that which is fully commanded by the object-glasses tends rather to
impede than to assist vision." In the next place. Dr. Wollaston
plainly states that the intensity of illumination will depend upon
the diameter of the illuminating lens and the proportion of the
image of the aperture to its actual size, " which may be regulated
according to the wish of the observer." Here we see the " marked
difference between the principles respectively advocated by Dr.
Wollaston and Sir D. Brewster. The former advocates the
principle of illumination from a large radiant surface, employing at
the same time a method of regulating the amount of hght derived
from the original source by a diaphragm perforation. The latter
arranges a chcumscribed and small area of light-source, a point of
light which is transferred to the object as a point of hght of exactly
the same size, the two points being conjugate foci. Now it is
obvious that in both illuminators the intensity of light is not
gained by condensation, but by nearer approach to the object ; the
brightness being inversely proportional to the square of the distance
from the light-source. It is equally certain that in both illuminators
the surface of the lens nearest the object is ptractically the light-
giving source.* In the illuminator of Sir D. Brewster the light
spreads first upon the collecting surface of a lens much larger than
the diaphragm aperture, and after various changes of direction is
again concentrated on the object. Yet in reforming the original
point of light the rays previously dispersed until they occupy the
whole surface of the lens which focusses them on the object, fall in
from this radiant area with converging lines of various inclination
to the axis : thus fulfilling the very conditions which Sir D.
Brewster considered unsuitable, and which he sought to remove by
an apparatus which, after all, acts upon the " mistaken principle "
charged upon Dr. Wollaston ! Fortunately, however, for micro-
scopy, the modern objective not only enables, but demands, the
adoption of this principle, which perhaps in 1829 Sir D. Brewster
had some grounds for denouncing as a mistake when single lenses
with great spherical aberration were the only objectives in use.

It remains now to examine Sir D. Brewster's criticism, as quoted
above, on Dr. Wollaston's optical diagram and its explanation.
The rays incident on the mirror are drawn parallel (the same
blunder is repeated to-day in our handbooks !), and Sir D. Brewster
says truly that the image of the diaphragm aperture could not fall

* Anyone may satisfy himself of this fact by looking at a light (of any kind)
through a lens placed before the eye at the principal focal distance ; when the
whole surface of the lens will be seen equally radiant, while the primary source
is not seen.

VOL. II. 2 M

510

Transactions of the Society.

upon the object unless the rays diverged from the diaphragm
towards the " condensing " lens. But by constructmg the diagram
(as here given) from the object as the starting-point, we readily see
that a light-source placed in the position indicated (c/) would

Fic. 2.

/I

V-

ii

(S^

C/

Fig. 1, from Dr. Wollaston'a data.

Length of tube 6 inches.

Focal distance of object from lens "8 „

Distance of lens from diaphragm 4-4 „

Aperture in diaphragm '3 „

Eadius of lens to give the focal distance wanted . . .. '4 „

Diameter of front surface of ditto "4 „

c/, Conjugate foci by construction showing diverging pencil from
light-source.

Fig. 2, copied from p. 49, ' Encycl. Brit.,' Sir David Brewster's article on
Microscopes.

Focal distance of object from lens 1-14 inch.

Distance of lens from diaphragm 4-7 „

Aperture in diaphragm "2 „

Eadiusoflens '5 „

Diameter of front surface '6 „

Both figures show the effect of tlie diaphragm aperture in determining conju-
gate foci and divergence of pencil. Fig. 2 is, however, not drawn to scale
accurately in accordance with Dr. Wollaston's data, and therefore exaggei'ates
the supposed error of focus.

Dotted lines show the focus for parallel rays. Continuous lines, conjugate
foci.

N.B. By this arrangement the upper surface of the condensing lens becomes
virtually the light-source, and the diaphragm aperture just over the mirror acts
on the same principle as in the Brewster illuminator. Obviously tlie best
arrangement would be to leave the mirror free and remove the diaphragm,
placing a revolving diaphragm with apertures just over the lens at d'.

give the necessary outlines of the diverging and converging cones,
the apices of which shall be conjugate foci. But Sir D. Brewster's
illuminator effects nothing more, and in passing judgment on the
position of the diaphragm in Dr. Wollaston's apparatus, he lays him-
self open to objections of a graver kind against his own arrangement.

Theory of Illuminating Ai^'paratus. By Br. H. E. Fripp. 511

For since, theoretically, any plane below the diaphragm (or even its
own aperture) may be considered the illuminating surface whether
the light reaches such a position directly or by means of reflecting
or refracting media, the best position of diaphragm may con-
sequently be affirmed to be ahove the last reflecting or refracting
surface, as thus the regulation of light-intensity may always be
controlled without any change of apparatus. But it is a matter of
daily experience that the position of the diaphragm in Microscopes
of various model, and in " condensers " of various construction, is
not dependent upon the principle contended for by Sir D. Brewster,
namely, of immediate proximity to the light-source, since in all
later constructions the diaphragm is a constituent part of the con-
densing apparatus, and situate always at some distance from mirror
or lamp. The reason for which may be found in the principles
here enunciated.

What is, however, practically valuable in the illuminators of
Wollaston and Brewster, is not the application of a single narrow
axial pencil of light, but of a comparatively wide illuminating cone
whose base is formed by the radiant surface of the collecting lens
next the object. And the suggestion therein conveyed covers most
of the designs subsequently adopted of combining with an illu-
minating lens diaphragms pierced with apertures of various size
and form giving oblique, central, or full all round illumination.
But microscopy is more particularly indebted to Sir D. Brewster
for his emphatic advocacy of a scientific study of a too long
neglected subject. " The art of illuminating microscopic objects
is," he says, "of no less importance than that of preparing them
for observation," and he reiterates in the same article his con\dction
that " the progress of discovery with the Microscope must depend
upon the scientific illumination of the objects under examination."
And again, " I have no hesitation in saying that the apparatus for
illumination requires to be as perfect as the apparatus of vision ;
and on this account I would recommend that the illuminating lens
should be perfectly free from chromatic and spherical aberration, and
that the greatest care be taken to exclude all extraneous light, both
from the object and from the eye of the observer." *

Dujardin and others taught the same doctrine that Wollaston
contended for, namely, that a converging light was best. Pritchard,
on the contrary, held that difficult test objects could be best
seen with diverging light. Harting, who mentions Pritchard's

* The Jury in a Report on Microscopes exhibited at the first world's fair
(1851), mention Sir D. Brewster's method of illumination by achromatic lens
combinations placed beneath the stage, and state their belief that it is a great
advance on the simple condenser of Dr. Wollaston. But, as above shown by
diagr„mmatic construction, Dr. WoUaston's condenser effects the very same result
— u conjugate image and an illuminating pencil of considerable angular con-
vergence.

2 M 2

512 Transactions of the Society.

view of tlic matter, tries to explain it as an effect produced by the
object upon tlie course of the rays passing into the objective, and
proposes an eclectic mode of solving the difficulty, by employing
parallel, converging or diverging rays, according to the nature
of the object, and other cu-cumstances special to each case. He
further says, speaking of the means by which, as he supposed, a
proper direction could be given to the illuminating rays, that the
slia^e of the plane mirror was a matter of indifference, while of
course the concave mirror must necessarily be round. Goring, on
the contrary, maintained that the mirror should be shaped ellipti-
cally, and as large as possible (5 x 4). Schleiden remarks that
where it is possible, light from a plane mirror is to be preferred,
because parallel rays are more advantageous for correct observa-
tion, although they give a less intense hght. " For it ajjpears," he
adds, "as though a shifting of the image was occasioned by the
convergence of rays reflected from the concave mirror." But
though he has often observed this, he confesses that he cannot
explain it, and that " our opticians leave us in respect to this matter
quite in the dark." *

Dr. Carpenter, in his article on the Microscope,! follows Sir D.
Brewster in his explanations and directions respecting illumina-
tion. I quote the following extracts : — " The principle of illumina-
tion on which Sir D. Brewster lays great, and we think fully
deserved stress, is that the focus of the illuminating rays shall be
coincident with the object so that there shall not be two sets of
rays at different angles, one proceeding from the luminous object
(source of hght ?) and the other from the object to be magnified."
Commenting further on the best means of developing this prin-
ciple, Dr. Carpenter says, " The rays of light proceeding from the
radiant point being brought to a focus by the ' condenser ' on the
object, cross each other there, and should proceed to the object-
glass of the microscope as if they came from the object itself.
Now unless they are made to converge upon the object at the same
angle at which they diverge to enter the objective, we cannot but
think that a source of error still remains, and that the most perfect
image possible formed by an achromatic object-glass of an object
which is artificially illuminated, can only be produced when the
rays from the som-ce of light take exactly the same course as if
they j)roceeded from the object itself. That they may have this
covu-se they must be made to converge upon the object by a con-
densing lens whose focus for parallel rays shall be the same as the
acting focus of the objective. A different condenser would thus
be required for every objective."

But the practical experience of this able microscopist docs not

* Quoted from Nageli and Schwendeuer, 2ud ed. p. 92.
t Todd's ' Cyclop. Anut.,' vol. iii. 1847.

Theory of Illuminating Ajjpamfus. By Dr. H. E. Fripp. 513

appear to have agreed with the theory propounded by the autho-
rities of the day, as will be seen from the following extract : —
" AVe may mention it as a fact for which we cannot very well
account, that we have been able to obtain a very beautiful and dis-
tinct illumination by the use of an aplanatic doublet condenser,
receiving its rays from the ground-glass globe of the common table-
lamp, which would not seem to furnish any of the conditions that
we have dwelt on as of theoretical importance."

In respect to the opinions expressed in the above quotations,
I need at present only remark that although a theory of illumina-
tion is partially indicated in the acceptance of Brewster's " achro-
matic condenser" and the principle of its mode of action, as ex-
plained by its inventor (which has already been criticized), the
suggestion of optical relation between the size of the illuminating
cone and the aperture of the objective, more distinctly asserted by
Eoss (see ante), is based upon the assumption that every objective
works best at its fullest aperture, which is rarely the case, and that
" definition " and " penetration " are always improved by intense
light, which is the case only when the focussing function of the
objective is absolutely perfect ; and even then definition becomes
more critical as the ivhole aperture of the objective is occupied at
the same moment. Sir D. Brewster's insistance on the propriety
of using a narrow point of light, amounts in practice, when his
illuminator is used, to this — that its specific intensity is first
equalized by being distributed over a large radiant surface, viz, of
the lens next to the object, and then directed from a number of
radiant points in lines converging on the object. The true rationale
of " definition," so far as brightness of illumination is concerned, is
indicated by Helmholtz in his essay " On the Limits of Optical
Capacity of the Microscope," written at a much later date. SuflS-
cient delineating shadow, he says, can only be got by narrowing
the size of the illuminating pencil, and a comparatively large illu-
minating cone can be applied beneath the object only when tho
objective admits a large incident cone. But it must be borne in
mind that large angular aperture is associated with high magni-
fying powers, and as the optical aperture of such objectives dimi-
nishes with each increase of magnifying power, difiraction effects
begin to affect the delineation. The theory of these diffraction
effects was not however studied or followed out to its proper con-
clusion by any writer of that date. Again, it has been fully
demonstrated that the function of large aperture is summed up in
the admission and transmission of diffraction pencils, caused by the
splitting of such pencils of light as fall upon minute details of the
object into difiraction pencils which do not follow the original
direction of the pencils thrown by the illuminator. And although
fresh detail is thereby introduced into the image by an objective of

514 Transactions of the Society.

large aperture, rvhen the object contains such detail, the greater
admission of light through such an objective when viewing an
object which does not contain such detail, severely tests its capacity
of definition by flooding out the delineating shadows. Thus the
benefit of a wide illuminating cone is confined to particular cases,
and is not of general application.

Further, as respects the necessity of a diflferent condenser for
every object : everyone is of course aware in our day that a single
illuminating lens, if constructed to admit the widest pencils re-
quired for any objective, can also be used for objectives of lesser
aperture, when the incident Hght is regulated by a diaphragm
properly placed at the plane of its lower focus, and supplied with
openings of the required size. But this regulation of the size of
incident pencils did not enter into the design of the Brewster
illuminator, and it may fairly be inferred that the special function
of a diaphragm as now used was not then (as it is not always now)
comprehended. The Brewster design has indeed been long super-
seded by arrangements which leave the mirror free and yet combine
refraction and reflection of light in pencils of any desired angular
magnitude applicable to central or lateral illumination as well as
for showing a positive image on a dark background, so that every
desired mode of illumination may be efi'ected without change of
apparatus, or of the position of light-source. But for the present
improved arrangements we are indebted to the practical optician
rather than to any general advance in theoretical knowledge. For
we still hear a great deal about " condensing " lenses, which never-
theless only increase the brightness by bringing an image of the
original light-source nearer to the eye by optical means, without
any actual increase of specific intensity. We are still taught the
superiority of achromatic illumination, though it is easy to control
by proper use of a diaphragm any excess of colour that may arise
from dispersion of rays given ofi' by reflection from mirrors, prisms,
&c. And yet we still find the diaphragm, whose special function is
to regulate by limiting apertures the size of the illuminating cone,
placed in any chance position required by the mere mechanical
exigencies of a thick Microscope stage ; the usual consequence of
which is that when an objective of even moderate power is used, its
angular aj^erture is far in excess of any illuminating cone which
can be brought to bear on the object, so that the full resolving
power of the objective cannot be obtained without additional appa-
ratus. And while it is universally accepted that light is shut off
by means of the diaphragm, we still find the old diagrams of mirror
reflection invarioMy indicating — in defiance of the fundamental
law of incidence and reflection — a parallel beam of light traced in
towards the object, whereas a moment's consideration must con-
vince everyone that if light is incident with imrallel rays upon a

Theory of Illuminaiing Apparatus. By Dr. H. E. Fripp. 515

microscopic object only an infinitesimally small amount of light can
be directed in the axial line upon the object, and that diaphragm open-
ings having a larger diameter than the object could have no eflect
of excluding light, though we know the contrary to be the case.
And this consideration brings me to remark on the singular
absence of any scientific exposition of the respective functions of
the plane and concave mirror, and the function of the diaphragm
when employed with the mirror ; although these illuminators
are of fundamental import to the general theory of illumination,
while their constant employment renders the science of then' effec-
tual application a matter of prime and lasting necessity.* In
comparison with this extraordinary omission, the perpetually exer-
cised ingenuity in construction of new " condensers " and reflectors
of all kinds, and the much-favoured discussion of exceptional and
often useless methods of illumination, fail in real and general interest.
Another remarkable omission is the absence of any study of
the effect of the object which intervenes at the crossing point of
converging illumination and the diverging pencils of light emitted
from the object. The fact is too obvious to escape the notice of
any practised observer that mere incidence of light is not the
sole determining condition of perfect definition. A complete theory
of illumination requires some special study of the physical effect of
the constituent particles of the object on the rays incident upon
them, whether from below or above. The intervention of the
object must break the continuity of these rays (how otherwise
would delineating shadows exist ?). Opaque parts interrupt more
or less the passage of a large number of rays, while diffraction
causes the additional phenomena of points of light which initiate
a new series of light pencils whose appearance in the objective
image is necessary to its perfect delineation of detail. And
even where light passes through transparent parts of the object
it is possible, nay probable, that its transmission is not unaffected
by differences of homogeneity and specific gravity of the substance
of the object (which has some thickness, even in the finest
preparations). Such facts radically dispose of the received notion
that transmitted light passes without change of direction through
the object. The difierent specific density, for instance, of the fluids
in which a preparation is preserved cannot but possess some
influence, just as different specific density and thickness of a glass
cover produce an eflect for which correction of the objective has long
been ackuowledged to be necessary. In short, the principle of
homogeneous immersion applies equally to the operation of the
particular preservative menstrua used, which comprise such various
fluids as glycerine, spirit, turpentine, saline solutions, &c. It is not,

* The latest editions of our Microscope manuals are as bare of information in
this respect as the earliest.

516 Transactions of the Society.

therefore, too miicli to affirm that a right understanding of optical
effects (initiated hefore the specific function of the objective is
called into play) would have sufficed to expose the weakness of the
strangely inadequate theory of the Microscope indicated in our
handbooks by the hypotheses of penetrating and resolving powers ;
and that the maxim not long since considered unassailable, " No
resolution without magnifying power," requires qualification in
many important particulars.

The foregoing observations confirm to a large extent a state-
ment made by Mr. Crisp in a communication read last year before
the Society,* which I take the liberty of quoting here : — " At
the present time," says this gentleman, " there is nothing extant
which constitutes a commencement of a systematic theoretical
treatment of the subject of illumination ; yet, being purely optical,
it is obviously capable of being so treated, and great practical
advantages would undoubtedly follow from the development of
an exact theory on the subject. In nothing has the ingenuity of
microscopists been more exercised than in the invention of novel
modes of illumination for lined objects ; but however clearly these
appliances may bring out particular appearances, there is good
reason to believe that in the majority of cases they are illusions,
originating in the character of the illumination employed, and tbat
all possible methods of illumination may be reduced from the fifty
or more kinds now existing to less than half a dozen at the most."

In adding to Mr. Crisp's milder denunciation a charge of erro-
neous teaching in respect of " the scientific illumination of objects "
so strenuously contended for by Sir D. Brewster, I am fully
sensible that such a charge requires to be sustained, not merely by
the evidence above adduced of contradictory opinion and practice,
as well as absence of definite rule, which prevails at the present
time, but also by souie alternative exposition of facts based on demon-
stration as well as theory. Such an exposition may be found in
the respective essays of Professors Nageli and Schwendener, Abbe,
Helmholtz, and others, but as it seems to be little known or appre-
ciated in Enghsh microscopy, an attempt to give some account of
what is authoritatively taught abroad as a scientific theory of illu-
mination, may serve at least to remove the reproach of inattention
on the part of English microscopists to the systematie study of so
important a subject. And it may be well also that the student
should reahze more distinctly how much of the actual performance
of his Microscope depends upon the scientific application of his
illuminating apparatus, even if he work with such simple illumina-
tors as the plane and concave mirror.

It need scarcely be remarked that if the Microscope could
always be turned towards a bright expanse of sky or reflected

* This Journal, i. (1878), p. 126.

Theory of Illuminating Apparatus. By Dr. H. E. Fripp. 517

sunlight (as from a cloud, whitened wall, &c.), or towards an
artificial light-source of sufficient extent of surface and from every
point of which an equally difiused light emanated (e. g. lamplight
with ground-glass plate in front of it or reflector behind it), no
other illuminator would be required for the greater number of
observations made. But on account of the mechanical arrange-
ments of the Microscope and for the convenience of the observer
a mirror is an indispensable addition, while for greater control
over the intensity of the light two accessory instruments are
desirable : namely, a diaphragm for exclusion and a lens for
collection (not condensation) of light.

In discussing the action of the plane mirror as applied to the
Microscope, it must be borne in mind that from every light-source
having a greater area of surface than that of the mirror itself there
emanates a converging beam of light, which, after reflection, must
converge further to a given point in the axial line of the reflected
cone. If we hold a small mirror in the hand, with its surface turned
towards an unlimited expanse of bright sky, and so inclined to the
eye looking down upon it that the observer may see the reflected
sky, then, as the mirror is held further from or nearer to the eye,
a greater or smaller extent of sky is seen : or, if we look at a land-
scape, or a row of houses, or trees, &c., reflected from the mirror,
a greater or less number of objects is included in the field of vision
according to the distance of the mirror from the eye. And in
every case the field of vision is circumscribed by lines drawn from
the pupil to the periphery of the muTor and continued into space
in the direction of incidence. A trivial experiment ! but serving
to demonstrate that daylight illumination with the plane mirror
must always he effected with converging light. Each point in the
surface of the mirror reflects independently in every direction the
light it receives, and consequently when (in place of the eye
looking upon the mu-ror) we suppose an object to be placed on tlie
Microscope stage and in the optical axis of the instrument, the
whole mirror appears as a self-luminous surface in relation to that
object. Moreover, the luminousness of the surface remains equal,
whether the surface be curved or not (supposing of course the
light-source to be of practically unlimited extent). By reference
to Fig. 3 it will be seen that a converging incident beam on
the plane mirror is reflected on the same focal point as the parallel
beam thrown on the concave mirror ; and that a certain inclination
of the mirror (supposing it to be centered on the optical axis of the
instrument and arranged for direct central illumination) of 45^ is
necessary in order to reflect this converging beam on the object.

When a parallel beam of light is reflected from the plane
mirror set at 45° to the axis of the instrument, the central rays
alone fall on the object and the illumination is proportionally

518

Transactions of the Society.

feeble. But if the mirror be inclined forwards, backwards, or

sidewards, at a greater angle, the outside rays of the beam fall

Avith a certain obliquity, depending upon the size of the reflected

Fig. 3.*

Fig. 3, to sliow that plane and concave mirrors have au exactly similar con-
verging effect from the mirror upon the object.

The effect of the curve of the concave mirror is, here, to cause parallel rays
incident upon it to be converged with an inclination to F P equal to that which is
produced by means of the plane mirror when a larger converging cone of rays
falls upon it ; the area of mirror surface being practically equal in both.
Angle of aperture, 20°.
Distance of mirror from F P, 4 inches.
Radius of curve of concave mirror, 12 inches.
a a, Kadii for constructing angles of incidence and reflection on concave

miiror.
h b. Verticals to plane mirror.
Dotted lines = direction of incident light upon plane mirror.
Continuous lines = direction of rays incident upon concave mirror.

beam and its freedom from obstruction by the projection of stage
or other impediment to free play of the light. In the small model
instruments in which a relatively large mirror is centrally fixed at
a short distance beneath the stage, the obhque illumination thus
obtained has a marked influence upon the delineation of many
objects.

When, again, the surface of light-source is reduced less than that
of the mirror, the illuminating pencil falls with diverging rays upon
the mirror and with corresponding diminution of light intensity,
the same divergence and diminution of light effect continuing after
reflection.

What now is the function of the diaphragm as ordinarily used
with the plane mirror ? It is evident from inspection of Figs. 4, 5, 6,t

* The dotted lines, by error of the engraver, are drawn parallel with each other :
each line traced backwards from the object has its special angle of divergence
from, or convergence towards, the mirror.

t Taken from the Handbook of N'agcli and Schwcndener.

Theory of IllmninaUng ApiMratus. By Br. II. E. Fripp. 519

where A B represents the plane mirror, C D the concave miiTor,
a — h, the aperture in a diaphragm below the stage, and p a point
in the focal plane of the object on which the Microscope is focussed,
that the lines p m, p n, form the limiting boundary of a con-
verging cone of light-rays reflected by either mirror. Assuming
that the mirror is large enough to occupy the base of this illumi-
nating cone, the intensity of illumination will vary with the size of
the aperture in the diaphragm. And it matters not whether the
mirror be nearer to or further from the point p, if only it be large
enough to subtend the base of the cone : for since the area of
reflecting surface increases with its distance from the point p, the
number of illuminating points compensates for diminished intensity
of Hght. If the diaphragm were removed, the face of the mirror
would form the base of the illuminating cone, and in proportion as
the mirror is brought nearer to the point p, will the angular
spread of this cone increase.

It follows also, from the demonstration given with Fig. 3,
that the cone of light from the concave mirror, circumscribed by
the same diaphragm aperture, illuminates the point p) as well
(but no better) whether its focus falls exactly upon p, or not. As
the curve is without influence in this direction, so the position of
its focus has no optical significance. When the condition of un-
limited expanse of sky light is realized, the converging cone of the
plane mirror reflection has as good a claim to be considered " con-
densed " light as that of the concave mirror, or that of the collect-
ing lens. But when its surface does not afford a sufficiently large
base for a cone of light, which might act with real optical effect
through a given diaphragm aperture, it is then deficient: and
when it is sufficient for all effects the diaphragm has a special
function to fulfil in controlling by exclusion or admission the
amount of light requu'ed for each object according to the magnifying
power of the objective used.

But in the next place, if we compare the outward course of the
lines (in Figs. 4, 5, 6), which represent the incidence of the respec-
tive cones of hght falling upon the two mirrors from the respective
Hght-sources, we find difierences which suggest reasons for the
selection of one or the other according to the particular circum-
stances of the case.

If the Microscope be set up close to the window, and the mhror
towards a clear sky, the condition of an unlimited expanse of light-
source is fulfilled, provided the window- frame allows passage to all
rays of light included within the outlines of the cone traced by the
outermost rays incident upon the mirror to form the illumination.
Thus, if p m and p n represent the outlines of a luminous cone
touching the edges ah oi the diaphragm aperture and based on the
mirror A B, then the incidence is found by construction (in tracing
back the angle of incidence equal to that of reflection) at s and t

'20

Transactions of the Society.

But from the concave mirror C D the lines of incidence are found
at s and t\ the central ray being the same for both mirrors (Fig. 5).
If there be sufficient sky surface uniformly illuminated and nothing
intervene between s and t to obstruct the passage of light, it is a

FiQ, 4.

Fig. 5.

matter of indifference whether the incident rays converge at sin,
in, or diverge at s' m, t' n. But when anything intervenes to
obstruct or occasion loss of light, then the form and position of the
mirror surface becomes important, and that particular combination
will act best which avoids the impediment, or the loss of light occa-
sioned by it. For instance, if dark clouds occupy with bright
clouds the expanse required for illumination with the plane mirror,
the concave mirror disposed so as to receive rays from the bright
cloud and reunite them in p, would give a maximum light ; and

Theory of Illuminating Apparatus. By Dr. H. E. Fripp. 521

similarly the concave mirror will produce a more intense light
whenever the light-source has a hmited extent (e. g. flame of a
lamp), provided that the source of light and the object stand to
each other in the relations of conjugate foci (as in WoUaston or
Brewster " condensers ").

Fig. G.

Figs. 4 -G, showing action of concave and plane mirror compared.
Fig. 4, Mirror inclined at 35°.
Fig. 5, „ „ 40°.

Fig. 6, „ „ 45°.

/ p, Focal plane of object.
a b. Aperture of diaphragm.
C D, Concave mirror.
A B, Plane mii-ror.

s t. Converging beam on plane mirror reflected to fp = 20°.
s' t'. Diverging beam on concave mirror reflected to fp = 20°.
Supposing sufiiciLnt extent of light-source (sky, e. g.), and sufHoient min-or
surface, the plane mirror gives an equal illumination with concave mirror.

N.B. The conjugate focus of concave mirror varies with inclinations of mirror
towards axis of instrument.

The diaphragm aperture determines the angle of convergence within limits
prescribed hy extent of light-source and mirror surface.

It must then be accepted as a general proposition that the
illumination of any and every single point in the field of vision is
of necessity always effected by converging light. The illuminating
rays cross each other at the plane of the object when the plane
mirror as well as when any concave mirror or condensing lens is
used. And it is inconceivable that such directions should be given
(and called excellent! upon Sir D. Brewster's authority) as may
be found in 'The Microscope,' by Jabez Hogg, 1854, page 51, as
follows: " Only a portion of the object should be viewed at one
time, and every other part excluded. The light which illuminates
that part should be admitted through a small diaphragm (!) — if in
the day-time close a portion of the \dndoiv-sliutters " (!). The
customary manner of speaking of parallel or diverging rays as
being employed to illuminate according to circumstances (!) the

522

Transactions of the Society.

field of vision, meaning thereby each constituent point of it, is
equally opposed to the simplest law of optics.

With reference to the various lens combinations interposed in
the course of the incident light, it is easy to show that their effect
is exerted only under special circumstances, as has been shown of
the form and position of the mirror. Thus, if we take Sir D.
Brewster's condenser (Fig. 8), where F is a point in the plane of the

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 (from pp. 95 N. and 1 S. ' Das Mikroskop'), to illustrate theory of action of
Cata-dioptric illuminator.
p, Plane of object and focal point of illuminator.
a-h, Diaphrafj;m aperture regulating the angle of convergence.
L, Lens emitting converging pencil.
M, Mirror.
E, Bull's-eye condenser.

Fig. 7, Condenser designed by Sir D. Brewster.
A B C D, Lens combination sending converging pencil on F focal point

in plane of object m n.
A' B'C D', Lens combination for collecting light from light-source and

transmitting to mirror M.
G H, Diapliragm aperture.
In both diagrams the luminous source is practically the surface of the lens
immediately under the plane of object, and a b Is manifestly better placed than
G H for regulating the size of illuminating pencil.

object, Gr H the diaphragm aperture which determines the size of
the incident cone,* then A B, the last refracting surface of the combi-
nation, simply represents an area of light-source, and is in effect self-
luminous, since the light received by the lens system A B C D is

* It should be noted that H G is a screen supplied with different circular
apertures and " a variable rectilinear aperture," the image of the slit being thrown
upon a lined object parallel with its lines. And a final recommendation is made
by Sir David Brewster, which I here quote. " It would be desirable to have
circular and rectilinear apertures of different sizes to be placed immediately
beneath F, so as to allow no part of the field to be seen excejiting that which is
occupied by the object or part of it under examination." The action of such
supplementary diaphragms would modify (beneficially) the incidence of light if
the aperture were not so fine as to occasion diffractive effects. (!)

Theory of Illuminating Aj^paratus. By Dr. II. E. Frijyp. 523

emitted from the surface of A B in rays variously converged upon
the object ; and -whether the rays received by A B reach it by
direct incidence or indirectly (that is, after previous reflections or
refractions) does not signify, as there is here no question of the
manner in which the rays incident from the original light-source
are directed upon the mirror, neither any question of the extent of
the light source. The two sets of lenses A B C D and A' B' C D'
have obviously no other eflfect than to occasion various changes in
the course of the rays during their transference from the hght-
source to the object. As before explained, the whole effect consists
in producing an image of the flame in direct contact with the object ;
and in considering the question of intensity of illumination it must
be borne in mind that an image of the light -source brought to the
plane of object upon which the instrument is focusscd, is by the
operation of the lenses of the Microscope brought up to the eye.
The brightness is thus increased, because the light is made by
optical means to touch the retina, not because it is "condensed " on
the object.

It may be laid down as a general principle that any plane
below the diaphragm (i. e. section across the hght-cone), or even
the diaphragm aperture itself, may be taken as the illuminating
surface, whatever changes may have occurred previously in the
course of the incident rays from refraction or reflection.

Putting now the case where the magnitude of incident light-
cone is not regulated by a diaphragm aperture, and where the inter-
position of a collecting lens brings about a greater convergence of
rays, and under circumstances (where the aperture of light-cone is
not determined by the mirror) a large illuminating cone : it is
always possible to place the lens in such a position that its whole
surface should deliver hght upon the point i?, Fig. 9. The
effect produced in this case is the same as when hght is reflected
from a mirror large enough to subtend as a base the cone whose
outlines are formed by prolonging the outhnes of the cone dehvered
by the lens until they meet the mirror. The illumination given
by the lens would be proportioned to its proximity or distance from
the object ; but an equal hght would be gained by increase of
mirror surface. It is obvious, however, that a practical advantage
is obtained by the collecting lens when the light-source is of limited
extent, and especially when — which is the more common case —
both mirror and light-source are limited. Yet, as a matter of
theory, the maximum of light that can be obtained by any " con-
denser " cannot exceed that which a sufficiently large mirror and
expanse of light-source (sky light) would produce.

Thus it appears that an illuminating apparatus of whatever
kind is efficient in two ways only. First, by equalizing the inten-
sity of the rays over the whole area of illumination ; secondly, by

524

Transactions of the Society.

increasing its angular convergence on the object. Any simple
collecting lens will perform the same service as the most compli-
cated lens combination if it have suitable focussing arrangements,
and its refracting surfaces are so controlled by diaphragm apertures

Fig. 9.

Fig. 9, to show action of plane mirror and collecting lens 'without diaphragm
aperture.
P /, Focal plane of object.
C L, Collecting lens.

0 P L, Illumiuatiug cone emitted from C L, whose light is derived from
the surface of mirror A B.
Its angle of convergence aud specific intensity = that which the larger mirror
surface a b reflects without intervention of lens, and supposing the light-source to
have sufficient extent to give the incident cone c a h d.

N.B. It tlius appears that, 1, where tlie angular convergence of illuminating
cone depends on plane mirror reflections, the size of mirror and requisite exten-
sion of light-source set limits to its use ; 2, that an artificial light-source of
small extent, tlie reflection of which from mirror gives a diverging cone, is (within
certain limits) more conveniently converged on the object by a collecting lena
properly arranged.

as to exclude colour ; a concave mirror being employed when the
light-source is of limited extent. The magnitude of the incident
light-cone will be in proportion to the proximity of the diaphragm
to the object. Its focal point need not fall exactly on the object,
though the maximum of hght is attained when it is so focussed.
But a diaphragm aperture, which, being too large or too near the
object, allows an excess of light to fall on it, is disadvantageous ; as
also when the aperture bounds a light-cone to which the mirror
offers an insufficient base.

To satisfy every condition the apparatus should in addition to
the diaphragm over the last refracting surface * which regulates

* See the Handbook of Professors ■Niigcli and Scliwendener, p. 97, para-
graph 87.

Theory of Illuminating Aiyparaius. By Dr. H. E. Fripp. 525

the aperture of the ilhiminating cone, be supplied with the means
of excluding light from any part of it. Many objects are best
seen when central rays are excluded, others when oblique illumi-
nation is employed. To regulate the illumination according to
requirement a second diaphragm is needed : a revolving disk or
sector fitted over the first with a set of diflTerently shaped stops to
be rotated over the openings. Any arrangement may be intro-
duced which suits the mechanical requirements of the instrument ;
but the diaphragms should be placed above the lens, and not, as is
generally the case, beneath it.

In the foregoing observations the optical principles upon which
the various apparatus for illumination of microscopic objects by
transmitted light depend, have been indicated in general terms,
which may be thus summed up : —

Whether concave or plane mirror, prism, collecting lens, or
achromatic " condenser " be employed, the cross section of the
illuminating beam shows a plane which is bounded either by dia-
phragm aperture, or by limits of reflecting or refracting apparatus,
and which may be considered as self-luminous in relation to the
object, inasmuch as each point of its surface conducts light from the
primary source with the same illuminating power as that source,
excepting the insignificant loss by reflection from the lens surfaces
through which the light is made to pass. The size and position of
the effective light-giving surface define the extent of a converging
cone falling upon each point of the object, which, traced towards the
Microscope, offers a diverging cone from each transparent point of
the object to the objective. The aperture of the objective defines
in its turn the basis of the diverging beam admitted into the objec-
tive, and therefore the brightness of the image formed. When
diffraction pencils are occasioned by the action of the object, their
course differs fi-om that of the ordinary pencils, and the admis-
sion of such diverted pencils depends on increased aperture. The
track of the ordinary and diftractive pencils can be observed as an
image of the light-giving surface at the upper focal plane of the
objective. And this method of examining the performance of the
objective shows, amongst other things, the illusory character of the
general belief that illumination is effected by parallel or diverging
as well as by converging rays. This subject and its illustration by
experiment and diagram is reserved for another opportunity.

The intensity of light transmitted by any kind of " condenser "
cannot be greater than that which the original source yields. But
by the production of an intermediate illuminating surface the light
from the original and more distant source is brought nearer, and
the convergence upon the object greater (under circumstances deter-
minable at will) while the intensity is equalized over the whole
illuminating surface.

VOL. II. 2 N

526 Transactions of the Society.

Professor Abbe has given the following formula or theorem
capable of general application for the solution of the several
problems relating to intensity of illumination : —

" Leaving out of calculation any loss occasioned by reflection
from the lenses of the microscope, the brightness of the completely or
partially transparent parts of the object is exactly the same as that
with which it would appear to the naked eye looking through a
diaphragm aperture immediately in front of it, the size of which
aperture corresponds with the area of the image of the light-
giving source, as seen at the eye-point of the microscope: the
object being supposed to be viewed in its magnified dimensions
against the light of the primary source as a background.

"As direct corollaries from this theorem it results — 1. That the
brightness of the microscope picture can in no case exceed that
with which it would appear to the naked eye. But that for each
angular value of the image-forming pencil, whether limited by the
objective aperture or by the area of illuminating surface, there is a
given amount of amplification, heloiv which the brightness of the
image is always equal to that of the object as seen by the naked
eye. And this amount of amplification is reached when the image
at the eye-point has the same diameter as the pupil of the eye.

" 2. The intensity of brightness increases with the increase of
angular aperture of the objective, so long as that aperture is not as
large as that of the illuminating cone. But when the objective
aperture is larger than that of the illuminating cone (and this is the
usual case), the brightness diminishes. This happens with all the
higher amplifications.

" 3. Ceeteris iMvibus, the brightness of image is inversely
proportional to the square of the linear amplification when the
area of eye-point image is smaller than the pupil opening. Whether
the amplification be obtained by a strong objective and weak ocular
or by a weak objective with strong ocular, the amount of light with
each amplification is the same. And all objectives whose aperture
exceeds the maximum angular value of the incident light-cone
transmit an equal amount of light when an equal amplification is
obtained by using oculars which equalize the magnifying power.
The appearances which seem to contradict these corollaries are
explained by the circumstance that all differences of sharp and
clear definition are unconsciously interpreted as differences of
brightness." *

Finally, attention must be directed to the physiological conditions

* The above extract is quoted from Professor Abbe's article in vol. ix. of
Schulze's ' Archiv fiir Mikr. Anat., ' entitled, " Contribution to the Theory of
the Microscope," published in 1874. The, tiieory above enunciated with its corol-
laries is contiriiitd Ijy Helmholtz, and agrees exactly with the results stated in the
treatise of Hclmhnlfz on the capacity of performance of the Microscope translated
by the present wr.ter for tlie Bristol Naturalists' Society's ' Proceedings.'

Theory of Illuminating Apparatus. By Dr. H. E. Fripp. 527

of the perception of light. When looking through the Microscope
at a given luminous surface (field of vision), the intensity of light
transferred to the retina depends upon the conditions of its trans-
mission. The arithmetical expression of this intensity is found
in the ratio which the light cast on the retina by the Microscope
bears to that cast on an equal surface of the retina when the
same luminous surface is viewed by the unarmed eye. Professors
Nageli and Schwendener give in their book an exposition of this
subject, of which the following is an abstract: — The intensity of
light cast on the retina when a given luminous surface is viewed
by the unarmed eye does not vary with the varying distance of the
eye from the light, because the image formed on the retina becomes
larger or smaller in exact proportion with the increase or diminu-
tion of the angular spread of the pencils emitted from each point of
the object viewed. One might suppose that the same relation would
continue when objects were viewed through the Microscope, that is
to say, that the amplification of the Microscope image would rise
and fall in corresponding ratio with the magnitude of the hght-
cone incident on the objective. If this were so, we should see every
object as bright in the Microscope as with the naked eye. That is,
the intensity of light (Lichtstarke) of the Microscope would equal
unity. But the diameter of the Microscope image (and therefore
also of the retinal image) increases with the rise of amplification in
vastly greater ratio than does the angular spread of the light-cone
incident from the object and transmitted by the objective to the eye.
In vision with the naked eye, taking the pupd aperture = ^V
or xV inch, and the distance of clear vision =10 inches, the angu-
lar divergence of the pencil may be about half a degree. In vision
through the Microscope, on the contrary, it may amount to 90^ or
100" or over, according to the construction of the objective and its
magnifying power. In this case the amount of light entering the
eye through the Microscope from every point of the fieU is greater
than the amount which the unarmed eye takes in the ratio of
10 0^ to (hY or 200^ : 1. But this light is distributed over a retmal
surface larger than that occupied by the retinal image of the object
seen by the unarmed eye in proportion of the square of the Hnear
amplification, which we will call ni^. The resulting brightness of

9QQ2

field (which we will call v) is therefore represented hj v = —^'

or, generalizing this formula, and setting &> for the angular aperture

of the objective, and i for that of the pupil, then v = f - | . Hence

the light intensity is = unity when m = 2(o, but less than unity
when 7/1 > 2a), which is the common case. Here it is assumed as
understood that the incident light oone is large enough to fill the
whole aperture of the objective, a condition seldom realized. In

2 N 2

528 Transactions of the Society.

place therefore of the full aperture &> the angular aperture fixed by
the diaphragm opening (we will call it 8) must be substituted, and

then the formula becomes v =( — | ; that is to say, with the

same illumination, the brightness of field will vary in inverse pro-
portion of the square of the linear amplification. For example,
make h = 30° (magnitude of illuminating cone), and use amplifica-
tions of 240, 300, 360, 420, &c., and we get for brightness of
field in the several cases yV» ^z, -st, 4V respectively. Raising,
however, the value of 8 to 60° or 90"^ by increasing diaphragm
aperture or employing a lens, the brightness will reach from four
to nine times the intensity in the respective cases, provided always
that the objective aperture admit cones of such angular incidence.

The above rough calculation is corrected in greater detail by the
authors, with the final conclusion that the sectional areas of the
corresponding light-cones (those, namely, of the final Microscope
image, and of the incident light on the objective) are to each other
as the squares of the numbers representing their respective magni-
tude. When, then, the light emerging from the ocular (at eye-
point) just fills the area of the pupillary opening, the corresponding
cone of light entering the objective is therewith determined. For
if the latter exceed the dimensions calculated on the above-stated
relation of proportion, the excess of light could not be utilized.
And, as the sectional area of a cone is always somewhat lar^^er
than the interior area of its " calotte," * we arrive at the conclusion
that a luminous surface seen through the Microscope can under
no circumstances possess greater intensity than when seen with
the naked eye.

Since this paper was written the author has been enabled, by the courtesy of
Mr. Crisp, to examine a simple Microscope made by Dolloud (date ?) on the
plan of Wollaston's instrument. The optical conditions are, however, changed
by removal of the diaphragm, and by giving a sliding vertical motion to the " condenser."
The distance of mirror from condenser when the lens is raised so as to bring its
focus to the level of the object, is 4 inches : the distance between surface of
lens and plane of object being then "9 inch. The lens is worked to radius of
•5 inch, and has a front surface of -5 inch. The diameter of mirror is -7 inch,
and being distant 4 inches from the lens, allows, when inclined at 45°, the reflec-
tion of a parallel beam of light to fall upon the surface of the condenser, occupy-
ing its full diameter. In this position, therefore, the light-cone thrown on the
plane of the object has a radiant base of • 5 inch, its apex being distant about
•9 inch, and the outer rays have consequently considerable inclination to the
axis. When the lens is moved down towards the mirror as far as the meclianical
arrangement permits, the distance from object to lens is 1'4 inch, and from

* Because the light-intensity of the respective cones does not exactly bear tlie
ratio of the squares of their respective angular magnitudes, but of the respective
portions of interiors of spheres conceived to be described round the apex of each
cone, on diameters drawn at equal distance from their apices {calotten-fliiche).
See pp. 76, 77, second edition of Professors Niigeli and Schwendener's Hand-
book, 1877.

Theory of Illuminating Apparatus. By Dr. H. E. Fripp. 529

thence to the mirror 3'4 inches. In this position, therefore, a parallel beam of
incident light would focus below the object, but a slightly divergent incident
light-cone coming from a near light source, would fall with conjugate focus on the
object. Between these extreme positions the vertical movement of the condensing
lens Q inch) would afford various intermediate incidence of light rays. The
absence of tiie diapliragm and the fixed distance of mirror render the mobility of
condenser essential for regulation of light and disposition of conjugate focus.

The mechanical arrangements of this simple Microscope are specially worthy
of notice, as indicating transitional phases in construction. The tube form of
body and fixed distance of mirror are retained as in Wollaston's instrument —
obviously the prototype of the " petit tambour " model so common in Swiss and
French instruments. The absence of diaphragm no less clearly marks the fact
that its function as a regulator of tlie magnitude of tlie ilhmiinating pencil was
not recognized, or at least not acted upon, as an optical principle to be taken
advantage of in construction of tlie illuminating apparatus. On the other hand,
a great advance in the general mechanical arrangements beyond those of Wol-
laston's instrument, is noticeable in the addition of a small traversing stage, with
revolving object carrier, and of a " fine movement " screw to the stem and bar,
carrying the simple or doublet lenses. Thus we find in Dollond's developments of
the Wollaston instrument the same mechanical aids which characterize the
modern stage movements of the compound Microscope with the exception of those
introduced in the more complete arrangement of the sub-stage and movable
mirror which followed the later practice of oblique illumination and the applica-
tion of various accessory apparatus.

The main interest attaching to this instrument lies, however, in the attempt
to develop the means of Illumination upon scientific principle.

530 Transactions of the Society.

XXIX. — Observations on Notommata Wernechii, and its Para-
sitism in the Tubes of Vaucheria. By Professor Balbiani.*
(.See 'Proceedings,' 11th June, 1879.)
Plate XVIII.
I. — Historical Summary.

In the preliminary part of his ' Histoire des Conferves d'Eau Douce,'
after describing the horn-hke or tubercular excrescences which
originate on the side of the filaments of the Ectosperms (FaWien'a),
and constitute the male and female reproductive organs of these
unicellular algae, Yaucher adds, that " we must not confound these
horns or swellings with another kind of corpuscle frequently met
with on the Ectosperm, whose function was long unknown. It
differs from the oogonia properly so called, in being larger and of
varied form, though always enclosing a rounded black spot, which
sometimes seemed to me double. Continuing to observe this black
spot, I recognized it as the insect called by Miiller Cyclops lupula.
Apparently it lays its eggs on the tube of the Conferva, and causes
a similar development to that called pall in plants." t In the

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII.

Parts of the Animal,
bo, mouth, c c, ciliated cavity, ch, external chorion, ch', internal chorion,
c ?J, nervous centre, f, stomach, gr c, caudal glands. <; (7, gastric glands. ^ r, fatty
globules arising from the destruction of the gastric glands, g s, salivary glands.
in, intestine. /, superior lip of the buccal vestibule. /', lateral lips, m s, stomachal
mass. 0, summer eggs. 0', their empty shells. 0", winter eggs, od, oviduct.
ce, eye. 0 r, rotatory organ, as, oesophagus. 0 5, segmental organs, or, ovary.
ph, pharynx, t, external integument with the subjacent cellular layer, vb,
buccal vestibule, v c, contractile vesicle, v g, germinal vesicle.

Parts of the Plant.

h, branch bearing the organs of reproduction, h a, adventitious branches at
the summit of the gall, h a', adventitious branches of the base, ca, antheridian
cell empty and open, fc, false septum, g, galls formed by the parasite, o, organs
of sexual reproduction, r a, antheridian branch, r s, sporaugiferous branch.
sp, sporange. -x-, x", points where openings of the parasitic pockets occur.

Fig. 1. — Tubes of Vaucheria terrestris, with a low power. They show at 00 the
reproductive organs, and &t g g the capsules or galls inhabited by Notommata
Vferneckii, whose presence is indicated by the internal black jjoint.

Fig. 2. — Notommata Werneckii (adult) — dorsal face.

Figs. 3, 4, and 5.— Cephalic extremity, in profile. These figures are intended
to show some of the variations of form due to the contractions of this part.

Figs. 6 and 7. — Same extremity — ventral face. In Fig. 6 the buccal vesti-
bule is represented widely open, in Fig. 7 it is half closed.

Fig. 8. — Posterior extremity. A summer egg is in the oviduct od.

Fig. 9. — Full-grown Notommata, its body distended by eggs nearly mature. In

* Translated and abridged from ' Aunales des Sciences Naturelles (Zoologie),
vol. vii. (1878)No. ].

t ' Histoire des Confer vee d'Eau Douce,' 1803, p. 18.

JOUR.n MIC.SOG.VDI,.!!. Pl.Xyi

i

'4^'i

%!^tSadS«!SS&!

° ^;^i.

:)tl\- im

W)

NotcmrQ.ata Werne eloi & Its galls on ■'>'-^.^-— 8c^^^

'Vaiielieria terrestris.

Observations on Notoinmata WernecJcii By Prof. Balhiani. 531

explanation of his figures, Vaucher speaks throughout of these
oogonia as galls inhabited by Cyclops lujmla.

After Vaucher, Lyngbye * observed similar excrescences on
Vaucheria dichotoma, without, however, seeing the parasite inside.

In 1827, Ungerf also described and figured the parasitic
swellings on V. dichotoma. linger remarked that the forms
described by Eoth $ under the names Conftrva dilatata var. cla-
vata Kth., and C. dilatata var. hursata Rih.., were only Ectosperma
clavata attacked by the same parasite.

In 1833, Wimmer § showed animalculae enclosed in the ex-
crescences of a Vaucheria of undetermined species, but failed to
recognize their nature. The excrescences he considered with
Vaucher to be " galls." Dr. Valentin, who undertook their
microscopic study, was equally unsuccessful, and only pointed out
that the small bodies enclosed with the parasite in the capsules
were eggs.

In 1834, Dr. Werneck examined some excrescences enclosing
animalculae on Vaucheria cespitosa, received from Professor Unger ;
and from a drawing which he made. Ehrenberg was able for the first
time to establish their true nature, classing them with Rotatoria of his
genus Notommata, and calling them Notommata WernecJcii.\\

In 1836, Ehrenberg 11 himself observed the excrescences on

the centre is seen the black stomachal mass m s, surrounded by a circle of fatty
globules arising from the destruction of the gastric glands.

Fig. 10. — Young Notommata during the free period of its existence.

Fig. 11. — Summer egg just laid.
[ Fig. 12. — Summer egg contaiidng an embryo on the point of being hatched.

Fig. 13. — Winter eggs recently laid.

Fig. 14. — Reproductive organs of Vaucheria terrestris after fecundation.

Fig. 15. — The same organs after the destruction of the spore. A young
Notommata is in the interior of the sporangiferous branch r s. A false septum /c
is formed in the tube of the plant, not far from the branch which carries the
reproductive organs.

Fig. 16. — Parasitic pocket or gall of Vaucheria terrestris, containing a female
in the act of laying summer eggs.

Fig. 17. — Gall containing a female which has finished laying its winter eggs
o". The antheridian cornicule ;• a is entirely empty of its contents.

Fig. 18.— Old parasitic capsule formed at the extremity of a filament, and con-
taining a great number of summer eggs in the act of hatching. At the base of
the capsule, three young Aotomw(<a, recently hatched, are looldng for an exit.
The body of the female is destroyed, and only the black stomachal mass m s
remains, fc, false septum in the tube of the plant, closing the passage on this
side. ^

* 'Tentamen hydrophytologife danicse,' 1819, p. 82.

t 'Die Metamorphose der Ectusperraa clavata Vauch.,' Bonn, 1827, and
' Ann. des So. Nat.,' 1828, xiii. p. 428, pi. xvi.

X ' Catalecta botanica,' fasc. ii. p. 194, and fasc. iii. pp. 183-4.

§ 'Uebersicht der Arbeiten der Schles. Ges. fijr vaterl. Cultur,' 1833 (1834),
p. 71.

Ij " Organisation in der Eichtung des Kleinsten Raumes," ' Beitr.,' iii. 1834,
p. 72.

^ 'Die Infusionsthierchen als volkommene Organismcn,' 1838, p. 429.

532 Transactions of the Society.

V. dichotoma and V. racemosa, which, however, only contained eggs
which died before hatching. He succeeded, however, in extracting
the embryo by breaking the shell, and observed among other
characters, the eye, and the jaws with a single tooth.

Notwithstanding the interest of Ehrenberg's discovery, we find
but few observations recorded during the succeeding forty years.
In 1839, Morren found club-shaped excrescences on Vaucheria
clavata, and within them the parasite and its eggs. Opening
one of the cysts, Morren saw the animalcule, instead of coming
out. bury itself in the tube of the plant. He took it to be Botifer
vulgaris*

In 1840, Meyen found it no less difficult than Morren had done,
to explain the introduction of the animalculae into the tubes of the
plant.t

In 1853, the late Professor Hofmeister, in conjunction with
Professor Cohn, observed the filaments of a Vaucheria which had
pushed out short lateral club-shaped branches, in each of which
was a rotifer, which moved its cilia briskly. Hofmeister supposed
that the animalcule had penetrated into the tubes by piercing the
cellulose membrane without any damage to the plant. f

In 1876, Dr. Magnus § observed in Vaucheria geminata whose
filaments were found floating in the ponds of the Thiergarten
(Berlin), numerous galls almost always laterally placed, in each of
which was a female of Notommata WernecJcii, surrounded with
eggs and newly-hatched young, which differed much in shape
from the mother. Observing that some of the old and empty galls
were perforated at the summit, Magnus supposed that the young
had escaped from these openings, whilst the mother remained inside
and soon died, exhausted by her numerous layings.

Kiitzing fell into a similar mistake with Eoth, describing
V. geminata, whose filaments bear parasitic galls, under the name
of Vaucheria sacculifera, and mistaking the eggs of N. Wernechii
for zoospores. ||

We see, therefore, that beyond the specific determination of
the parasite, which we owe to Ehrenberg, we know very little of
N. Wernechii, either as regards its mode of reproduction, or the
details of its organization. This ignorance is doubtless owing to
the fact that N. Wernechii is almost always observed by botanists,
who naturally pay more attention to the plant than to its parasite.

* " De I'existence des Infusoirea dans les Plantes," ' Bull, de I'Acad. de
Bruxelles,' 1839, vol. vi. p. 298.

t "Wiegmann's ' Archiv fiir Naturgesch.,' 1840, vol. ii. p. 79.

X ' Handbuch der Physiol. Botanik,' vol. i. ; ' Die Lehre von der Pflanzen-
zelle,' 1869, p. 77.

§ ' Verhandlungen des botanischen Vereins der Provinz Brandenburg,' 18
Jabrgang, 1876, p. 125.

II ' Tabula3 pLycologicfe,' vol. vi. p. 22, pi. Ixiii. fig. 3.

Observations on Notommata Werneckii. By Prof. BaTbiani. 533

In 1874, M. Maxime Cornu sent me some filaments of V. ter-
restris, on -which he observed numerous swelhngs containing
animalculre which he recognized as Rotatoria. I saw that they
were N. Werneckii, and eagerly proceeded to study this curious
rotifer.

II. — Organization of N. Wernecldi.

On examining the tubes of the Vaueheria, I distinguished on
the greater number two kinds of laterally placed excrescences : —
the oue easily recognizable as the organs of reproduction, from
their characteristic form (Plate XVIII., Fig. 1, o, o; Fig. 14) ;
the other much larger, generally club-shaped, representing a kind
of pocket, or elongated capsule, nearly at right angles to the
principal filament, and having the same green colour (Fig. \,c/,g).

1 opened one of these, and saw the parasite gradually disengage
itself from the green matter. It was a blackish and extremely soft
body, continually contracting and modifying its shape. At its
centre was a large round spot with ill-defined edges, black and
opaque with transmitted light (Fig. 9, m s) ; this spot represents
the contents of the digestive tube, and is the hlack spot observed by
Vaucher in the capsules of the Ectosperms, It is surrounded by
a circle of colourless refractive globules, having all the characters
of oil drops (Fig. 9, g r). Outside this was a wide, greyish, granular
zone, forming the cortical layer of the animal. With a magni-
fying glass it appeared to be homogeneous, but under the Microscope
was seen to be composed of numerous elliptical bodies, which were
easily recognizable as nearly mature eggs (Fig. 9, o).

At intervals there appeared at opposite points of the body two
short prolongations, one bearing, anteriorly, vibratile cilia ; the
other ending in a little tail with two triangular points (Fig. 9).
These characters classed the animalcule with the Rotatoria, and
finally, its red eye-spot and its situation in the tube of a Vau-
eheria proved it to be the Notommata Werneckii of Ehren-
berg.

This summary description refers to the adult animalcule, ready
to lay, when its body is much distorted and the internal organs so
much modified as to be almost unrecognizable. To form an exact
idea of its organization, it is advisable to take an adult animalcule
whose ovary does not yet contain mature eggs.

Notommata Werneckii is a small rotifer not exceeding 0 • 30
mm. in length. The body is fusiform when elongated, the swollen
portion being nearer to the anterior than to the j)osteiior extremity,
which is thinner than the former. It is divided, more or less dis-
tinctly according to its age, into seven segments, formed by trans-
verse folds of the cuticle, and capable of being retracted one within
the other (Fig. 2). The cephalic is the longest, the three middle,

534 Transactions of the Society.

which form the swollen portion, being nearly equal, and the three
terminal ones diminishing successively in length. The last seg-
ment terminates in a foot or forked tail, formed of two small
triangular points, which can be separated or brought together at
pleasure. This segmentation becomes less and less distinct with
age, in consequence of the distension of the body caused by the
eggs, and finally it is transformed, as was said above, into a rounded
sac, with two prolongations formed by the head and tail (Fig. 9).

Seen in profile, the body seems in its anterior part obliquely
bevelled, at the expense of the ventral face. The dorsal face is
prolonged into a projecting and protractile superior lip (Fig. 3),
from the base of which descends on each side a fold of the external
tegument, furnished with vibratile cilia at its edge, and uniting
beneath with that of the opposite side, so as to circumscribe the
opening of what is called the mouth, but which is more correctly
the vesfihular orifice, as it gives access to a cavity, at the bottom of
which is the true mouth and the rotatory organ. To this cavity
I give the name of buccal vestibule (Figs. 2, 6, vb).

The superior and lateral lips are soft and wonderfully contrac-
tile. The former especially is endowed with surprising agility, the
movements being evidently tactile. (See Figs. 2-7, 1.)

Inside the buccal vestibule is the rotatory organ (Figs. 2-7, or),
which is the apparatus of locomotion and the organ of touch. It
shares the excessive mobility of the surrounding parts. (See Figs.
3, 4, and 5.)

Ehrenberg and Leydig * differ in describing the rotatory
apparatus, but it is certain that in N. Wernechii the cilia form, on
the surface of the rotatory disk, an isolated bundle completely
independent of the other cilia of this region.

I have never discovered the long threads which Ehrenberg,
from Werneck's description, said existed at the sides of the mouth
in the adult.

It is only at a very early stage that the animal uses its rotatory
apparatus for progression, as it soon commences its parasitic exist-
ence in the tubes of Vaucheria, where it is of course incapable of
swimming in the dense plasma.

In the free stage the young Notommata advance rapidly in the
water, either gliding with a uniform movement or '" striding/ " along
after the manner of the rotifers ; that is, by resting alternatively on
the two opposite extremities of the body.

The energetic contractions imply a pronounced development of
the muscular system which I have not been able to observe with
sufficient accuracy to describe here.

The digestive organs are composed of the buccal cavity, of the

* See Leydig's " Ueber don Bau und die systematische Stcllung der Eader-
thieie," ' Zeitsehr. wisss. Zoo].,' vi. 1855, p. 68.

Observations on Notomnuda WerneckU. By Prof. Bdhiani. 535

pharyngeal bulb, the salivary glands, the oesophagus, the stomach,
the gastric glands, and the intestine.

On the median line of the buccal vestibule, between the rota-
tory organ and the pharyngeal bulb, but nearest to the latter, is a
longitudinal slit whose sides are so exactly in contact that it
requires great attention to discover them. It properly represents
the huccal aperture (Fig. 6, fco), which has been hitherto completely
overlooked by observers, the cavity which we have called the buccal
vestibule being commonly described as the mouth. When the
vestibule is more or less shut, the mouth is hidden by the lips of
the vestibule (Fig. 7, I'), but when open it is visible by the retrac-
tion of the lips (Fig. 6, ho).

The ijharyngeal hulb, or mastax of the English naturalists, is a
rounded pale mass, of homogeneous appearance, and without trace
of the striae caused by muscular fibrillae so visible in several other
Notommata (Figs. 3, 6, 7, ph). This absence of striation, an
index of a feeble development of the contractile elements, is
in keeping with the almost rudimentary condition of the jaws
which the pharyngeal muscles move. The masticatory apparatus
is far less complicated than in the greater part of the other species
of the same genus. It most resembles N. vermicidaris as
figured by Dujardin.* Each jaw is composed of the small lateral
branch called by Dujardin sca][)us,\ which is articulated at its extre-
mity with a small horizontal piece bent inwards, which constitutes
the tooth proper {acies of Duj.). This tooth rests on a single
median part, bifurcated anteriorily, which forms the support (ful-
crum of Duj.).|

Ehrenberg knew the extreme simplicity of the masticatory
apparatus of N. Wernechii, through the drawings of Werneck,
and remarked that the jaw had only one tooth. The feeble
development of this apparatus is probably acquired, secondarily, by
its parasitic hfe, and when the food (the vegetable plasma) is soft
and easily divided, as the stronger and more complicated jaws
of the free species are adapted to seize and eat hard and resisting
substances.

At the posterior part of the pharynx are observable a pair of
small, glandular, ovoid organs, disposed symmetrically, which are
fixed by an attenuated extremity to the posterior edge of the
pharyngeal bulb. From their forward position in the digestive
tube, I consider them salivary glands, opening into the cavity of
the pharynx by the attenuated part which represents the excretory
passage. In the young individual these organs are comparatively
large (Fig. 2, gs)\ in the old they are very small and driven into

* ' Histoire Naturelle des Infusoires,' 1841, pi. xxi. fig. 7.
t These pieces constitute the nudlci of Ehrenberg.
X This is the incus of Ehrenberg.

536 Transactions of the Society.

the interior of the head by the mass of eggs which the body
contains (Fig. 9, g s).

Behind the pharyngeal bulb, the alimentary canal constitutes
a simple fusiform pocket which goes almost in a straight hne
through the cavity of the body (Fig. 2). The narrow ])art follow-
ing the pharynx may be considered as an oesophagus (Fig, 2, oes),
the median dilated region (Fig. 2, e) as a stomach, and the narrow
elongated portion which terminates in the cloaca, as an intestine
(Fig. 2, in). In the thin walls of the digestive tube I have not
succeeded in seeing the large cells of which it is usually composed
in the large species of Eotatoria.

The whole length of the digestive tube is furnished with very
thin, long, vibratile cilia, causing a current towards the posterior
part. After killing the animal by compression, I saw these cilia
continue to move some time after death, whilst those of the buccal
vestibule and rotatory organ ceased immediately, a proof of the
influence of the will over the movement of the latter. In all adult
individuals the stomach (Fig. 2, e) encloses a black pulverulent
mass, the residue of digestion. This mass (the Uach spot of
Vaucher) is in a state of slow rotation which continues under the
action of the vibratile cilia. Small portions are detached from time
to time, and are carried by the cihary movement to the extremity
of the intestine and expelled.

At the sides of the stomach are the two glandular organs called
by Elirenberg pancreatic cseca, and more appropriately by Leydig,
glands, or gastric appendages (Fig, 2,g g). These glands are
much larger in N. Wernechii than in other species of the same
genus. They are convex at the external, and flattened at the
internal surface, which is applied to the sides of the stomach from
the termination of the oesophagus to nearly the middle of the
gastric pocket.

These gastric glands are modified with age. Colourless, fatty
drops are deposited in their midst, and their communication with
the stomach becomes larger. They are finally drawn into the
gastric cavity, where they are blended with a circular mass
surrounding the granular black mass placed in the centre of this
cavity. These changes are easily accounted for by considering
that the gastric glands are placed in two folds of the wall of the
stomach, which gradually unfolds with age.

The excretory organs, sometimes considered as an apparatus of
aquatic respiration, are composed of a contractile vesicle placed in
the posterior part of the body (Figs. 2, 8, v c) and of the two sinuous
canals which open laterally into this vesicle (Figs. 2, 8, o s), and
seemed to me to ramify in the thickness of the wall of the con-
tractile vesicle before opening (Fig. 8, v c).

My observations on these, however, are as incomplete as those

Ohservations on Notommata Werneckii. By Prof. Balhiani. 537

on the nervous system. On the dorsal face of the body, above the
pharyngeal bulb, I distinguished a pale, rounded, finely granulated
mass, evidently representing the central nervous organ (Fig. 2, c to) ;
but I could not see any of the peripheral nerves proceeding from it,
and which Leydig has figured.*

The single median eye is placed, as in all Notommata, in the
neck, and corresponds with the posterior border of the brain
(Fig. 2, oe). It is composed of a small, refractive, spherical, crystalline
lens set in a small mass of red pigment. In some Notoinmata the
eye is fixed to the anterior part of a vesicle filled with opaque
(calcareous?) corpuscles, placed behind the cerebral mass, to which
it appears adherent. This is the sacculus cerehralis of Ehrenberg,
of quite unknown functions, and is absent in N. Werneckii.

We must not confound with the preceding organ a small cavity
on the dorsal face, in front of the eye, from which it is separated by
the whole width of the brain (Fig. 2, c e). It seems to be bifid in
its anterior half, and is furnished internally with very fine vibratile
ciha, and contains a clear and transparent liquid. Its functions
appear to be as obscure as those of the sacculus cerehralis. These
problematical organs are frequent amongst Eotatoria, and are thought
by some authors to be sensitive organs on account of their more or
less distinct connection with the nervous centre.

In the posterior part of the body, in front of the caudal fork,
are the two elongated organs general amongst Rotatoria, and which
Leydig, on account of their general form, calls club-shaped organs.
In our species they are short and fusiform, and do not reach
beyond the last segment of the body (Figs. 2, 8, go). Thanks to
the observations of Leydig, t Cohn,| Grenacher,§ and i\Iobius,|| we
know that they are the glandular organs producing the glutinous
substance which enables the animal to fasten its foot to surround-
ing bodies.

III. — Reproduction.

All the individuals which I observed were females. The
ovary, in the form of an elongated sac, rises in the cavity of
the body, beside the digestive tube, as far as the inferior part of the
gastric glands (Fig. 2, ov). Its posterior part, contracted into the
form of an oviduct (Fig. 8, od), opens, as in all Kotatoria, into
the cloacal canal. Its structure is very simple. In a kind of
granular stroma are numerous ovules, presenting the same degree

* ' Ueber den Ban,' &c., p. 24, pi. vi. figs. 16 and 17.

t Miiller's ' Archiv,' 1857, p. 410.

X " Ueber die Fortpflanzung der Radertbiere," ' Zeitscbr. wiss. Zool.,' 1859,
vol. vii. p. 439.

§ " Elnige Beobachtungen iiber Radertbiere," ' Zeitscbr. wiss. Zool.,' 1869,
vol. xix. p. 494.

II " Ein Beitrag zur Anatomic des Brachionus plicatilis,' ' Zeitscbr. wiss.
Zool.,' 1874, vol. XXV. p. 111.

538 Transactions of the Society.

of development in the same individual. The vitellus, at first homo-
geneous and colourless, encloses a clear germinal vesicle, having
itself a bulky Wagner's spot. Later on it becomes granular and
yellowish, the germinal vesicle forming a clear rounded spot, and
looking like a solid brilliant nucleus when treated with acetic acid.
As the eggs approach maturity they are piled one on another in the
ovary, mutually flattening each other. The distension they cause
ends probably by rupturing the ovarian sac, for later on they are
found free in the cavity of the body, immediately beneath the external
integument. The animal then presents the rounded form of
Fig. 9, with two short prolongations, one at the head, the other at
the tail.

Like many other rotifers, N. WernecMi produces summer eggs
and winter eggs, the former destined to be immediately hatched, the
latter passing through the cold season, and only hatching the fol-
lowing year. They diff'er from each other from the moment they
are laid"^ the summer eggs being smaller than the winter eggs
(the former being 0-056 mm. by 0*042 mm., and the latter
0 • 062 mm. by 0 • 050 mm.). They present other difierences in their
contents, and the number and character of their envelopes. The
summer egg has a clear, transparent vitellus, uniformly granular ;
a thin chorion constitutes the sole envelope (Fig. 11). In the
winter egg, the vitellus is brown and opaque ; it has a diffused,
clear, rounded spot in its centre, probably due to the persistence
of the germinal vesicle (Fig. 13). There are two envelopes sepa-
rated from one another by a space filled with a clear liquid ; the
external one thicker {ch), forming a somewhat solid shell, and the
internal one thin and membranous, closely apphed to the vitellus {cli).

Since Dalrymple's * discovery of the existence of small male
individuals of N. {Asplanclma) Anglica, two opinions, diametrically
opposed to each other, have existed among scientific men on the
mode of development of summer and winter eggs. Some maintain
with Huxley that the summer eggs alone require for their develop-
ment the male element, whilst the winter eggs are produced without
previous fecundation. Cohn t and others think, on the contrary,
that the latter require sexual impregnation, whilst the former
develop by virtue of an intrinsic fecundity (parthenogenesis). Cohn
supports this opinion by the fact that in all the species where
winter eggs are found, their appearance always coincides with that
of the males, as in many Hydatinnea and Brachionaea ; whilst in
the whole family of Philodineea, where these eggs are unknown, no
males have been observed.

* " Description of an Infusory Animalcule allied to the genus Notommata of
Ehrenberg," 'Phil. Trans.,' 1849.

t "Ueber die Fortpflauzung der Radertliiere," 'Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.,' 1856,
vol. vii. p. 4S3; IS.'iS, vol. xi. p. 293.

Observations 071 Notommata Werneekii. ByProf.Balbiani. 539

My own observatioDS have led me to a difierent opinion to
that of either Huxley or Cohn. As I have already said, all the
individuals which passed under my notice during April and May
were females. I do not conclude from this the absolute absence
of males, as these may only appear in autumn. At the beginning
of my observations it was exclusively summer eggs which were
produced. Later on these eggs were mixed in increasing pro-
portion with winter eggs ; and finally, at the end of April and
the beginning of May, nearly all the eggs were of the latter
kind. Not only was the production of summer eggs very con-
siderably diminished, but a great number remained sterile, or if
an embryo was formed it died without hatching, even when it
had arrived at an advanced stage, as shown by the eye spot
visible through the envelope. These facts show the gradual
exhaustion of the vitality of the germ in the non-fecundated sum-
mer eggs. As to the winter eggs, I conclude that the assistance
of the male sex was not necessary to their production or develop-
ment, not merely from the fact that no male individual was ever
presented to my observation, but from the fact that seminal cor-
puscles were absent in the females extracted from capsules containing
winter eggs. A final proof of the absence of males is to be found
in the complete identity presented by all the summer eggs. We
know, by the researches of Dalrymple, Leydig, Cohn, Gosse, and
others, that the sex of the future embryo of the Eotatoria is
indicated in the egg, by various characters, such as form, size, and
colour, which difi'er in male and female eggs, but I have never
remarked this in the species under observation, whei-e all the
summer eggs resemble each other, even in the smallest details.

Cohn * has raised the question whether the same female can
produce, either at the same or difierent epochs, summer and winter
eggs. He negatives it, claiming to have established that each
female only lays eggs of one kind. He even thinks that, when in
one species there are male eggs besides, the production of the
three sorts of eggs devolves on three difierent kinds of females.
My observations do not agree with the opinion of Cohn. N. We7'-
neckii enables the point to be easily decided, as the females enclose
themselves in separate capsules, in most of which 1 have found the
two sorts of eggs mixed in variable proportions, from which I con-
clude, contrary to the assertion of Cohn, that one and the same
female can produce the two sorts of eggs. The earlier layings of
the year are composed nearly exclusively of summer eggs, whilst it
is winter eggs which predominate in the latter.

In spite of their name, the laying of the winter eggs sometimes
begins from the early spring. The name was founded on the fact
that the eggs pass through the winter and only hatch in the fol-

* Lo<\ cit., p. 431.

540 Transactions of the Society.

lowing spring. The name of " durable eggs " (Dauereier, Cohn),
expresses better their physiological character, of opening only after
a long period of repose.

Some days before hatching we can distinguish in the egg a well-
formed embryo, and recognize the greater part of the organs. It
is doubled upon itself, the head and tail curved on the ventral face,
and in contact with one another (Fig. 12). Just before hatching
it moves energetically, and turns round in all directions, vibrating
its buccal ciha. These movements are to break the shell of the
egg. The young animal escapes out of the opening, and soon
afterwards the margins of the opening join so exactly that the
envelope (absolutely empty) seems intact. The newly hatched
young are vermiform and from O'lO mm. to 0-12 mm. in length
(Fig. 10).

IV. — The Galls of Vaucheria terrestris.

We must now consider the excrescences of the Vaucheria, and
try to decide whether or not they ought to be assimilated to the
galls produced by the action of some insects on phanerogamous
plants.

F. terrestris is composed of tubular filaments, without internal
septa, and filled with green matter. The organs of fructification,
the antheridium and the sporangium, are borne on a small secondary-
branch rising at right angles from the side of the principal fila-
ment (Figs. 14, 15). This common branch is itself divided into
two branches, the inferior of which is bent downwards in the shape
of a horn, bearing the antheridian cell at its extremity. The
superior, which is the continuation of the secondary branch, becomes
club-shaped at the summit, and terminates in a transversal j)artition
to form the oogone or sporangium.

Passing from the organs of reproduction to the excrescences
inhabited by N. Wernechii, a simple comparison will show the
complete morphological identity of the two. The parasitic cysts are
only the persistent branches which bore the organs of reproduction,
and which under the influence of the parasite have enlarged con-
siderably and modified their form. We sometimes find young
rotifers lodged in capsules which in no wise differ in form and size
from the normal sporiferous branches (Fig. 15, rs), which removes
all doubt concerning the nature of these productions.

As the parasite grows, the capsule which encloses it sometimes
increases to five times its original bulk (Figs. 16, 17, and 18). At
the same time the wall of cellulose thickens over all the periphery.

It is always at a very early age that the parasite is introduced
into the plant, to pass there the remainder of its life. It is nourished
exclusively on the colourless plasma of the capsule, as is seen by the
entire absence of green colour in the digestive tube. This confirms

Observations on Notommata Wernechii. By Prof. Balbiani 541

the observations of M. Chautard* and M. Felix Plateau,t that
chlorophyll is not an assimilable substance.

The animalcule lays its eggs inside the capsule, without any
regularity, either singly or in groups amidst the green matter. It
then dies, leaving no vestige but the black mass (Fig. 18, ms), and
between the laying and hatching of the eggs the capsule begins to
decompose, the chlorophyll loses its homogeneousness (Fig. 18) and
colour, and the eggs hatch from ten to fifteen days after being laid.
The Notommata forthwith anxiously seeks an issue from the
capsule.

We have seen that under the influence of the parasite the small
lateral branches of Vaueheria, which bear the reproductive organs,
instead of becoming atrophied, after the fulfilment of their func-
tions, are hypertrophied to four or five times their normal size.
I think that this arises from a stimulation, caused by the secre-
tion of an acrid liquid, of the same nature as that which forms galls
on phanerogamous plants, fr-^r^ the bite of insects, which introduce
into the plant a liquid secreted by the salivary glands. These
glands exist also in Notommata, at least I so consider the appen-
dages of the digestive tube which open into the pharynx (Fig. 2, ^ s)
Their relatively considerable size, compared to that of the organs to
which some authors have attributed an analogous signification in
other rotifers,! seems to indicate that they are destined to fulfil
special and important functions in this species These glands are
also largely developed in the gall insects.

The parasitic excrescences on Vaueheria presant another ana-
logy with certain galls of the higher plants, in being the seat of
a vegetative development which gives rise to the formation on
different points of their surface of filaments filled with green
matter. They are rarely found at the base, the summit being
their more usual position. In the latter case, the upper part of the
capsule begins to flatten, and to take an angular form ; then at each
of the angles a protuberance is formed, into which the plasmic
matter penetrates (Fig. 16, xx). The capsular wall becomes
considerably thinner at the culminating point of the protuberance,
which continuing to elongate becomes a green filament (Fig. 17,
h a), which is often many times the length of the capsule. Some
bifurcate, some curve upwards like horns, and others take a hori-
zontal or oblique position.

It frequently happens that instead of throwing out filaments the
excrescence becomes perforated at its summit, thus forming a com-
munication between the inside of the capsule and the surrounding

* ' Comptcs Rendus,' 1873, vols. Ixxvi. p. 103, Ixxvii. p. 597.

t ' Recherches sur les Phdnomenes de la Digestion chez les Insectes,' 1874,
pp.56, 119.

t ' Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.,' vol. vi. p. 73 ; Cohn, ibid., vol. vii. p. 475 ; Mobius,
ibid., vol. XXV. p. 110.

VOL, II, 2 ()

542 Transactions of the Society.

liquid (Fig. 18). The young Notommata sometimes make their
escape through this opening. The proof that the parasites do not
themselves make the opening, as might he supposed, is that the
capsules are often found perforated whilst still enclosing unhatched
eggs.

The filaments at the hase of the capsules (Figs. 16, 17, 6 a) are
formed in the same way. In this case also openings are sometimes
formed (Fig. 18, x") for the escape of the animal. Sometimes the
antheridian tube itself at the base of the capsule, with its open
extremity, serves as the exit (Fig. 17, r a).

Sometimes the young animals penetrate into the principal
filament and reach another capsule which has an opening by which
they can pass out. Their passage is, however, sometimes barred
by the false septa (Figs. 15, 16, 18, /c), which are formed with
such facility in the filaments of Vaucheria wherever there is a
lesion, a septum of cellulose on either side isolating the part
aflected and preventing it spreading to the sound parts.*

Gradually the capsule becomes empty of animalculae, and
various Infusoria invade it and complete the destruction of the
green matter.

The young Notommata move about very quickly when free in
the water. They take no food during this period of free life, and
soon return to the plant, never again to quit it. This re-entrance
is efiected through the various openings of the capsules which I
have just described, from which they pass into the young green
branches. Thus is explained their introduction into the tubes of
Vaucheria, which was an enigma to all observers, with the excep-
tion of Dr. Magnus.

I will now speak of the destiny of the winter eggs. As we
have seen already, they began to be laid in April, at first with
summer eggs, then alone. About the middle of May, the laying
of summer eggs had ceased, and the capsules contained only winter
eggs. They were in much greater number than the summer eggs.
In spite of all my care the Vaucheria died, but the eggs remained
unaltered in the capsules, presenting no sign of development during
the summer, autumn, and first half of winter. Unfortunately my
observations were interrupted, and at the end of March I found all
the eggs had hatched. This hatching must have taken place at
the end of winter or beginning of spring, and the young had
probably perished from want of food, as I found none in the
water.

This interesting animalcule is not the only species of the genus
Notommata parasitic on an Alga. Ehrenberg has made us

* See Hofmeister, ' Handbucb der Physiol. Bot.,' vol. i. p. 76, and Hanstein,
' Lebensfahigkeit der Vaucheriazellen ('Niederrh. Ges.,' Sitz. V., 4 Nov. 1872,
and 'Bot. Zeir.,' 1873, p. 697.

Observations on Notomniata Werneckii. By Prof. Balhiani. 543

acquainted with N. parasita, which inhabits the spheres of Vohox
globator.* Another species, N. Petromyzon, Kves also in Vohox,
often in company with the preceding, t

After Ehrenberg, N. parasita was the object of interesting
observations by John WiUiams,^ Gosse,§ and Ferdinand Cohn,||
who discovered the male smaller than the female, and destitute of
digestive organs, like all the males of the Eotatoria. Cohn proved
also that N. parasita lays three kinds of eggs. 1st, numerous
summer eggs with smooth envelope, which give origin to females ;
2nd, eggs similar to the preceding, but smaller, whence issue males ;
3rd, winter eggs in fewer number, but larger, and with an envelope
bristling with short spines.

I will close with the following resume of the principal results of
my researches.

Notommata Wernecldi presents two periods in its existence, one
free, the other parasitic in the tubes of Vaucheria. In each of
these two phases of its existence it takes a very different form. In
the first it is elongated, vermiform, and divided into very distinct
segments externally ; in the second, in which it attains maturity,
it is dilated, sacciform, very contractile, and without segmentation.

To these external changes correspond important modifications
in the internal organs, characterized chiefly by the enormous deve-
lopment of the ovary and the atrophy of the appendages of the diges-
tive tube (the salivary and gastric glands).

Like many other Rotatoria, it lays two sorts of eggs — summer
and winter eggs, distinguished by their structure no less than by
their mode of development.

The same female can produce either summer or winter eggs
exclusively, or a mixture of the two kinds in the same gall of
Vaucheria.

The winter eggs are produced in the spring ; their laying com-
mences later and is prolonged longer than that of the summer eggs :
the latter develop immediately, while the former pass through the
winter, and only hatch in the following year.

I have not observed any males, and on the other hand I have
never found any spermatozoids in the females, from which I con-
clude that the winter eggs, like the summer eggs, develop without
previous fecundation.

The galls of Vaucheria, in which N. Werneckii lives and is

* ' Die Infusionsthierchen,' 1838, p. 426, pi. 1. fig. 1.

t Op. cit., p. 427, pi. 1. fig. 7.

j " On the occurrence of Parasitic Eotifera in Volvox globator,'' ' Trans. Micr
Soc.,' 1852, vol iii. p. 129.

§ " On the iV. parasita inhabiling the spheres of Vohox globator," ibid., p. 143.

ti " Bemerkungen iiber Radeithiere," ' Zeitschr. wise. Zool ,' 1858, vol. ix.
p. 291.

2 O 2

544 Transaeiions of the Society.

reproduced, are due to a hypertrophy of the branches of the plant,
•which bear the organs of fructification. They differ from galls,
properly so called, which develop on the higher plants, in being
pre-existing parts, which have simply undergone an increase in
bulk, under the action of the parasite. This exaggeration of the
vegetative functions is also often shown by the formation of adven-
titious branches at different points of the surface of the gall.

The exit of the young Notommata born in the galls, and its re-
entry into the tubes of Vaucheria to form new galls, is effected
through the openings which are spontaneously produced at the
summit of the adventitious branches. They also sometimes make
use for the same object of the small projection or male organ of
reproduction, which persists at the base of the capsule in the form
of a tube open at its two extremities.

( 545 )

KECORD

OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, &c.,
including Embryology and Histology generally.

ZOOLOGY.

A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology

of the Vertebrata.

Nucleus in Blood-corpuscles. * — Upon reading some months ago
Buttcher's demonstration of a nucleus in the mammalian blood-cor-
puscle after bleaching by corrosive sublimate and alcohol, it occurred
to Dr. W. T. Belfield, of Chicago, that the asserted nucleus might
be artificial, due to coagulation of albumen and extraction of water by
the reagents used. It seemed that if bleaching alone were to be
accomplished the same results should follow bleaching by other
methods.

With this idea he procured specimens of fresh blood from man,
the dog, rat, and turtle, exposed the corpuscles to the action of various
bleaching agents — chlorine, sulphurous acid, acetic acid, a freezing
temperature — then, when the colouring matter had been removed, he
immersed them in weak solutions of anilin and carmine, and mounted
them in distilled water. He was careful to produce as nearly as
possible identical effects upon all the specimens treated by each re-
agent, using the same solutions for the same periods upon them all.
By each method nuclei were clearly demonstrated in the turtle's
blood, but in no other specimen was there any differentiation of
colour. It is true that some mammalian corpuscles after prolonged
immersion in the colouring fluid showed staining, but that staining
was invariably uniform from centre to circumference, proving con-
clusively the absence of a nucleus so far as carmine staining can
prove anything.

On these observations he bases a strong suspicion that the alcohol
and corrosive sublimate used are responsible for the appearance of
nuclei in corpuscles treated by Bottcher's method. This suspicion
receives support from recent discoveries as to the structure of nuclei.
In the July number of the ' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science ' Dr. Klein relates a series of observations, as a result of
which he affirms the nucleus to consist of a fibrillar network, im-
bedded in which is a ground substance ; that this intranuclear
network is continuous with a similar intracellular network ; that
niicleoli are merely the thickenings and shrivellings of these fibrils.
The natural shrivelling effect of alcohol might readily produce a
pseudo-nucleus in a blood-corpuscle from condensation of this intra-
cellular network.

* 'Am. Quart. Micr. Journ.,' i. (1879) p. 238.

54(i RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Division of Cartilage Cells.* — In a short paper en this snbjtc
Dr. W. Bigclow states his disagreement with Butschli's view that the
division of the cell-body always goes hand in hand with that of the
nucleus, and that the common case of a single cell with two nuclei is
not an instance of commencing division. Bigelow's observations
on the cartilage of all classes of Vertebrata lead him to the opinion
that division of the nucleus always precedes that of the cell-body. He
finds, in fact, cells with constricted (biscuit-shaped) nuclei, cells with
two nuclei which are considerably larger than the neighbouring uni-
nucleate cells, cells with two nuclei and a faint partition wall. In no
case was a septum seen before the division of the nucleus was com-
pleted.

Amongst the ordinary cartilage cells of the sclerotic of amphibia
and fishes were found some of especially large size, separated from
surrounding cells by a great thickness of ground substance, which
often exhibited concentric striation, and was stained with gold chloride.
They often contained two or three nuclei, and were of very irregular
form. Their protoplasm was stained red with gold chloride, instead of
bluish like the other cells. The surrounding cells were often arranged
radially around these large cells, of the origin and significance of which
the author proposes to treat in a future communication.

Final Changes in Meckel's Cartilage.f — The process of retro-
gressive metamorphosis undergone by Meckel's cartilage in mammals
has been studied in the pig by Dr. Baumiiller, of \\ lirzburg, who sums
up his results as follows : —

After previous calcification of its intercellular substance, the pos-
terior portion of the cartilage undergoes degeneration by fibrous
metaplasis, this process extending from the tympanic cavity to about
the middle of the alveolar portion of the mandible. Next, an increase
in size of the hinder half of the remaining part takes place, connected
with changes of form produced chiefly by the growth of the man-
dible. The most important of these changes are the constricting off
of small pieces, which, enclosed by the lower jaw, contribute to its
increase in size, by their subsequent ossification.

The second step in degeneration consists in the ossification of the
remainder of the cartilage, with the exception of the symphysis, where,
finally, the same process of fibrous metaplasis takes place, to which
the disappearance of the hinder part of the cartilage was due.

Histology of Nerve-fibre.|— B. Rawitz comes to the conclusion
that the constrictions observed by Eauvier are formed, in the living or-
ganism, by a circle of pale substance, which surrounds the axis-cylinder
and destroys the continuity of the medulla ; that the " double contour "
represents the whole of the medullary sheath, but is not to be made
out in the fresh state ; it surrounds the axis-cylinder. The crimped
appearance observed by Lautermann is due to the breaking up of the
nerve- fibre.

* 'Arch. f. Mikr. Anat.,' xvi. (1879) p. 458.

t 'Zeitschr. wis8. Zool.,' xxxii. (1879) p. 466.

I 'Arch. f. Ariat; (Mis and Biaiine), (1879) p. 57.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 547

Microscopical Phenomena of Muscular Contraction.* — The micro-
scopical phenomena of muscular contraction have recently been studied
by Professor Th. W. Engelmann, of Utrecht.

During the contraction of the transversely striated muscular fibres
there are produced, parallel with the changes of form of the muscular
elements, changes in the optical properties of the isotropic and aniso-
tropic layers.

These changes are of an opposite nature in the two layers, the
isotropic stratum in its totality becoming more and the anisotropic
less refractile.

In consequence, at a certain degree of contraction, the fibre seen
by ordinary light may appear homogeneous without appreciable
transverse strisB^the stage of homogeneity or of transition.

If the contraction is carried further, the transverse strife corre-
sponding to the isotropic disks reappear.

At any given phase of the process of contraction, consequently even
in the transition stage, the isotropic and anisotroj)ic substances may
be recognized by means of the polarizing Microscoj)e as well-defined
and regularly alternating layers. They do not, at the time of contrac-
tion, exchange their resp3ctive places in the muscular compartment
(i. e. that portion of the fibre included between the middle of the iso-
tropic layer and that of the next).

The thickness of both layers decreases during contraction, that of
the isotropic layer much more rapidly than that of the anisotropic.
The total volume of each compartment does not vary sensibly during
contraction.

The anisotropic layers increase in volume at the expense of the
isotropic, as during contraction liquid passes from the latter to the
former.

Development of the Olfactory Nerve and Olfactory Organ of
Vertebrate s.f — In the course of an investigation into the development
of the cranial nerves of the chick, by Dr. A. Milnes Marshall, certain
facts came to light indicating that the olfactory nerve, instead of
being, as usually described, a structure diifering totally in its mode of
origin from all the other nerves in the body, in reality " exactly
corresponds in mode of development and in appearance with the other
cranial nerves, and with the posterior roots of the special nerves." J
A further paper by Dr. Marshall gives the results of further in-
vestigations on this point ; it deals also with some features in the
development of the vertebrate olfactory organ and with certain
questions of a more general nature affected by the conclusions arrived
at. The more important conclusions, as regards the development of
the olfactory nerve, are stated in the following propositions : —

(a) The olfactory nerves do not arise from the cerebral hemi-
spheres, but from the single unpaired forebrain.

* ' Arch. Neerland.,' xiii. (1S78) p. 437.
t ' Proc. Roy. Soc.,' xxviii. (1879) p. 324.

X ' Proc. Roy. Soc.,' xxvi. p. 50, and ' Q. Journ. Micr. Sci.,' xviii. (1878) pp.
17-23.

518 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(h) There is no trace of an olfactory lobe in the early stages of
development of the olfactory nerve.

(c) The olfactory nerve is a primary nerve comparable to the
segmental cranial nerves.

The facts recorded concerning the development of the olfactory
nerve and olfactory organ, point towards the same conclusions as the
morphology of these structures, viz. that the latter is the visceral
cleft, that the former is the segmental nerve supplying that cleft in a
manner precisely similar to that in wliicli the hinder clefts are
supplied by their respective nerves, and that the Schneiderian folds
are gills ; conclusions which, if accepted, will considerably simplify
our conception of the segmentation of the vertebrate head.

B. INVERTEBRATA.

Digestive Ferments of the Invertebrata.*— The paper of Dr.
Krukenberg (of Heidelberg) on this interesting subject is reviewed in
the ' Archives de Zool. Exp.'

In the most lowly developed forms (Myxomycetes and Porifera)
there are digestive ferments, of which the best developed is the peptic ;
in most Echinoderma the formation of the ferment is not fully
localized, and it seems possible that the nutriment may in them
undergo ferment action outside the intestine ; the liver of the As-
tei'ida is completely analogous to that of the Arthropoda or Mollusca ;
an analogous gland has been noted in the Holothurian Cucumaria
planci, and in the Echinid Toxojmeustes lividus and T. hrevispinosus ;
in some Vermes the thryptic ferment (isothrypsin) is different to that
of the Vertehrata, Arthropoda, and Mollusca, though probably iden-
tical with that of the Asterida ; the hepatic follicles of Aphrodite
have not this function ; and it appears that there is nothing in the
Invertebrata similar to the " stomach " of the Vertehrata.

Mollusca.

New Facts in the Anatomy of MoUuscs.j — Dr. H. von Jhering
contributes a short note on some recent discoveries he has made in the
anatomy of molluscs.

He states that in the Nudibranckiata, urticating organs (Nessel-
elemente) occur, sometimes having the form of simple rods, as in
Turbellaria, sometimes having the complicated structure of a
Coelenterate thread-cell. They arise invariably in the interior of
ectodermal cells, and are formed in an urticating sac (Nesselsack), a
structure surrounded with strong muscular walls, and situated at the
extremity of the dorsal papillse. In many genera this sac is pro-
longed at its proximal or hinder end into another, thin-walled sac,
which is in close contact with the prolongation of the alimentary
canal extending into the jiapilla : in many cases, even, the two run
together, thus establishing a communication between the alimentary
processes and the urticating sacs. In these same genera, also, each
alimentary process opens externally by a small aperture at the apex

* ' Arch. Zool. Exp.' (Lacaze-Duthiers), vii. (1878) No. 3, p. xxxi.
t 'Zool. Anzeigcr,' ii. (1879) p. 136.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 549

of its papilla, so that, besides tlie anus, tlie gut has several dozen
external apertures, of use, probably, in the ingestion of water.

In Pleuroh-anchcea, another curious arrangement was found, namely,
a duct opening in front of the gill, and placing the surrounding water
in communication with the auricle of the heart. There is also a duct
running alongside the kidney, and, as in Doris, placing the pericardial
cavity in communication with the kidney.

Generative Organs of the Cephalopoda-* — Dr. Brock points out
how little is really known as to the characters of these structures,
with the exception, of course, of those two remarkable jjoints which
have long attracted the attention of naturalists — the sjDermatophore
and the hectocotylus.

The male organs are highly differentiated, and consist of the
seminal gland, together with an efferent apparatus, which is made up
of several parts, and has various accessory organs, of remarkable
structure and unknown function, connected with it. Of all the
curious points, perhaps the fact that— so far as is yet known —
there is no Cephalopod in which the efferent duct is directly
connected with the testis, is the most striking, although there is a
very close analogy between this arrangement and that which obtains
in the females of the Vertebrata. The testis is ordinarily tubular
in structure ; the efferent portion consists of a long canal, which is
divided into a thinner and a thicker portion ; the latter is probably
glandular in structure, and is in function connected with the formation
of spermatophores (vesicula seminalis—GnyieT) ; the third portion is
only well developed in the Decapoda, and received consequently no
name from Cuvier, who busied himself most largely with the anatomy
of Octopus. Dr. Brock proposes to call it the vas efferens. With this
longish duct is connected the prostate and a csecal sac ; it leads into
the sac for the spermatophores. This organ, perhaps most commonly
known as " Needham's pouch," has had various functions assigned to
it ; it ordinarily forms a wide flask-shaped receptacle, which, in the
Decapoda, opens into the mantle cavity by a wide neck, and in the
Octopoda into an elongated muscular penis, which likewise floats
freely in the mantle cavity. The arrangements found in Sepia offi-
cinalis, Loligo vulgaris, Sepiola Roncleletii, Eledone moschata, and Octojms
are then described in detail, as are also the female organs of the same
forms. As to these, the arrangements of the Octojioda are simjder
than those of the Decapoda, and the same, it may be observed, applies
to the male organs ; the former have two symmetrical oviducts, but
only one pair of accessory glands, while in the Decapoda there are a
number of accessory glands, but only one — the left — oviduct. The
large flask-shaped nidamental glands seem to be found in all Deca-
poda ; the glands accessory to them are compact (Sepiola), or are
formed of two symmetrical halves, connected by a narrow isthmus
(Sepia), or of two separate glands (Loligo) ; and the orifices of these
glands are so arranged that their secretions must mix, if both sets
secrete at the same point of time.

Histological examination reveals the fact that not only can two
* 'Zeitsclir. wiss. Zool.,' xxxii. (1878) p. 1.

550 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

portions be made out in the so-called vesicula seminalis, but that the
epithelium of the whole glandular tract is of the same character
throughout ; this points to the physiological similarity of the secretion,
and to the generalization that, howsoever greatly these glands may
vary in external characters, they form histologically and physio-
logically a single glandular organ, the function of which is the forma-
tion of spermatophores. The cause of the variations in form appears
likewise to be due to the formation of these bodies. In the female
Decapoda the presence of the accessory nidamental glands reveals the
existence of two sets of organs. Dr. Brock is of oijiniou that not only
is the glandular epithelium of the nidamental gland exactly similar in
its primitive condition to the epithelium of the accessory male glands,
but that whatever changes do obtain never exceed the limits of indi-
vidual modification. When the organ is in function, the epithelium
becomes changed in character ; in the male there is the formation of
cells in great quantity ; the separate cells are smaller, and vary in
form. In the nidamental glands the cells become arranged in two
rows, the upper ones ciliated, and the lower developing rod-shaped
and regular elements, in the protoplasm of which a number of vacuoles
appear. At first sight the diflerences in the water canals which con-
nect the genital capsule with the renal sacs are such as to lead to the
supposition that they are homologous structures ; but if we consider
that the thin pouch of the ovary of the Decapoda only diifers from
that of the Octopoda by the absence of a muscular layer, we shall see
that the differences between the firm canals of the one and the
lacuna-like canal spaces of the other group may be well referred to
this cause. In the opinion of the author, what is now seen of the
water canals is but the remnant of a more extended system, which he
hopes to be able to trace out in the Nautilus.

Observations on the Organization of Solenopus. * — Solenopus
nitidulus was first found by Koren about thirty years since, and
subsequently by Professor M. Sars, by both of whom it was considered
to be a mollusc, though they were not able to make a thorough
examination. Dalyell, however, in the ' Powers of the Creator,'
refers it to the Vermes.

Koren and D. C. Danielssen having obtained numerous specimens
of different species, have made more extended investigations into the
organization of the animal, of which a brief preliminary description
(without figures) appears in the ' Archiv for Mathematik og Natur-
videnskab ' of Christiania, 1878. They decidedly confirm the refer-
ence of Solenopus to the MoUusca, but as it differs considerably from
previously known molluscs, they have not been able to bring it under
any of the established orders of Mollusca, although it may well be
referred to the great subclass Opisthobranchiata of Milne-Edwards.
They have accordingly formed for it a third order of that subclass,
which they call Telobranchiata, f because the branchiae are situated
at the hinder extremity of the animal.

The Telobranchiata are naked marine animals, with more or less

* Translated by W. S. Dallas, in ' Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' iii. (1879) p. 321 .
t From T(?>os, end, and Qpayx^o., giffs.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 551

worm-like bodies. They are hermaphrodite, and have neither ten-
tacles, eyes, radula, or jaws. The foot is long and narrow, and can
be completely concealed by the mantle. The branchise, which are
placed at the posterior extremity of the animal, are retractile. Heart
with a pretty well developed vascular system. Generative organs
situated along the back, above the stomach and intestine. Nervous
system composed of an cesophageal ring with one cerebral and two
pedal (infra-cesophageal, TuUb.) ganglia.

Family 1. Solenopodidce K. and D.
{NeomeniadcB Jhering.)

Along the ventral surface a furrow, within which the long narrow
foot is concealed. Branchite filiform.

Genus 1. Solenopus M. Sars, 1868.
Vermicidus Dalyell, 1853. Neomenia T. Tullberg, 1875.

Body cylindrical, with filiform branchiae at its posterior truncated
extremity. Above the branchial cavity in the posterior margin of the
mantle a genital pore, and in the bottom of the branchial cavity an
anal orifice. Buccal mass, thick, muscular, capable of being com-
pletely covered by the mantle which is covered all over with diversely
formed calcareous spicules. Along the ventral surface a furrow in
which the foot is concealed.

Six new species, in addition to S. nitidulus M. Sars, are described,
viz. : — S. affinis, S. DahjelUi, S. incrustatus, S. margaritaceiis, S.
borealis, and S. Sarsii.

Organ of Bojanus in Anodon.* — Dealing with the view that the
blood of the Lamellibranchiata becomes intermixed with water in
the kidney (for such the " organ of Bojanus " is), Mr. Marcus Hartog
points out that this can hardly be so, and that the true function of
the water which enters its canal is that of flushing the renal ducts
filled with what is now known to be, on the whole, solid excreta
(Lacaze-Duthiers). The author points out that the foot is provided
with a number of orifices without any rigid elements adapting them
to resist compression, and with a supply of cilia which work inwards ;
the water which thus gains ingress must, on the contraction of the
foot, pass away partly by its pores, partly through the " vena cava,"
and partly through the pericardium, whence it miTst escape through
the kidney, which, as is well known, has an orifice into the pericar-
dium ; it is further pointed out that the cilia of the renal canals work
towards the exterior, and that the external orifice is so arranged as to
prevent water passing in from without.

MoUuscoida.

Development of the Salpidse.f — The question whether these
interesting forms do or do not exhibit true alternation of generation is,
curiously enough, bound up with the history of the development of
their testes. According to one of the few naturalists who have

* ' Journ. Anat. and Phys.' (Humphry), xiii. (1879) p. 400.
t ' Zeitbchr. wi.ss. Zool.,' xxx. (Suppl.) (1S7») p. 275.

552 KECOED OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

observed them, Mr. W. K. Brooks, of America, these organs are
developed from the remarkable aggregation of cells, which, as contain-
ing fat in large quantities, has been called the elceohlast, found at the
hinder end of the so-called foetal or solitary form. With this view
Professor Salensky disagrees ; by the older, and indeed by the
majority of naturalists, it has been held that the testes are developed
at a later period than the ovary ; in an early stage of the development
of the " chain-Salpse " there is found at the hinder end of the body an
aggregation of cells ; later on this commences and continues to grow
forward, and, investing the hind-gut, forms a testicular layer, from
the lateral portions of which the testes are developed, while its
superior and inferior portions take no part in the formation of the
testes, and in all probability disappear altogether. According to
Professor Salensky's observations this organ has no relation to the
claeoblast, as Brooks supposed that it had. What relation has this
mode of development to the question of alternate generations? And,
firstly, as to one striking peculiarity, which is this : the ova of the
chain- SalpfB attain a comparatively high degree of development before
the chain breaks free from the mother. This is an arrangement
altogether unlike that which obtains in other forms that present this
method of generation, and has led to the view that the solitary Salpos
are females, but that their ova are developed in the chained forms
to which they give rise.

The chained forms are, according to this view, males, and the
part homologous to the elasoblast is that which gives rise to the
testes ; but as Salensky does not regard this view of the origin of
the ovaries as correct, and believes that he has shown that the testes
have no homologous relation to the elfeoblast, it follows that he looks
upon the generation of these forms as being truly of the alternate
mode.

On comparing these Salpce with allied forms, a very great
similarity is found to obtain between them and Pyrosoma ; in this
latter the ovum gives rise to a " cyathozooid " (Huxley) ; this
develops by gemmation from its " stolo prolifer " the ascidiozoids,
which are, like all Ascidice, hermaphrodite; the mother-form or
" nurse " gives rise to an ovarian tube, which passes into the daughter-
forms, and there produces ova ; the only difference between them lies
in the fact that Pyrosoma first gives rise to four ascidiozoids only,
and that these undergo further gemmation ; in the Salpce there is
nothing that is analogous to this.

Leaving the other forms of which the author treats, and merely
indicating that he regards the aggregation of cells found in the tail
of DoUohim as intermediate between the chorda of the Ascidian larva
and the elaeoblast of the Salpce, we would note that he considers this
last-mentioned organ as being obviously of greater morphological
importance than a mere store of nutrient material, and as being
provisional only ; if this view be just, there is no obstacle to prevent
our regarding the solitary form of Salpce as exactly similar to the
"nurse-form" of Doliolmn, and, speaking more generally, we iind
that the " nurse " of the Salpce corresj)onds to the larvae of other

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

553

Tunicaia, and is only a more or less modified form of the primitive
type of larva.

Affinities of the Polyzoa. — The subject of Professor Allman's
Presidential Address to the Linnean Society, on May 24, was,
" Eecent Progress in our Knowledge of the Endoproctal Polyzoa," in
the course of which he stated that whilst still supporting the mol-
luscan affinities of the Polyzoa as the most strongly marked, yet at
the same time he could not overlook the fact that recent research had
been bringing out features which pointed decidedly in the direction
of the Worms.

Among these, one of the most significant is the presence of a pair
of symmetrically placed gland-like organs, recently discovered in
Loxosoma. These organs open on the surface of the body, and vividly
suggest the well-known " segmental organs " of worms. It is in the
Endoprocta (which now include the four genera, PedicelHna, Umatella,
Loxosoma, and the curious Ascopodaria discovered by Busk among
the collections of the ' Challenger ') that the most decided vermal
approximation can be demonstrated.

Loxosoma.* — The Eev. A. M. Norman, M.A., writes to point
out that what he considered tentacular appendages attached to the
caudal extremity of a Gephyrean which he described in 1861
(dredged in Bantry Bay) were obviously Vogt's Loxosoma phascolo-
somatum described in the ' Archives de Zoologie Experimentale,'
vol. V. (1877) and 'Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.' n.s. vol. xvii. (1877).
The mistake into which he had fallen is attributable to the fact that
in 1861 Loxosoma had never been heard of, nor was any genus known
at all like it, added to the fact that the parasite was so firmly attached
to the epidermis of the host that it was almost impossible to remove
it unmutilated.

Mr. Norman thinks that now attention has been directed to the
subject several other species of the semi-parasitic Polyzoa will be
found in British waters. They should be especially looked for on
the Annelida, also on Hydrozoa, Sponges, &c.

Some valuable remarks of Oscar Schmidt f upon the memoirs on
Loxosoma are translated in a subsequent number of the ' Annals.' |

Barbed Hooklets on Spines of a Brachiopod.§ — Dr. Young, of
the Hunterian Museum, Glasgow, writes that Mr. Thomas Davidson
describes on p. 275 and figures in plate xxxiv. of the Supj)lement to
his ' Carboniferous Brachiopoda,' now on the eve of publication,
some important points in the structure of Spirifera lineata Marten
which specimens in his collection revealed. In this species the shell
structure is minutely punctate, and the flattened spines, which are
usually broken off short, contain in their interior a double canal that
terminates upon the outer surface of the shell in a series of double
pores. Dr. Young recently found a specimen having the spines in

* ' Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' 5th ser., iii. (1879) p. 133.

t ' Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.,' xxxi. (1878) p. 68.

X 'Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' iii. (1879) p. 3X3.

§ 'Nature,' xx. (1879) p. 242.

554 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

place. It appears that these spines are provided with numerous
marginal opposite hooklets, usually pointing towards the free end of
the spine, a structure which, so far as Dr. Young is aware, is unique
amongst the brachiopods, and to which he draws the attention of
palaeontologists, as perhaps similar structures may be found in other
brachiopods.

Arthropoda.

Structure of the Cerebrum and Retina in the Arthropoda.*—
Emil Berger finds that the optic ganglion of the Artlirofoda consists
of two parts, one of which is in direct relation to the facetted eye,
and goes to aid the layer of rods in making up the retina, while the
other part is more directly connected with the cerebrum, and is to be
regarded as a proper part of that organ. The retina consists of five
layers, which, passing inwards, are (1) The layer of rods, separated
by a fenestrated membrane from (2) the layer of nerve-bundles ;

(3) The granular layer, where the nuclei are coarsely granular ;

(4) The molecular layer, containing a finely granular substance, just
as in the Vertehraia ; and (5) The layer of ganglionic cells, which
were ordinarily found to be nucleated. Simplest in Artemia, the eye
becomes more complicated in the higher Arthropoda. The relations
of the retina to the cortical lajer of the cerebrum are particularly
interesting in the bee ; it is directly continuous with that of the optic
ganglion and the ganglionic portion of the retina, and this arrange-
ment seems to show that the last-mentioned structure is merely a
modified part of the cortical layer. It is interesting to compare this
arrangement with the well-known history of the development of the
Vertebrate eye.

The pair of nerves which, in the bee, arise from the subcesophageal
ganglion are shown to take their origin from the supra-oesophageal
ganglion in great part, as it is but little of them that arises from the
cortical region of the lower ganglia ; this observation explains the
presence of the number of transverse commissures which were stated
to exist in this region by Leydig. In the Insecta the supra-oesophageal
ganglion is invested by a cortex containing ganglion-cells, while in the
higher Crustacea the ganglion-cells are arranged in a number of peri-
pheral and disconnected layers.

Formation of the Blastoderm and of the Germ-layers in Insects.t—
Dr. Bobretzky, in his observations on this subject, draws attention to
the views of Weissmaun and of Metschnikoif. According to the former,
the formation of the blastoderm is preceded by the development of a
clear and almost homogeneous substance on the surface of the egg ; this
" blastema " encloses nearly the whole of the egg, and is readily distin-
guished from the dark granular yolk. In it there appear nuclei, which
are. later on, converted into the cells of the blastoderm ; and according
to Weismann, these nuclei are freshly developed structures, and not
descendants of the germinal vesicle. MetschnikofF, however, believes
that they owe their origin to the continual division of the germinal

* ' Arb. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien,' ii. (1878) p. 221.
t ' Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.,' xxxi. (1878) p. 195.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 555

vesicle. Brandt is also of opinion that the blastoderm owes its origin
to the germinal vesicle ; lie says that the protoplasm of the blasto-
derm corresponds to the germinal vesicle, and the contained nuclei to
the germinal spot.

Dr. Bobretzky agrees with the latter in his general results, inas-
much as he finds in two species of Lepidoptera which he specially
examined, that (1) previous to the formation of the blastoderm, morpho-
logical elements having the value of true cells, appear in the yolk ;
(2) some of these gradually pass to the surface, where they form the
blastoderm ; while (3) others remain in the yolk, and, later on, bring
about the formation of the so-called yolk-spheres, which are likewise
to be regarded as true cells. The author was not, however, enabled
to observe the connection of these cells with the germinal vesicle ;
and he is still in opposition to Brandt, and in agreement with the
great majority of observers, in regarding this structure as the true
nucleus of the ovarian cell. As to the blastema of Weissmann, its
existence is denied by Brandt, and was never observed by Bobretzky,
unless, as he says, the perij^heral vitelline layer represents it ; but this
takes no share in the formation of the blastoderm.

The author rightly insists on the necessity of extended and com-
parative investigations before deducing any generalizations ; and he
points out that, in a spider," elements have been observed by Ludwig
very similar to those found by him in the egg of the Lepidoptera. As
to the cleavage in these latter, he points out that as the protoplasmic
elements are not all used up in the formation of the blastoderm, they
so far diifer from what has been observed in the Crustacea and
Arachnida, where the cleavage is complete ; but he explains that he is
of opinion that the above-mentioned yolk-spheres do ultimately go to
form the endoderm, while he believes that the blastoderm really cor-
responds to the ectoderm. In connection with other observations
lately made, it is of interest to observe that the mesodermal bands
begin to be segmented some time before the ectoderm.

Mode of Recognition among Ants.* — The Eev. H.C. McCook has
made experiments upon two species of ants (" Pavement " Ant —
Tetramorium ccespitum, and Pennsylvania Carpenter Ant — Camponotua
Pennsyh- aniens) as to their mode of recognizing each other and distin-
guishing fellow-formicarians from those of alien nests, with whom they
at once fight when they meet.

It occurred to him that this recognition was based upon a certain
odour which, in different degrees of intensity, is emitted by the respec-
tive factions ; or, which seems less likely, upon the presence in the
individuals of the combatants of two distinct odours. This degree of
odour, or difference in odour, he supposed might be dependent upon
some temporary difference in the physical condition, age, or environ-
ment of the antagonists. Supposing that there were any basis of truth
in this theory, it further occurred to him that the presence of an arti-
tificial and alien perfume of sufficient strength to neutralize the dis-
tinctive animal odours or degrees of odour, and environ the combatants

♦ 'Proc. Acad. Nnt. Sci. Phila.,' 1878, p. 15.

556 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

with a foreign and common odour, would have the tendency to confuse
the ants, and disturb or destroy their power of recognition ; in which
case he conjectured that the result might be their pacification and
reconciliation. He therefore made the following tests.

He introduced into a jar, in which he had placed (with some soil) a
number of combatants whom he found engaged in battle (" pavement "
ants), a pellet of paper saturated with eau de Cologne, the battle being
then again at its height. The effect was instantaneous. The ants showed
no signs of pain, displeasure, or intoxication — indeed, some ran freely
over the paper, but in a very few seconds the warriors had unclasped
mandibles, released their hold of enemies' legs, antennas, and bodies,
and after a momentary confusion, began to burrow galleries in the
earth with the utmost harmony. On the part of some there was the
appearance of thus escaping from the artificial odour, but there was
no renewal of the battle, and the quondam foes lived together for
several days in harmony. Thus the perfume proved an eminent
pacificator, and so far verified the theory. A second and a third
experiment was tried, with the like results.

Attention was next directed to the " carpenter " ants, and a similar
series of experiments made, the results of which did not, however, at
all agree with the previous ones, the perfume having no effect in pre-
venting the decapitation of alien ants introduced into the nests.

Mr. McCook hopes, when a favourable opportunity again presents,
to continue this line of observation. The results are put on record,
inconclusive as they appear, not only because they seem to be in them-
selves interesting and valuable, but in order to stimulate the inquiry
among others in the same direction, and to invite suggestions and
information which other observers may be able to furnish.

Toilet Habits of Ants.* — The Eev. H. C. McCook also states that
the Agricultural Ant (and the remark ajjplies to all other ants with which
he was acquainted) is one of the neatest creatures in her personal habits.
The whole body is frequently and thoroughly cleansed, a duty which
is habitually attended to upon eating and after sleep. In this process
the ants assist one another, and it is an exceedingly interesting sight
which is presented to the observer when this general " washing up "
is in progress.

The operation is conducted as follows. The ant to whom the
friendly office is being administered (the cleansed, she may be called) is
leaning over upon one side as we begin the observation. The cleanser
(as we may name the other party) is in the act of lifting the fore-leg,
which is licked, the mouth passing steadily from the tarsus up to the
body ; next the neck is licked, then the prothorax, then the head.
The cleanser now leaves, and the cleansed begins to operate uijon her-
self as hereafter described. This process may be seen throughout the
entire group. We take another couple. The cleanser has begun at
the face, which is licked thoroughly, even the mandibles being cared
for, they being held apart for convenient manipulation. From the
face the cleanser passes to the thorax, thence to the haunch, and so

* 'Proo. Acarl. Nat. Sci. Thila.,' 1878, p. IIJ).

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 557

along the first leg, the second and third in the same manner, around
the abdomen, and thence up the other side of the ant to the head. A
third ant approaches and joins in the friendly task, but soon abandons
the field to the original cleanser. The attitude of the cleansed all
this while is one of intense satisfaction, quite resembling that of a
family dog when one is scratching the back of his neck. The insect
stretches out her limbs, and as her friend takes them successively into
hand, yields them, limp and supple, to her manipulation; she rolls
gently over upon her side, even quite over upon her back, and, with
all her limbs relaxed, presents a perfect picture of muscular surrender
and ease. The pleasure which the creature takes in being thus
" combed " and " sponged " is really enjoyable to the observer. He
had seen au ant kneel down before another, and thrust forward the
head, drooping quite under the face, and lie there motionless, thus
expressing as plainly as sign-language could her desire to be cleansed.
He understood the gesture, and so did the supplicated ant, for she at
once went to work.

The ants engaged in cleansing their own bodies have various
modes of operating. The fore-legs are drawn between the mandibles,
and, as far as could be ascertained, also through or along the lips, and
then are passed alternately back of the head, over and down the fore-
head aud face by a motion which closely resembles that of a cat when
cleansing with her paw the corresponding part of her head. Some-
times but one side of the head is cleansed, in which case the foot used
is drawn through the mandibles or across the teeth of one mandible
after every two or three strokes upon the face. These strokes are
always made downward, following thus the direction of the hairs.
The liairs upon the tibia aud the tarsus seem to serve the purpose of
a brush or comb, and he had thought that the object in drawing the
leg through the teeth or between the mandibles is to straighten
up the hairs, and thus increase their efficiency for service. Not
only the fore pair, but also the other legs, are passed, as above
described, through the mouth. The second and third pairs are
also and oftener cleansed by the fore-legs, as follows : The ant
throws herself over upon her side, draws up the middle and hind
legs, which are interlocked at the tarsi, and then, clasping them
with one fore-leg, presses the other downward along the other two.
The fore-legs alternate in this motion. When the legs of one side
are cleansed, the ant reverses her position and repeats the process.
When the anteunse are cleansed, they appear to be taken between the
curved spur at the extremity of the tibia aud the tibia itself, as one
would clasp an object between the base of the thumb and the hand,
and are drawn toward the lip of the flagellum, evidently with some
pressure. He had thought that he could notice this spur also used as
a brush or scraper, in the general application of the fore-leg to the
body. It seems to have an articulation at its junction with the tibia.
Evidently moisture is conveyed from the mouth and rubbed upon the
abdomen, as evidenced by the glossy appearance, which showed the
presence of moisture upon the surface.

The amount of time devoted to these toilet duties is very great
VOL. 11. 2 p

558 RECORD OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

with imprisoned ants, but is probably not so great in a state of nature.
No doubt, with ants, as with men, an artificial condition of society
gives an inducement to a larger devotion to personal appearance.
Invariably at nigbt, when the gas-lamp is lit and placed near the glass
formicaries, the heat and light, both of which appear to be grateful to
them, tempt them out, and they begin operations. So also after
eating and when awaking from sleep. In short, whenever they are in
a particularly comfortable state, they express their satisfaction by
making their toilet.

Malformation in an Insect.*— Dr. H.Dewitz describes a larva of
Atta insularis, in which the last leg on the left side, instead of lying
beneath the larval cuticle like the other five, projected through a hole
in the cuticle, its last four joints being exposed. The aperture
through which extrusion had taken place had been formed by the
partial detachment of an ellipsoidal sbred, which remained attached
along the outer side of the aperture like a valve. Both this valve and
the edge of the aperture were strongly chitinized.

Parasitic Insects. f — Dr. Gurlt gives a new list of vertebrates
(76 mammals and 519 birds), on which various species of parasitic
insects live ; the name of each host being followed by those of its

Notes on Phryganeae.^ — Fritz Miiller, writing from Brazil, makes
some remarks upon this group, first stating that he has found (rudi-
mentary) persistent tracheal gills (as in Pteronarcys) in one species
(? Tetracentron), while in another these gills were cast oif at the
assumption of the imago condition. The same imago had on the
anterior edge of the third to the sixth rings of the abdomen peculiar
processes, which were absent from the remaining somites ; on the end
of the fifth ring there were also two dark chitinous plates. All these
structures, quite useless to the adult insect, are the persistent remains
of tooth-like plates, so strongly developed in corresponding positions
in the larva, and assisting it in creeping in and out of its tube. The
insect in question, therefore, aifords an example of two kinds of rudi-
mentary organs ; first, organs inherited from an adult ancestor to whom
they were of use ; and secondly, organs having reference only to the
larval condition, and subsequently transmitted to the adult.

The pupa of a species of Bhyacophila, the larva of which lives
amongst the branches of Podostema, has well developed claws ter-
minating the first and second legs. These are useful to the insect as
it creeps through the tangled branches of the plant.

According to the characters of the pupse, the IricJioptera may be
divided into two groups : in one {Rhyacophilidce and Hydropdlidce), the
larvfe are quiescent in closed webs ; in the other (LeptoceridcB, Serico-
stomidce, Hydropsy chidce, Linmophilidce, and Phryganidoi), the webs or
cases have an opening at each end, through which a stream of water,
due to the movements of the pupa, is constantly passing.

* 'Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 134.
t * Arch. f. Naturg.,' xliv. (1878) p. 1C2.
X ' Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 283.

INVEBTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 559

Habits and Intelligence of Vespa maculata.*— This hornet is,
according to Mr. Meehan, gifted with great intelligence; on one occa-
sion he observed one with a summer locust several times its own size,
endeavouring to rise with it from the ground, but failed from the great
weight of the locust. It then walked with its prey about thirty feet
to a tall maple, which it ascended to the top, and then flew oflf with
its burden in a horizontal direction. There was more than instinct
in this act. There was reasoning on certain facts and judgment
accordingly.

Observations on Peripatus.f— Mr. F. M. Balfour, of Cambridge,
has lately made some observations on this animal, the discovery of
whose tracheal system is, as he justly points out, " one of the most
interesting results obtained by the naturalists of the ' Challenger.' "

Describing the segmental organs which, thoiigh noticed by Grube
and by Saenger, are not mentioned by Mr. Moseley, he states that he
has found them in all segments of the body, except the first two or
three post-oral ; placed at the bases of the feet, each organ, when
fully developed, consists of (1) a dilated vesicle opening externally
at the base of a foot, (2) a coiled glandular portion, and (3) a short
terminal portion, which, as he believes, opens into the body cavity ;
they are further stated to resemble more nearly those of the leech than
those of any other form with which the author is acquainted. The
oesophageal commissures are shown to form what must be regarded
as suboesophageal ganglia, which give off large nerves to the oral
papillae ; on their ventral side the ventral nerve cords are covered by
a thick ganglionic layer, and at each pair of feet dilate into a distinct
ganglionic swelling; from each of ttese there is given off a pair of
large nerves to the feet, and the swellings of the two nerve cords are
connected by a pair of commissures containing ganglion cells. This
observation is of great interest and importance, inasmuch as it
has been hitherto stated that there were no ganglia in the ventral
commissures of Peripatus ; in other points also, as for instance in the
fact that the nervous system lies between the circular and longitudinal
muscles of the body, and is not " in proximity with the skin," there
are signs of the organization of the nervous system being of a high
character.

Mr. Balfour also states that he believes that he has evidence
of a paired sympathetic system. The organ which, with some
doubt, was regarded by Moseley as a fat-body, is now shown to be
a glandular tube, which opens into the mouth ; not the same as the
slime-glands, it " may perhaps be best compared with the simple
salivary gland of Julus," and if it be homologous with this structure,
its presence is of interest as showing that in Peripatus, as in the
Tracheata, there are true salivary glands.

Basilica Spider and her Snare.J — The Rev. H. C. McCook, in an
interesting paper, describes the snare of a spider which he observed

* 'Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.,' 1878, p. 15.

t ' Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.,' in. vL

X ' Proc. Acad. Nat. Scl Phila.,' 1878, p. 124.

2 p 2

560

RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

in Texas, and whicli has been named Epeira basilica, " her architecture
having suggested the dome-bearing temples of the earlier Christians of
the Eastern Church."

The snare was hung about two feet from the ground, upon a bush
which stood in the midst of a grove of young live-oaks, and had the
composite structure imperfectly represented in the figure. The general

Snare of Epeira basilica, d, dome ; c, curtain beneath ; r, retitelarian snare.

form of the snare was that of a pyramid, the upper part of which, r, was
a mass of right lines knotted and looped, and crossing in all directions.
Within this mass was suspended an open silken dome d, constructed of
a vast number of radii, crossed at regular intervals by concentrics
after the manner of the snare of the common orb- weaving garden spider.
The radii were about one-sixteenth of an inch apart at the bottom or
circumference of the dome. The concentrics extended entirely and
with equal regularity to the summit. They did not cross the radii in
circular lines, but presented that notched appearance which is observed
in the webs of some orb weavers, particularly those whose snares are
korizontal, as, for example, Hentz's Epeira hortorum. The meshes
formed by the radii and spirals had thus much the shape of the

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 5(Jl

meslies in a fisherman's net. The diameter of the dome was from seven
to eight inches at the base, the height nearly the sa,me. It was sus-
pended in the midst of the mass of right lines by silken guys of like
character, which thoroughly steadied the delicate structure, and per-
fectly preserved its form. Beneath the dome, from two to three inches
removed, was a light sheet of cobweb c, irregularly meshed, of waving
and straight lines. It had a decided convexity upward, and was
supported, like the dome above it, and of which it seemed to be a
protecting curtain, by silken threads or guys, so stretched as exactly
to meet this purpose.

This spider seems to form a perfect link between the orb-weaving
and the line-weaving spiders in the characteristic spinning work of the
two groups, and the main object of the paper, which is illustrated by
nine woodcuts, is to exhibit this fact.

Aeronautic Flight of Spiders.*— In 1877 the Rev. H. C. McCook
published! some observations on the ballooning habits of spiders,
which he now supplements by several important items, and which he
considers make quite complete the mode of ballooning, at least among
the citigrade, and perhaps also the saltigrade spiders.

The whole process may be briefly given as follows : — 1. The
spider seeks a high position, as the top of a fence post, as the point of
ascent ; 2. The abdomen is elevated to as nearly a right angle with
the ccphalothorax as may be ; 3. A pencil of threads is emitted from
the spinnerets, the face being meanwhile turned to various points
until it looks in the direction of the wind ; 4. The legs are sti*etched
upward, thus raising the body aloft ; 5. They gradually incline in the
dii'ection of the breeze, the joints straighten out, the legs sink forward
and down till the first pair are almost on a level with the post, the
whole attitude of the animal being that of one resisting some force
exerted from above; 6. Suddenly a. id simultaneously the eight claws
are imloosed, and the spider mounts with a shai'p bound, apparently,
7, and floats off with the back downward generally, but sometimes
with this position reversed ; 8. At first the abdomen seems to be in
advance, but generally the body is turned so that the head rides in
front ; 9. The pencil of threads is caught apparently by the feet, and
floats out in front, upon which, 10, sometimes the spider will climb
upward, as though to adjast the centre of gravity; 11. Meanwhile a
thread or pencil of rays issues from the spinnerets, which floats out
behind, leaving the spider to ride in the angle of the two pencils, or
12, as it sometimes happens of three which diverge widely at the
upper free ends ; 13. The feet seem to be united by delicate filaments,
which would serve to increase the buoyancy of the balloon ; 14. The
spider is now carried forward by the wind, riding for long distances in
an open sjiace, and often borne high upwards upon ascending currents ;
15. Its anchorage appears at times to be in its own volition, by drawing
in with the claws the forward pencil, and gathering it in a white roll
within the mandibles, but 16, most frequently the balloonist is
stopped by striking against some elevated object, or by the subsi-

* ' Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.,' 1878, p. 337. f Ibid., 1877, p. 308.

562 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

dence of the breeze ; 17. A bright warm day in October is coinmonly
chosen for the ascent ; and 18. Judging from the presence of a number
of dry moults upon many posts, apparently of the same species of spider
observed in flight, the animals had recently cast their skins. Of the
above points, Nos. 3, 7, 9, 10, 11 in part, 12, 14 in part, 15 in part,
and 18 are those which were determined by the last observation.

The object of this interesting habit seems to be the distribution of
species.

New and other Pycnogonida.*— Dr. Bohm has a technical paper
on the Pycnogonida of the Eoyal Zoological Museum at Berlin, and
on the forms found by the corvette ' Gazelle.'

The following new forms are described : — NympTion phasmatodes
from the Cape of Good Hope ; N. horridum from Kerguelen ; Pallene
lappa from the Mozambique, where it was found on Ophiocoma erinaceus;
PhoxichiUdium digitatum from Singapore; Pycnogonum c/jeZa/wm (habitat
unknown) ; and the new genus Gorniger (Achelidce), which is remarkable
for having the antennary jaws comj^osed of one segment, whereas in
Achelia there are two, and in Zetes three segments. A beautiful series
can now be made out ; in the Nymphonidce these organs have three
joints and are scissor-shaped, in the Achelidce they are simple, but may
consist of one, two, or three joints, and in the Pycnogonidce they are
absent. The species of this genus is named Hilgendorfi, and was
obtained from Enosima, Japan. It is also pointed out that the
accessory ova-bearing appendages of Nymphon have eleven, and not, as
Semper says, nine joints, and that the species obtained from Kerguelen
is not the same as the N. gracilipes Heller of the Northern seas, and
it is therefore called Helleri. The characters of the genus Pallene are
reconsidered, and the new species are figured, with some already
known, in two plates. The paper is of value to those who are
interested in the study of these curious but difficult Pseudarachnoid
forms.

Form of the Muscular Contraction in the Crayfish.f— M. Eichet
is rightly of opinion that it is of interest to compare the phenomena
observed in this crustacean with what has been seen in the frog ; he
shows that all the caudal muscles have a short period of contraction ;
that of the pincers is much longer than that of any muscle in the
frog, save only the cardiac ; it lasts nearly ten times as long as that
of the tail-muscle ; the " time lost " when the muscle is excited
through the agency of the ganglionic cliain is very great, amounting as
it does to 2-5 hundredths of a second ; the tail-muscles soon lose
their contractility after repeated shocks, and it is pointed out that this
is quite in accordance with the habits of the animal, which never
swims for a long period at one time ; the muscles of the pincer
behave very differently, and this too is what we should expect from
the holding power of the animal ; finally, this organ, under appropriate
conditions, retains its power of contractility four days after sej^aration
from the body.

* ' MB. K. Akad. wiss. Berlin,' 1879, p. 170.
t ' Comptes Rendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 868.

INVERTEBRATA, ORYPTOQAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 563

AmpMon and Polycheles (Willemoesia).*— J. E. V. Boas, of
Copenhagen, gives an account of the relations between these two
genera, and is of opinion that " probably — or at least, not im-
probably " — AmpMon is the larva of Polycheles. The structure of
Amphion shows its affinity to the Phijllosonndce, and proves it not to
be a shrimp-larva ; and by comparing it with other forms, the author
comes to the conclusion on anatomical grounds that it must be
referred to the macrurous genus Polycheles, one of the Astacidce.

The paper opens with an announcement of the classification of
Decapoda adopted in the author's forthcoming work on that group.
He proposes to take the bold step of separating the Carididce
(Garneelen) from the Macrura, and making of them a primary
subdivision of decapods which he calls Natantia : the remaining
Macrura being united wdth the Brachyura and Anomura as a second
subdivision, the Beptantia.

Life-history of the BopyridaB-f— Dr. Fraisse gives an account
of the life-history of Entoniscus Cavolinii n. sp., and of the Bopyridoe
in general, in which there are ordinarily two larval stages, Entoniscus
being the sole exception, and that, perhaps, because the second phase
has not yet been observed ; in the second stage he finds that (1) the
form of the body is cylindrical, and somewhat flattened on the ventral
surface; (2) the outer antennaa are composed of a large nimiber of
joints, and are much longer than the inner ones, which have three
joints and are provided with olfactory filaments; (3) the eyes are
completely developed ; (4) the heart, situated posteriorly, may be
easily observed to be beating ; (5) the movements of the animal are
very lively. Cryptoniscus differs from Bopyrus, Gyge, &c., in having
at this stage the sexes separate, a very penetrating smell, and a flask-
shaped diverticulum to the rectum ; while the seven thoracic segments
are not equally developed, and in Cryptoniscus curvatus the last two
are atrophied.

The paper, which ends by a bibliographical list of more than
fifty papers or books on the subject of the Bopyridce, contains an
interesting list of the hosts of Cryptoniscus ; of the twelve species of
which it deals, five are parasitic on the Cirripedia (one on the Pedun-
culata ; four on the Operculata), and seven on the Bhizocephala (four
on Peltogaster, and three on Sacculina). The author's observations,
which are illustrated by twenty-seven figures in two plates, were
based on specimens obtained chiefly at Nai)les.

Vermes.

Development of the Annelides4 — Dr. Hatschek describes in some
detail the development of Criodrilus and Polygordius ; these observa-
tions lead to some interesting observations and speculations on the
morphology of the Bilateria.

Criodrilus. — The eggs of this form were found in cocoons of a
size (5 cm. long) much beyond that of most Oligochceta, on the banks

* 'Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 256.

t ' Arb. Zool.-Zoot. Inst. Wurzburg,' iv. (1878) p. 382.

t ' Arb. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien,' iii. (1878) p. 1 (277).

564 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of the Danube ; the earlier stages appeared to be very similar to those
of Lumhricus ; the mesoderm is first represented by two large cells,
whicli persist for a long time, and the ectoderm by three large cells,
which occupy the anterior end, the dorsal surface, and the sides of the
embryo ; the two mesodermal cells grow out into a row of cells on
either side, for which the term of '• mesodermal stripes " is now
proposed ; the old term " germ-stripe " has been used for so many
different sets of organs that a more accurate terminology seems indeed
to be justifiable, and for it the name " embryonic stripe " (or streak)
is now proposed. In the process of histological differentiation the
cells of the ectoderm become more clear, but the three large cells,
already spoken of, remained filled with dark, coarse granules ; albumen
is rajiidly ingested, and as a consequence the cells of the ectoderm and
of the mesodermal stripes increase greatly in number ; of the latter
two rows appear shortly after the development of the oesophagus, and
the two primitive cells become more separated from one another. It
is in the same layer that segmentation is first seen, and in it only ;
this process begins in the most anterior region, and is soon followed
by the development of the different organs; still the two primitive
cells go on dividing, and so adding to the mesodermal stripes. Co-
temporaneously with this the cephalic region, which is characterized
by the presence of a ciliated groove, which persists till development is
all but complete, develops a cavity, which is at once distinguished from
the coelom or body-cavity by its origin from the separation of the
ectoderm and endoderm, and not by the cleavage of the mesoderm ;
it is also single, and not double ; the mouth, with its gullet, and the
supra-oesophageal ganglia become developed, and this nervous region
gradually separates from the ectoderm, although it for a long time
remains connected with it in its most anterior portion.

The primitive segments are formed by the separation of parts of
the mesodermal stripes, which form small multicellular and quad-
rangular plates ; a single layer of cells from them forms the enteric
fibrous layer, the most anterior and the most posterior layer form the
dissepiments of the now developing coelom, and the outer portion
becomes converted into the rudiments of the segmental organs and of
the setfe ; the former set of organs commences with one large cell in
each segment, which is connected with a row of smaller cells, which
extend into the next segment ; these all become differentiated into
three parts, the two terminal straight, and the middle one looped ;
while the whole apparatus leaves the ectoderm to take a deeper posi-
tion in the body. These segmental organs are found in all but the
first trunk-segment, but even in this Dr. Hatschek has observed a
collection of cells which disappear later on, but which would seem to
be similar in character. The more final stages of this form are not
described, as they differ in no important points from what is already
known to be the course of development in Lumbricus.

Polygordiiis. — With regard to this somewhat enigmatic creature,
it is interesting to be reminded of Schneider's discovery of the fact
that the so-called " Lovenian larva," first described by Professor Loven
in 1842, and since examined by Professor Alexander Agassiz, is without

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 565

doubt tlie larva of Pohjgordius ; of the six stages into whicli the author
divides the history of this form the first, or that prior to segmentation,
is the most interesting. Small anJ transparent, the larva is more broad
than long, and is divided into two parts by two parallel circlets of cilia
in the middle line ; the mouth is placed between these and the anus,
which is found at the inferior pole of the body ; superiorly there are
two eye-spots ; the cuticle is, for the most part thin, and in the region
of the trunk forms a layer of cubical cells ; the region of the anterior
circlet is invested by a thick cuticle, which is traversed by pore-canals
for the long cilia, which seem to be nourished from a mass of cells set
anteriorly, and containing fatty and albuminous granules : the cuticle
of the cells of the posterior circlet is but slightly thickened, but the
same pore-canals are again to be observed The pigment spots are
dark brown, and the region with which they are connected will form
in time the supra-oesophageal ganglia ; connected with this, on each
side, are three nerves, one of which is much larger than the others, and
all of which go to form the peripheral nervous system. As in Crio-
drilus, the primitive segments are first developed in the mesodermal
stripes, and as, not only in it, but in Unio among Lamellibranchs, and in
PediceUina among the Bryozoa, there are, for a long time, two distinct
primitive mesodermal cells at the posterior end of these stripes. A
number of muscular fibres are early developed in the head, as is also a
delicate ciliated canal on either side, which forms the head-kidney,
and gives rise in the future to the " segmental organs " of the trunk.
This canal communicates with the body-cavity by the funnel-shaped
orifice so characteristic of this organ.

As to the enteric canal, we have to observe that, as so often happens,
it is the mid-gut only that is developed from the endoderm ; there is a
diaphragmatic elevation in the lumen of the fore-gut which is provided
on the side most remote from the mouth with long cilia, which appear
to be able to act as a kind of sieve ; the hind-gut has muscular fibres
connected with its walls, which are apparently of assistance in the
special function of this part.

The succeeding stages are characterized (2) by the appearance of
the primitive segments of the trunk, the further development of the
mesoderm, and of the posterior circlet of cilia ; (3) the greater elonga-
tion of the larva and the differentiation of the ventral cord and
antennae, as well as of a ciliated pit on either side of the head, which
seems to represent the future olfactory organ. (4) In this stage the
walls of the enteric canal become strengthened by the apposition of
the proper division of the mesoderm, and the posterior circlet of cilia
becomes greatly developed. (5) The cuticle of the trunk becomes
thicker, and the region of the head becomes much more like what it
will be in the adult, while its circlets of cilia begin to disappear.
(6) Two distinct regions are apparent in the head, the tentacles
project on either side, the walls of the mid-gut are considerably
thickened, and there is still a mass of rounded indifferent cells, which
appear to be the rudiments of the generative products.

As to the systematic position of Polygordius, Dr. Hatschek agrees
with Uljanin in regarding it as belonging to the Annelides, although

566 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

it exhibits many points in adult structure, which are merely embryonic
in other forms ; thus segmentation never affects any other than the
mesodermal structures, the central nervous system is never placed
otherwise than just below the ectoderm, the supra-oesophageal ganglion
retains its early (anterior) position, and the ventral cord does not
develop ganglionic enlargements. Connecting this form with the
higher Cha3topoda is the interesting Saccocirrus, which may be taken
as the type of the Archi-chfetopodes, just as Polygordius may represent
the Archi-aunelides ; regarding the Hirudinea and Gephyrea as be-
longing to the same series, we get an arrangement of this kind : —

Annelidcs.

1st order. Polygordiida:.

I 2ad order. Chretopoda.

1st suborder. Saccocirridm.
I 2nd „ Polychceta.

4th order. Gephyrea. 3rd „ Oligochaita.

3rd order. Hirudinea.

The head of the annelid is regarded, in opposition to Professor
Semper, as consisting of a single segment, which is characterized by
the possession of an oesophagus and of a supra-oesophageal ganglion,
and in having a cavity derived from the primitive coelum, while there
are never, as there are ideally in all the rest, generative organs.
Whether the annelid is a colony of segments with an anterior sterile
individual (the head), or whether it consists of a head and trunk,
which latter undergoes a process of gemmation, must still remain a
moot question ; but it is not, in any case, to be compared with the
Cestoid Worms, which differ altogether in having the youngest segments
nearest the head.

The name troehophore is proposed for the larva of Polygordius. This
is, from any point of view, a very instructive form. Found adult in the
Eotatoria, it is continually met with in the developmental history
both of the Annelides and of the Mollusca ; its oral circlet of cilia
consists of a double-rowed pre-oral portion, a single-rowed post-oral
circlet, and a ciliated groove separating the two. The frontal nervous
plate, which is the rudiment of the supra-oesophageal ganglion, appears
very early ; it has been recognized in the Eotatoria and the Mollusca,
and the primary tentacles which become connected with it appear to
be homologous with the " tentacles " of the last-named group. Diffi-
culties presented by the characters of the so-called segmental organs
are dealt with in a very ingenious manner ; while as to the generative
organs, it is nsggested that in the Eotatoria they have disappeared on
one side. Having in mind all these similarities. Dr. Hatschek proceeds
to suggest the existence of a common ancestor for the Eotatoria, Anne-
lides, and Mollusca, for which he proposes the name of Trochozoon.

The Bilateria are those animals in which there are three distinct
layers, and in which the genital products are derived from the meso-
derm. To deal with the different groups : —

Echinodermata. — The larvae of these forms have no excretory organs
and no frontal plate, while the vaso-peritoneal organs are formed from
the endoderm, and the adult is of a radiate form. As these animals

INVERTEBEATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 567

were undoubtedly fixed in the earlier periods of their time- history, this
radiate character is, in them, just as in certain fixed Annelids or the
fixed Tunicate {Odacnemua) described by Mr. Moseley, probably due
to their mode of life. The views of Haeckel as to the colonial character
of these forms, and of Alex. Agassiz with regard to their affinities to
the Ctenophora, are rejected : the Gasterotricha and the Nematodes
{Vermes arcMcoelomati), the Platodes (by degeneration V. accelomati)
as well as the Nemertini and the Bryozoa are regarded as close allies
of Trochozoon ; while as to the Brachiopoda, which are regarded as
Molluscoidea, and as to the Mollusca proper there appears to be suffi-
cient evidence of their rightful position in a similar category ; the
Nemertinea are, in the adult stages, difficult forms, but the Pilidium
larva is sufficiently indicative of their phylogeny.

The adult Annelides are characterized by the development of the
dermo-muscular tube, the formation of the secondary coelom in the
trunk, and the appearance of the ventral ganglionic cord, after the
development of the supra-oesophageal ganglia ; with these the Arthro-
poda are regarded as undoubtedly connected, while the absence of
any Trochozoon-like larva is explained by the characters of the
Nauplius, in which the presence of chitin in the cuticle and of the cha-
racteristic locomotor appendages are sufficient reasons for the absence
of cilia.

Dr. Hatschek has no doubt as to the correctness of the views of
Anton Dohrn as to the degraded character of the Tunicata of the
present day, and as to their direct relations to tlie Vertebrata on the
one hand, and the unsegmented Worms on the other. As to the
Annelides and Vertebrata there are ample indications of their
affinity ; neither the dorsal region nor the mouth are homologous, but
in the rudiments of their nervous apparatus, of their circulatory system,
of their renal organs, and of the disposition of the muscular tracts
there is ample evidence ; the sensory organs are arranged on the same
plan, and the only point of difference in their renal organs is the
retention by the Vertebrata of the unsegmented excretory canal. The
two groups are regarded, finally, as having had a common ancestor,
less differentiated than Poli/gordiiis, from which the Vertebrata have
most strikingly diverged by the development of a chorda dorsalis of
endodermal origin, and by the formation of a new mouth and of bran-
chial clefts, coupled with the loss of the primary oesophagus.

Anatomy of Magelona.* — Dr. W. C. Mcintosh's paper on this
subject (published in abstract by the Eoyal Society) finds a home in a
German journal.

The animal in question, long since known to Johnston, but only
described by name (Mcea mirabilis) in the British Museum Catalogue
of Worms (1865), was made known to science by Fritz Miiller in
1858. Found in large quantities at St. Andrews, it has also been
found at Southport ; from 150-200 mm. long, it is of a pale rose
colour anteriorly, and of dark greyish-green posteriorly ; the cephalic
lobes are eyeless, considerably flattened, and diminish towards the

* ' Zeitschr. v/ua. Zool.,' xxxi. (1878) p. 401.

568 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

margin. On either side of the head there is a long tentacle, pro-
vided on its anterior surface with cylindrical papillse. The segments
of the body are numerous, and gradually decrease in size as they
proceed backwards ; terminally there is a broad papilla with a style-
shaped appendage on either side and bounding the anus. The body
may be divided into two distinct regions ; the anterior one is pro-
vided with nine double pairs of bundles of setae, and in this point
presents some resemblance to Heterospio longisshna, described by Ehlers.
The sette of the ninth segment are remarkable for the characters of
their tips, and seem to be homologous to those that are found on the
third segment of Disoma, the fom'th of the ChastopteridEe, and the
fifth of Polydora ; the segments behind the ninth are severally provided
with two rows of sette on either side ; as to their position on the seg-
ments, it is to be noted that those in the anterior portion are found
towards the most anterior edge of each segment; but those of the
ninth have a more extensive origin ; and behind it the setae gradually
pass from the anterior towards the posterior edge of each segment.

As to the integument, we have to note its high degree of develop-
ment in the cephalic and anterior regions, which appears to be corre-
lated with the large amount of friction to which the animal is subjected
in moving through the sand; and in connection with th;s observation
it is interesting to observe that Claparode had noted the delicacy of
the integument in sessile annelids. The hypodei*mis is exceedingly
well developed. The lateral laraellje consist typically of a delicate
cuticular layer investing the hypodermis; at their base there is a
bundle of simple setae, but no vessel has been observed to pass to them.
In the anterior region the dorsal lamellae are larger and more trans-
parent than the ventral.

In structure the hypodermis is very similar to the integument
of the Nemertinea ; it consists of a number of flask-shaped cells or
glands, the contents of whicli have the form of clear and of granular
spheres ; in the region of the cephulic lobes especially it is jjossible
to observe a number of rod-cells, which form a transverse band across
the body, behind each row of hook-like setae ; these are also well
developed in the caudal region. In the tentacles there are a number
of small, but distinctly granulated hypodermal cells.

The muscular system of the cephalic end of the worm consists
of a median and of a lateral pair of longitudinal muscles; the
lateral muscles are connected by a chitinous portion, which gives
oii' a thin lamella on either side ; the function of this portion is
evidently connected with the habitat of the an'mal ; it replaces
a circular muscle, and supports the vessels ; while the completeness
of the arrangement is spoken to by its connection with the base of
the tentacles. In the space on either side of the mouth there is a
series of vertical muscular fibres, which have a dorsal origin, and
are inserted into the superior margin of the mucous membrane of the
mouth, for whicli tissue they appear to serve as retractors. The
muscles to the setae are, as a rule, feebly developed, but are very
similar to those of allied forms. It is impossible for us to follow the
author through all his details, but it may be of interest to point out

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 569

that the muscular system of this animal is evidently capable of
enabling it to pass through the damp sand with great rapidity, as well
as to circle through the water with great ease.

The mouth is triangular or T-shaped in form ; the upper lip is not,
as is the lower one, cleft ; both are in life capable of great power of
movement ; the intestinal tract appears to be somewhat complicated,
as is also its appendage, the proboscis ; with regard to which it is
pointed out that its structure is such as to enable it to bore unceasingly
into the sand, and so to make a passage for the more delicate hinder
parts of the body ; it is of a pale reddish colour. The anterior region
of the enteric canal is well provided with muscles, and is very firm,
thanks especially to the chitinous investment of its glandular layer ;
it has a close homology to the oesophageal region of the Nemertinea,
wliich it strikingly resembles in the possession of a rete mirabile ; the
cilia of the other form are here replaced by chitin ; a further point of
resemblance is to be found in its retention of irritability long after
death. Magelona is shown to subsist on the cast chitin of Crustacea,
on Foraminifera, and so on, while the ingestion of sand appears to be
a necessity of its existence. The blood is richly supplied with blood-
corpuscles of a pale red colour ; in 1852, Dr. T. Williams stated that
there was no species of annelid in which the true blood contained
morphotic elements ; but this statement, which is now shown not to
hold for Magelona, and has been lately shown to be untrue of the
earthworm, is also untrue of TereheUa (R. Wagner), Ghjcera, Phoronis,
and Sijllidia armata (Quatrefages), and of some Staurocephalida,
Cirratulida, and Opheliida (Clajjarede).*

The ccfilom is very indistinct in the anterior region, and in it no
perivisceral corpuscles were to be observed ; behind the ninth segment
it widens out, and has, in section, a circular form ; it is divided by a
median ligament, and its contained clear fluid is provided with cor-
puscles, which are not very numerous, and vary a good deal in form. The
central nervous system is situated in the hypodermis, and the nerve-
trunks run in a very distinct neural canal. The tentacles are com-
pletely devoid of cilia, but thevas efferens has a remarkable contractility,
so that it takes the place of the cilia in respiration. Having made
some remarks on the generative organs, the author concludes thafc
Magelona has several points of affinity to Prionosjno and Heterospio,
and others to Spiochceiopterus ; the structural arrangements of the
proboscis, cephalic lobes, and circulatory organs are sui generis.

Arrangement of the Nerve Cords in the Annelides.t— The arrange-
ment of the nerve cords varies so greatly in the Annelides, and a
knowledge of the subject is so important from many points of view,
that it seems well to give a separate note on this subject, the basis for
which is to be found in Dr. Mcintosh's paper on Magelona.

(1) In some, the trunks lie internally to the muscles, or in a
ventral cleft between them ; the transverse band between the ventral
muscles and the hypodermis lies externally to them ; among others

* The account of the circulatory system reappears in the ' Journ. Anat. and
Phys.' (Humphry) for April, 1879.
t Loc. Cit.

570 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

this arrangement is found in the Euphrosynida, Amphinomida, Aphro-
ditida, Polynoida, Phyllodocida, Syllida, Nereida, Eunicida, Chlor-
haeminida, and Amphictenida.

(2) Tlae nerve trunks are placed externally to the muscular layer
and in the hypodermis ; the oblique muscles taking their origin from
a transverse band set superiorly or laterally to them, as in the Siga-
lionida, Hesionida, Ariciida, Ch8etoj)terida, Spionida, Cirratulida, Am-
pharetida and Terebellida.

(3) The trunks are embraced by the closely approximated ventral
or other longitudinal muscles ; as in the Glycerida and Telethusida.

(4) In the substance of the ventral longitudinal muscles, as in the
Hermellida,

(5) Beneath the ventral long muscle, or at its margins, or inter-
nally to the circular layer, as in some Sabellida and Serpulida.

In some families there are neural canals, which are largest in the
Spionida, and are best seen in Magelona.

Gills of Serpula.* — Dr. L. Lowe, of Berlin, deals with the struc-
ture of these organs, and enters into the question of the relations of the
Annelides to the Vertebrata ; his observations are based on the form
known as Spirorbis, which differs from Spirographis, already examined
by Kolliker and Claparede, in the absence of the cartilaginous gill-
skeleton.

About thirty branchial filaments spring from a branchial lobe
on either side of the mouth ; each of these has the form of an
elongated cone, in which it is possible to distinguish a shaft and a
vane ; the former, which decreases in size towards its apex, consists
of (1) an external cuticle, (2) a closely applied cellular layer, (3) a
vascular layer, and (4) a cuticle ; the vane is made up of a central
part, which is the continuation of a vascular layer, and of a marginal
portion, which consists of a cuticle and a chitinogeuous epithelium ;
all these structures are described from a histological standpoint, and
the changes which the gill undergoes during growth pointed out ; the
concluding portion of the paper is occupied by an extremely ingenious
comparison of the gill-apparatus of these forms with the branchial
clefts of the Vertebrata.

Two observers, working independently, have lately shown that
the Eustachian tube and the tympanic cavity are primarily formed
by a diverticulum of the oral cavity, while the external auditory
meatus is formed by such part of the first gill-cleft as is not
obliterated ; Dr. Lowe has confirmed the essential points of these
observations, and gives a figure of an embryo of the sheep in
support of them ; this displays the following points ; from the oral
cavity there is given off outwards and backwards a long narrow cleft,
which is the rudiment of the Eustachian tube ; this at its outer end
widens out and forms the tympanic cavity ; there comes to meet this
an invagination of the epidermis which forms the external meatus,
while between these two processes there is a region in which appear
the auditory ossicles and the tympanic membrane. Turning now to

* 'Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.,' xxxii. (1876) p. 158.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 571

Spirorhts, we see tliat of the deprepsions derived from the lumen of
the enteric tube the one which is i^laced most dorsally is the longest
and deepest, or, in other words, has just the same relations to the other
depressions as has that one in the sheep which goes to form the
Eustachian tube ; of the clefts between the branchial filaments the
longest oue is found between tbe first and second, and it appears to have
just the same relations as the branchial cleft in the mammal. We have
not space to follow out the descriptions of the relations of the nasal
organ and of the other clefts in Sjnrorhis, or that of the palatal portions
of the upper jaw and the connecting pieces of connective tissue found
in the oral region of the worm, but we would observe that with regard
to that most vexed of questions— the relations of the nervous system
of Annelids and Vertebrates — the observations of Dr. Lowe point to
the absence in the Annelid of anything homologous to the dorsal
medulla of the Yertebrata ; these views, though now held by various
morphologists, do not, as is pointed out, agree with the speculations of
Kowalewsky, who looks upon the whole of the supra-chordal nervous
system of the Yertebrata as homologous with the wbole nervous system
of the Annelides ; or of Semper, who identifies the ventral medulla of
the latter as the dorsal medulla and brain of Vertebrates ; or of Dohrn,
who looks upon the whole brain of the Yertebrata as homologous with
the cephalic ganglion of the Annelides.

New Annelids from the Philippines.* — Professor Grube has
communicated to the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg a
memoir on the forms collected by Semper in his voyage ; four new
genera and 142 new species are described by the learned zoologist,
who points out that the Alciopidte, Nephthydse, Ariciadfe, and Cirratu-
lida are altogether unrepresented in the collection, and that the genera
to which the new species are assigned have, in many cases, been
hitherto represented by one or two species only. The value of this
paper, which extends to 300 pages (illustrated by 15 plates) is en
hanced by the diagnoses of the families under which they are grouped,
so that so far this essay may be regarded as a revision of some families
of the Annelides.

Trichinosis in a young Hippopotamus. f — M. E. Heckel describes
some observations made by him upon a young hippopotamus, about
two years old, which died on the 10th of May last in the Zoological
Garden of Marseilles, having been received from Egypt about four
months before. The animal was in bad health all tbe time of its
residence at Marseilles, and its skin showed an eruption of confluent
boils. When removed, the skin showed several lesions in the shape
of deep ulcerations, which, having originated around a hair, had
attacked the bulb, and thus formed a canal leading generally into a
great purulent cavity. Smaller ulcerations led into smaller cavities,
bounded by a proper membrane like true cysts, and filled with creamy
pus. The examination of a section of the muscular tissue surrounding

* 'Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbourg,' xxv. (1878).
t 'Comptes Rendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 1139; 'Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist./
iv. (1879) p. 99.

572 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

one of these cysts, sliowed it to contain great numbers of Trichina
cysts resembling those of TricJtina spiralis, with which also the enclosed
worm agreed. The cyst, however, seemed to be much more developed
than in the pig or in man.

Upon this curious and interesting fact the author makes the fol-
lowing remarks : — " I am ignorant what relations may exist ^between
the presence iu the same animal of Trichina and of enormous cysts
tilled with pus ; but the fact indicated by me appears to possess some
interest .... because it seems to prove that the Pachyderms, more
than other animals, are exposed to the spontaneous develojiement of
this terrible parasite — an important point which may serve to throw
some light upon its hitherto unknown migrations. It has been
attempted to explain tlie frequency of the Trichina in the pig by the
consideration of the voracity and filthy habits of that animal. Tlie
fact to which I now call attention seems to protest against this opinion,
for the hippopotamus by no means shares in the mode of existence
and the tastes of the pig, and we can hardly suppose that captivity,
by the special diet which accompanies it, could have a marked influence
ui)on the development of the Nemato^d worm.

New Diseases of Hot-house Eubiaceae.* — M. Max Cornu says,
that a disease, hitherto unknown, devastated the hot-houses in France
last February, attacking the roots and forming swellings on the small
and even on the large roots.

Transverse sections of these swellings showed, under the Micro-
scope, amidst the hypertrophied portions, cysts enclosing the eggs of
AnguiUulce in great number ; the Eubiaceae {Ixora and Hamiltonia)
attacked, lost most of their leaves, the rest being dried up. This
malady presents great analogy with that described by M. Jobert,f
which ravages the coffee plantations, a species of the same family in
Brazil.

Adult individuals are very rare ; and the eggs exist singly, and
should be destroyed in this form.

These eggs are enclosed in cysts with rather thick walls opening
on the outside. When hatched the AnguiUulce immediately issue and
make their way towards the new roots ; once established in the tissues
they are safe.

It is worthy of remark that the encystment, the date of which
seems coincident in the two species, is in France hibernal ; in Brazil
it would correspond with the dry season, and be festival ; the plants
preserving in the hot-houses the seasons of their country.

Female Organs of Echinorhynchus.J — Dr. Angelo Andres de-
scribes these structures in E. gigas, his short and very condensed
paper being illustrated by a folding plate of remarkably clear figures.
The complication of the organs renders it quite useless to attempt a
description of these without drawings, especially as the real nature of
many of the parts is by no means thoroughly understood.

* ' Comptes Rendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 668.
t This Journal, ii. (1879) p. 168.
X 'Mori'h. Jahrb.,' iv. (1879) p. 581.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 573

Jensen's Turbellarian Worms of Norway. — Marine zoologists
will be interested in the appearance of this valuable work on the
marine flat-worms of the Norwegian coast. A number of new forms
are described in considerable detail, with excellent figures, while the
descriptive portion is preceded by full anatomical details. The work
is done in the careful, conscientious manner characteristic of Scandi-
navian zoologists. The descriptions are both in Latin and Nor-
wegian, so that the work is accessible to students in general.

Reproductive Organs of the Marine Ectoparasitic Trematoda.* —
It is impossible in an abstract to do full justice to M. Carl Vogt's
careful descriptions of the generative apparatus of several of these
forms, which he has lately been examining at Eoscoff. A point of
especial interest is the discovery of the characters of the orifice of the
common reservoir or ootyp (Van Beneden). This opening has a well-
marked contour, and is surrounded by short fibres, arranged radially,
at the edge of -which there were obscure indications of ciliary move-
ments ; but what was more remarkable was that, from time to time,
the orifice effected movements which could only be compared to those
of swallowing, and it is proposed therefore to call it the " swallowing
orifice " (Schluckoffnung) ; its function is evidently to aid the germs
in their passage through their duct. The writer says that he cannot
describe his extreme astonishment when he first saw this orifice in
action in Dactycotyle, where the yolk-spheres and ova were thrown
about, jiist as a juggler plays with his balls.

As to the female organs in general, it may be observed that the
germ-gland is in all cases simple ; it may be spherical as in Udonella
and others, or it may be elongated ; the branched vitelline ducts do
not vary much in character, and generally open directly into the
ootyp ; this latter organ is formed at the point where the ovarian
germ, the masses of yolk, and the semen meet ; in some it is saccular,
and in others canalicular. The oviduct varies in length, and the uterus
in capacity, in some cases being so small as to be only able to contain
a single egg. The most important diff"erences are to be found in the
copulatory organs. In Polijstomum and Calicotyle the parts are most
highly diflerentiated, and there are two female copulatory orifices in
addition to the opening into the uterus by which the mature ova are
evacuated ; in Microcotijle, Udonella, and others, this uterine orifice
appears to serve also as the copulatory orifice ; in Biplectanum there
is a special coj)ulatory duct, which is completely separated from the
uterus and its orifice, and has a common aperture with the penial pouch.

The male organs exhibit greater variety. Udonella has a single
rounded testis ; in Pliyllonella and E])ibdella two testes lie on either
side of the median line, while in Dactycotyle and Dijjlectanmn and
others there are a number of testicular tubes scattered in the paren-
chyma or collected together about the median line. As to the etferent
ducts, they have, in Phyllonella, Epibdella, Udonella, and Calicotyle, no
other connection with the female organs than what is afi"orded by the
possession of a common orifice. In Dactycotyle a canal passes from

* ' Zeitschr. wi.ss. Zool.,' xxx. 8uppl. (1878) p. 306.
VOL. II. 2 Q

574 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the seminal duct iuto the ootyp, and this has been observed by Vogt
as filled with semen ; in Pohistomum Zeller has reported the presence
of a duct connecting one of the testicular tubes with the ootyp ; iu
Microcotyle the testicular bodies open directly into the ootyp. As to
the appended structures, penis, penial glands, and so on, the variety
is extreme. Great difficulties surround the explanation of the arrange-
ments that obtain in Diplecianum, which M. Vogt hopes to be able
to resolve on another visit to Roscoff.

This paper is reviewed in part iii. of M. Lacaze-Duthiers' ' Ar-
chives ' for 1877, which was only published early this year.

Organization of Axine and Microcotyle.* — The specimens for
Herr Lorenz's examination of these interesting Trematodes were
chiefly obtained at the Zoological Station at Trieste.

Axine helones is a parasite of the fish Belone esox, on the gills
of which it lives; first described by Abilgaard in 1794, it has
since been observed by various zoologists, among whom are Van
Beneden and Hesse, and in the opinion of Herr Lorenz the form
described by them, A. orpliii, is identical with Abilgaard's species.
From four to eight mm. long, with an acute anterior, and a broad
hinder end, it is of a milk-white colour, and almost transparent ; but
it is chiefly I'emarkable for its asymmetry ; the right side is the
longer and is convex, while the left is faintly concave ; four groups
of hooks or chitinous rods surround the anus ; iu the centre there are
eight to twelve hooks, and on either side there are from twelve to
twenty hook-shaped rods, while at the base of the cirrus there are
from sixteen to twenty-four. The external integument is formed by a
delicate caticle, between which there is a thin layer of finely granular
l^rotoplasmic substance. Of muscular fibres there are two kinds ;
one longitudinal, and ending in fine filaments, and the other formed by
a tissue of much more delicate fibrillte, which run in three distinct
bands. The seizing organs, which are not suckers, though they have
their function, occupy the whole of the hinder edge of the body : the
nerve-centre is apparently represented by a curved band, which lies
in the parenchyma of the body above the cesophagus, and consists of
yellowish-coloured fibrous and finely granular substance ; the fine
fibres given oif from it are very soon lost in the parenchyma of the
body. Anteriorly to the mouth there is a funnel-shaped cavity, with
a right and left sucker ; these latter are formed of a thick muscular
integument, which is traversed by a number of closely set radial
muscular fibres. The oesophagus forms a simple tube as far as the
common generative orifice, where it divides iuto the two arms of the
enteron, which soon take on a dendritic api>earanco, owing to the
presence of short ca3ca. The two arms do not unite at their distal
end ; the enteron does not seem to have any special wall, but to be
merely a cavity in the parenchyma of the body ; it is, however, jiro-
vided with a number of pigment cells, which are filled with small
dark-brown granules. The excretory vascular system of Axine is very
well devcloj)ed, and has the form of two internally ciliated longitu-

♦ 'Arbeit. Zool. lust. Univ. Wien.,' iii. (1878) art. ii.

INVEKTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 575

dinal canals, which run parallel to and above the arms of the cntcron ;
the primary trunks give off a largo number of small canals, which
extend into the parenchyma and seem to traverse every sjiace in it.
There are two large testes, a seminal duct with a vesicle, and a well-
developed cirrus (penis) ; the female organs are composed of an ovary,
an efferent duct, receptaculum seminis, vagina, utenxs, paired yolk-
glands and their ducts. This form seems to be distinguished from
all other Polystoinece by possessing three ducts carrying the deuto-
plasm into the oviduct ; the ovum seems to be matured as in other
Trematoda, but only one comes to development at a time.

The genus Microcotyle was established by Van Beneden and Hesse,
but its . points of difference from Axine have never yet been very
clearly put out ; its most striking variation is now shown to lie in the
fact that, unlike Axine, it is completely symmetrical ; it is also dis-
tinguished by the absence of the penis, and the position of the vaginal
orifice in the median dorsal line of the body (in Axine this orifice is
marginal in position) ; while, again, Microcotyle does not present
merely one mature egg in its oviduct, but a number, which may
come to be as high as twenty-four.

The new species, M. mormyri, is described by Herr Lorenz : Van
Beneden and Hesse had described four species, M. labracis from
Lahrax lupus, 31. Donavani from L. Donavani, M, erythrini from Pa-
gellus erythrinus, and M. canthari from Cantharus griseus ; as to the first
two the author is certain that his species from Pagellus mormyrus is
quite distinct ; as to the third species, the difficulties as to their proper
identity are removed not only by the difference in the arrangement of
the bands on the body, but by the more important character of the
bundles of chitinous rods, which are found aroimd the genital orifice ;
in 31. erythrini they are arranged in two small groups set one in front of
the other, but in 31. mormyri there are two sets; 8 to 12 are arranged
radially and in a curved manner, and behind and on either side there
are 25 to 30, which have their hooks directed forwards ; the points of
difference to 31. labracis are brought out in the full description of the
new form; in many points of its internal structure it is shown to
agree with Axine ; but the vagina forms a large vesicle, placed in the
middle of the body and provided with a wide orifice ; its superior
portion and margin have an almost chitinous character, but the lower
part has its wall thin, and is continued into a canal which is formed
by the union of the branches of the paired vitelline duct. The
coverings of the egg are proportionately very large ; they are of an
elongated oval form, and pass into a gradually diminishing appendage,
which is coiled at its tip ; in which character it also differs from
31. canthari, as described by the Belgian zoologist.

Life-history of the Tape-worm of the Shrew.* -M. Villot an-
nounces the discovery of the cystic forms of two of the four species of
Tcenia which infest the European Shrews, and which have hitherto only
been known in the sexual stage.

The two species of bladder worm are placed by Villot in a new

* ' Auu. Sci. Nat. (Zool.),' viii. (1870) No. 2-3.

2 Q 2

576 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

genus SiapJiyloeyslls : one siiccies, S. micracantJius, is nufloubtedly the
immature form of Tcenm j/isi ilium, parasitic on Sorc.v {Grucidura)
araneus : tlie tape-worm with which S. hilarius is connected is uncer-
tain, hut it is certainly nearly allied to T. scutujera (of Sorex tetra-
gonurus), and to T. scalaris (of ^S". araneus).

Both species are found in the little myriapod Glomeris limhafus,
where they occur in clusters like grape-hunches on the outer surface
of the Malpighian tubules. Each cluster is a colony of bladder-
worms, and consists of a number of transparent ovoidal sacs, attached
by a short stalk at one end, and having at the otlier a short funnel-
like depression. Each sac is the caudal cyst of a cystic worm ; the
latter consisting, besides this vesicle, of a head and body. The
head is pi'ovided with four suckers and a circlet of hooks, and is
invaginated within the oval body, which represents the posterior
part of a scolex, and is itself invaginated into the caudal cyst, the
funnel-like depressions at the free extremity of which allow of the
extrusion of the head and body.

Each colony proceeds, by a process of budding, from a simjile
vesicle or hlastogen, the result of the metamorphosis of an ovum of
Tamia. The ova, passed out of the body of the shrew with the
fasces, are taken in by the myriapod, and probably make their way
from the alimentary canal into the Malpighian tubes, finally pene-
trating the walls of the latter, and taking up their abode in the
surrounding adii)ose tissue. If the Glomeris is then eaten by a
shrew, the head and body are extruded from the caudal cyst, and
proglottides are formed by budding from the scolex in the usual
way.

Besides its life-history, Villot gives an account of the histology of
Staj)hylocystes.

Echinodermata.

" Comet-forms " of Starfishes.*— The " corm theory " of Professor
Haeckel, according to which, as is well known, that distinguished
zoologist believes that it is alone possible to give any reasonable
explanation of the characters of the Echinoderms, is forcibly sup-
ported by the arguments and facts which he brings forward in a
paper under the above title.

In the histoi'ical introduction he j)oints out that three explanations
have been given of the problem raised by the organization of the
adult Echinoderm ; the first, and earliest, was propounded by Cuvier,
who, insisting on the radiate character of their organization, placed
them with the Hydroida, the Medusfe, and the Ctcnophora ; the two
Professors Agassiz, father and son, have done their best to further
this view, and the Eussian zoologist Metschnikoff has not been
behind. In the year 1848, a year famous in the annals of zoology, as
being that in which Frey and Leuckart separated the Ccelenterata
from the rest of the " Radiate mob," a new view was taken, inasmuch
as these authors, more especially Leuckart, regarded the Echinoderms
as having their closest allies with the Worms, and especially with the

* ' Zeitschr. wiss. Zonl.," xxs. (Suppl.) (1S7S) p. 424.

INVERTEBRATA, GRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 577

Gcpbyrea ; as to these latter, we find the following striking points of
rescmblauco between them and the Holothuroid Echinoderms : the
"sausage-shaped" elongated body is enclosed by a firm and naked
integument ; the mouth opens at the anterior and the anus at the
posterior pole, while in both cases the former is surrounded by a
circlet of tentacles ; nor is the resemblance confined to their external
characters, in both cases a pair of " tree-like " organs are connected
with the rectum of a large number of forms. Many of what are
now called Gephyrea the earlier zoologists jilaced, indeed, with the
Holothuroida, and the view that there is a close relationship is still
held by a number of zoologists, of whom Professor Glaus is cited by
our author.

The third view is that put out by Professor Haeckcl. The
similarities between the Holothurian and the Gephyrean are due
to the action of similar external circumstances, and not to descent
or close genetic relation — they are not homologies, but only analo-
gies ; thus the tree-like organs are primitively five in the one, and
in-imitively two in the other group ; the arrangement of parts is
diyleural in the one, and pentamerous in the other ; the Echinoderms
are, in fine, pcntate colonies of worm-like or dipleiu-al persons, each
of which is comparable to a segmented worm ; the history of these
forms is only rendered intelligible when we regard the bilaterally
symmetrical larva as a nurse, and look ujjon the history of their
develoi^ment as involving an alternation of generation. This view
is supported by Sars, both father and son, by Gegenbaur, and by
Lange.

To turn to the " Comet-forms " which in Professor Haeckel's
opinion support these views; these are those starfishes in which a
sejDarated arm has produced afresh the central disk and the other
arms. It is impossible for us to give an accoimt of the observations of
Martens, Kowalewsky, Sars, and Studer, but those of Sir John Daly ell
may well be taken as a type ; on the 10th of Jxme this observer found
an arm, which had evidently been lately separated from a starfish ;
five days afterwards four new rudimentary rays appeared on it ; ou
the evening of the same day (the 15th) a new mouth began to be
formed, and on the 18 th the animal was again completely developed,
save only that the four new arms were very small ; a month after-
wards the animal spontaneously freed itself of its original arm.
The true comet-form is always distinguished by one completely
developed arm, to which, at its central end, the newly formed disk
and four or five arms are connected ; at first there is no disk, and no
madreporic plate, while the mouth is formed by the open central end
of the primary arm. When the new arms have attained a certain
size, a small median disk appears, the mouth takes up a central position,
and a small madreporic plate appears on either side of the primary
arm. These observations lead to the following law, from which there
seems to be no escape. In certain Asteroida the arms break off
spontaneously from the disk, and each separated arm reproduces the
whole disk and the other arms. Further observations show that the
point of fissure is so placed that a small portion of the lost arm

578 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

remains connected with the disk, and liere a new arm may be
developed.

If these observations are not shown to be altogether misreported,
it will follow that there are in the Echinoderms two modes of meta-
genesis ; the one in which the so-called " larva " (^Pluteus, Bracliolaria,
&c.) functions as the nurse, and produces the Echinoderm by
internal gemmation, and the other, more rare, in which the spon-
taneously separated arm functions as a nurse and produces the sea-
star by external gemmation.

These facts, in Professor Haeckel's opinion, largely confirm his
" corm theory." Dealing with Metschnikoff, who regards the arms
of the starfish as comparable to those of the cephalopod, he points
out that no cephalopod arm, no lizard's tail, no crab's limb, ever
produced a crab, cephalopod, or lizard ; and he further insists on the
high development of the locomotor apparatus of the Echinoderms.
To help forward the discussion, Haeckel proposes the name of Astro-
titliene (tlO-^vt] = a nurse) for the larval, and Astrocormus {Kopfj.6<; =
a colony) for the adult starfish ; the former is an unsegmented
bilaterally symmetrical person, the latter is made up of five parameres,
each of which is composed of two symmetrical antimeres ; in the adult
there is further to be distinguished the astrodiscus made up of five
congruent parameres (or five pairs of antimeres), and five astrolence
((i)Xevr] = an arm), each of which is comjioscd of a pair of antimeres.
Traced in their developmental history, we see the multiplication of
the organism ; looked at genetically, we find the ancestor of the
astrotithcne in an unsegmented worm, most nearly allied to the
Rotatoria and the ciliated larva of the Annelides.

The paper concludes with dividing the Echinoderms or Estrellee
into three primary classes (subphyla), and six classes.

Subphylum 1. Protestrellce. Estrellce without internal centraliza-
tion, with complete morphological autonomy of the astrolente ; enteric
system consisting of a simple central intestine, and five (or more)
bifurcated special intestines. 1st class, Asterice.

2. Anthestrellce. EstrcllcB with partial internal centralization ;
the proximal portion of tbe astrolense together with the whole of the
enteric system pass into the central astrodiscus ; no special intestines.
2nd class, Ophiiirce. 3rd class, Crinoida.

3. Tliecestrellce. Estrello} with complete internal and external
centralization ; the five astrolenas pass completely into a single
spheroidal or tubular astrodiscus ; no special intestines. 4th class,
Blastoida. 5th class, Eclmiida. 6th class, Eolotkurice.

Professor von Martens, whose descriptions of Echinoderms are
among the most valuable, has a note * on this subject. Speaking of
the great difficulties connected with Haeckel's hypothesis, he jwints out
that the arm of the sea-star contains all the representatives of all the
essential organs of the animal, and that we know of no other example of
a compound animal with a common mouth and all the other organs
separate, but that in all cases where a colony is formed by gemma-

* ' Naturforscher,' xii. (1S79) p. 103.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 579

tion, tlie mouth or tlie end corresponding to the mouth is peculiar
to each separate animal, and does not form part of the common
colony.

Genital Organs of Asterina gibbosa.* — Dr. Hubert Ludwig, who
has devoted considerable time to the study of the Echinoderms, now
reports that, in the examination of the generative organs of the
Asteroida, he has come across a very remarkable and quite unexpected
arrangement. In all cases which have as yet been observed, the
genital organs of the Asteroida have been found to open on the dorsal
surface of the disk, and zoologists wei'e coming to believe that this
arrangement was an important aid in distinguishing between the Sea-
stars (Starfishes proper) and the OpMurida (Brittle-stars) ; it was
therefore a matter of some astonishment to find in Asterina gibhosa
Forbes ( = Asterisciis verruculatus M. Tr.) the genital orifices on the
ventral side, and that the more since in Asterina pentagona E. v.
Martens they are on the dorsal side. The first supposition that the
arrangement was " pathological " was corrected by the examination of
twelve specimens ; in all of these it was observed that in every inter-
radial region there were two slit-like pores, set symmetrically to the
median plane of the interradius, and parallel to the adjacent ambula-
cral groove. Counting from the corner of the mouth, we find the slits
between the fifth and sixth interambulacral plates ; each opening leads
into a canal, the inner siirface of whose walls is thrown into longitu-
dinal folds ; this canal passes in a curved direction to the dorsal wall
of the body, where it enters the basal portion of the genital tubes ;
these latter, it should be observed, have just the same position as in
A. pentagona.

It is somewhat difficult to imagine what has caused the difference
in the position of the pores, but Dr. Ludwig imagines that they have
merely changed their position in A. gibbosa, and that it is not a newly
developed arrangement. The allied species, A. cephcea Edm. Perrier,
has been examined, and has been found to have the genital pores
dorsal in position, while the species of F. Gasco, A. panceri, is shown
to be merely a variety of A. gibbosa. Pahnipes memhranaceus is reported
to have been examined by Gasco, who did not find the genital orifices
on the ventral surface ; but as this author does not seem to have been
struck by the peculiarity exhibited by A. gibbosa as compared with the
rest of the Asteroida, it is only possible to say of it that its genital
orifices have not yet been observed.

Anatomy of Brisinga.j — Dr. Ludwig also contributes a paper on
this most interesting form, which is regarded by Sars, its discoverer,
as forming the type of a special family of the Asterida, and by
Professor Gegenbaur as the representative of a group distinct both
from the Asterida and Ophiurida.

Dealing first with the blood-vascular system, as to the existence
of which Sars was not able to convince himself, the author com-
mences by recapitulating the results of his investigations on the

* ' Zeitsch. wiss. Zool.,' xxxi. (1878) p. 395. t ll:>i<'l., p. 216.

580 RECORD OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

vascular system of the Asterida ; this consists of the following
parts : —

1. An oral blood- vascular ring placed in the peristom.

2. A dorsal blood-vascular ring.

3. A vascular plexus connecting these rings — the so-called heart.

4. A radial vessel given off from (1) to each arm.

5. Vessels given off from the dorsal vascular ring, and passing to
the generative organs.

6. Two gastric vessels given off from the dorsal vascular ring.

To turn to what obtains in Brisinga, and following the author in
first discussing the genital vessels, which are the easiest to find, wo
discover a vessel to the right and to the left of the series of joints of
which an arm is made up ; as it reaches the genital organs this vessel
nearly doubles in breadth ; examined in cross section, it is seen to
contain a plexus of vessels, so that it is a " peri-htemal canal " ; the
plexus has just the same characters as in the rest of the Asterida,
save only that it is more distinctly plexiform ; in its terminal cha-
racters it exactly resembles the genital vessels of the true sea-stars.
The radial blood-vessels were examined by the aid of sections made
through decalcified arms, and were found to be in all essential cha-
racters exactly similar to the same parts in the Asterida ; the same is
the case with the vascular apparatus of the disk ; therefore we are
relieved from describing it here.

On the dorsal aspect of the disk Sars observed a pore, which was
subcentral in position, but which he only regarded as the orifice of an
excretory aj^paratus, as he was unable to discover any connection
between it and the enteric tract. Ludwig now shows that this pore
communicates with the lumen of the interradial ctecal sacs, which are
given off from the stomach, and which are shown by further examination
to be nothing else than processes of the rectum, so that the pore is a
veritable anus. In another point, also, Ludwig extends the observa-
tions of Sars, to make which clear it is necessaiy to draw attention to
the fact that our author, in his examination of the peristomial skeleton
of the Asterida, has discovered that the first two joints of the arms
undergo more or less complete union. Now, according to Sars, this
region consists of two joints, with their adambulacral plates, for each
radius, and two j)aired " dorsal marginal plates " for each interradius ;
while there are, in addition, in, each interradius, two " parietal " plates ;
these last are now shown to be the first and metamorphosed joints, and,
just as in the rest of the Asterida, the so-called first joint is really
double, for Sars erred in regarding them as interradial instead of radial.

A few words must be said as to that peculiarly interesting struc-
ture—the stone canal. A series of transverse sections has demon-
strated that, as in all other Asterida which have as yet been examined,
it commences by a simple lumen ; just as in Echhiaster fallax, its
structure is not at all complicated, as it is, for example, in Asterina
•pentagona ; its investing epithelium is high and ciliated, and the cuticle
is traversed by small but quite distinct pore-canals for the passage of
the cilia, and each j)orc-canal seems to belong to a i)ropcr epithelial cell.

As may now be supposed, Ludwig inclines to the view of Sars

INVERTEBKATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

581

rather than to that of Gegenbaur, with respect to the systematic posi-
tion of Brisinga ; the classification of the latter is based on two
reasons, one of which is that in Brisinga, as in the Ophiui'ida, the enteric
tract does not send ca^ca into the anus ; but it has lately been shown
that they do extend along the first thii-d of these parts ; while to the
second reason, that the arms of Brisinga are separated from the disk,
is opposed the statement that the Ophiurid appearance is due to the
small (three) number of joints which pass into the skeleton of the
disk. The difference insisted on by Sars as obtaining between Brisinga
and the other Asterida, the absence of respiratory processes, is regarded
as being of small moment, on account of the extreme tenuity of the
integument in this form ; while the ancient character of the creature
is not regarded by Ludwig as being in any way distinctly proved.
This very interesting and important paper is illustrated by a plate of
twelve figures.

Aspidura.* — Dr. Hans Pohlig gives a fresh definition of this
interesting Triassic Ophiurid, from the muschelkalk of Germany,
which he divides into two subgenera, Amphiglypha and Hemiglyjjha,
of which the former is broader and has shorter arm-spines than the
latter ; in each case a single species is alone known. He regards this
form, which is the only Ophiurid as yet found in this stratum, as
representing an extinct genus, which is distinguished from all its
allies by the possession of larger, closely connected, radial shields,
and by the bilateral groove on its oral shields ; belonging to the
Ophiolepida3, it is intermediate in character between Ojjhioglypha and
OpMopus. Hemiglypha has many points of resemblance to the Aste-
rida, and appears to occupy a similar position among the Ophiurida to
that held by Brisinga among the Asterida.

It may be interesting to observe that Pohlig agrees with Haeckel
in regarding the Asterida as the older forms.

Ccelenterata.

Classification and Phylogeny of Actinozoa.f — Dr. W. Haacke, of
Jena, gives a supplement to his paper in the current volume of the
' Jenaische Zeitschrift,' in which he proposes the following classifica-
tion of Actinozoa : —

A. DiASEPTIGERA

B. ZvfGOSErTIGEKA

I. Comllarcha

II. Octocomlla

[II. Ildcrocoralla

IV. Tctracoralla

V. Ilcxacoralla

1. Protocorallida.

2. Tetraseptuta.

3. Alcyouida.

4. Tubulosa.

5. Gorgonida.

6. Penuatulida.

7. Cercantliida.

8. Tetractinida.

9. Kugosa.

10. Actinida.

11. Antipathaiia.

12. Tabulata.

13. Perforata.

14. Aporosa.

* ' Zeitscbr. wiss. Zool.,' xxxi. (1878) p. 235.
t 'Zool. Anzcigci,' ii. (1879) p. 261.

582 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The Geriantlilda arc separated from tlic Hexacoralla, with which
they are usually associated, from the fact that their sarcosepta (mesen-
teries) are not arranged in pairs the number of which is half that of
the tentacles ; in this respect they agree with the Octocoralla.

The subdivision Corallarcha is an entirely hypothetical one, made
to contain the sui)posed stem-forms of the Actiuozoa, with an indeter-
minate number of sarcosepta (ProtocoralUda), and those in which the
number had become fixed at four (Tetraseptata). This latter grouj» is
taken to be quite distinct from the Tetractinida, the hypothetical
ancestors of the Bugosa, in which the number of sarcosepta was at least
eight.

The author gives the following genealogical tree of the class : —

DiASEPTIGERA. ZtGOSEPTIGEKA.

Heterocoralla. Octocoralla. Hexacoralla.

Tetraseptata. Tetracoralla.

I Tetractinida.
I

Protocorallida.
Corallarcha.

Archydra.

New Paludicolous Medusa.* — The Mednsce are almost exclusively
pelagic zoophytes, inhabiting the open sea, and they dread nothing
more than fresh water, which is a destructive poison to them. Even
brackish water kills them instantaneously. Moreover, they constantly
need a water rich in oxygen, fresh and incessantly renewed by the
perpetual movement of the waves and currents. The Medusce, in fact,
have an almost equal dread of fresh water, of stagnant sea-water, and
of a slightly too high temperature.

All these considerations will enable the reader to understand, says
Dr. Du Plessis, how he was surprised, at the end of the month of
June, 1876, at finding, in the middle of the discharging canal of the
saltworks of Villeroy, near Cette, a charming Medusce. of a new species,
which inhabits these salt marshes in the summer. It belongs to the
genus Cosmetira, a section of the numerous group of the Oceanidaa ;
and it is curious that it is a miniature cojjy of a much larger species,
Cosmetira punctata, which occurs frequently in the sea near Cette, and
at Nice, Naples, and elsewhere.

The interest possessed by this creature is concentrated in the novel
conditions to which it must have accommodated itself to be able to
exist in the locality where it is now met with. The canal is not more
than two or three metres broad, and not more than one metre deep.
The soil is a black putrid mud, stinking of sulphuretted hydrogen.
The water is perfectly stagnant and very brackish. It is without any
shade, is almost all day long exposed to the burning sun of Languedoc,
and often exceeds 77° F.

The Medusa always inhabits the lower surface of islets of floating

* ' Bidl. Soc. Vaiul. Sci. Nat.,' xxi. (1879) p. 39.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 583

algae. On removing these it is seen clinging like a flake of jelly,
shining like crystal. The season of their occurrence is limited to
June and July. They were not found in September and October, any
more than in the spring.

Every zoologist who has attempted to keep these creatures in
captivity has been reduced to despair by seeing them perish in a little
time, whatever may have been done to render the aquarium comfort-
able for them. But this marsh species, forced no doubt by vital com-
petition to accommodate itself very gradually to great vicissitudes, has
become hardened by this process ; and the proof of this is that it may
be very well preserved for weeks together in the smallest bottles, with
a few hundred grammes of the water of the canal and a few green
algfB to keep up a small supply of oxygen. Under these circumstances,
si:>ecimens have been transported with the greatest facility from Cette
to Lausanne, and kept there for months without the least trouble.
This species, being so accommodating, will be very welcome to those
who desire to observe these animals for a long time in captivity.
Cladonema radiatum Duj., and other microscopic Medusce, also bear
captivity, but these are scarcely visible to the naked eye, whilst this,
being of the size of a half-franc (Swiss money), is much more suitable
for all sorts of manipulation.

Moreover (and this is the most interesting point), it presents one
of the clearest examples of the influence of the circumambient medium
upon the gradual modification, and finally, transformation of one
species into another ; for certainly our Medusa has originated from
an importation of the large Cosmetira punctata, the form of which it
reproduces on a small scale, repeating its whole organization en
diminuiif. Thus reduce the larger animal to the dwarf size of a half-
franc piece, coloui' the canals and the stomach green, change the rose-
colour into violet, blacken the tentacles, and you have by these
modifications transformed the Cosmetira of the sea into that of the salt
marshes.*

Charyhdea marsupialis.t — This Medusa, which lives at the
bottom of the sea, and exhibits a large amount of asymmetry, is in-
teresting especially on account of the different reports given of it by
Gegenbaur and Fritz Miiller. Difficult to obtain, its structure and its
systematic position have long remained uncertain : it was distinguished
by F. Miiller from the genus Tamoya, on account of the following
characters ; tlie edge of the bell (velum) was divided into lobes,
the stomach was provided with accessory canals, the " grappling lines"
opened into the lateral canals and not into the lateral pouches, the
stomach and oral infundibulum were confluent, and the gastric fila-
ments hollow and not solid.

Professor Glaus now states, that in the first three points Charyhdea
does resemble Tamoya, that point four is of no value, and that as to
the hollow filaments connected with the stomach there are no such
in any Medusa; they are, in fact, always solid. The ectodermal
investment is reported as having just the same characters as in other
* ' Anu. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' iii. (1879) p. 385.
t ' Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien,' ii. (1878) art. 2.

584 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Acalophfc; as in all Craspeclota, there are transversely striped
muscle-fibres in the snbumbrella and veliun, and smooth fibres on
the sui-face of the lobes of the umbrella, and internally to the
gelatinous layer of the tentacles. All these muscle-fibres are pro-
ducts of the ectodermal cells, and are in connection with them.
Circular muscles are not present except in the subumbrella and in the
corresponding surface of the velum ; the fibrous layer which invests
the supporting lamella of the subumbrella is, at the four radii, broken
into by radial fibres, which are not transversely striated. The
Charybdeida) do not merely show their relationship to the Craspedota
by the presence of a velum, but also by the characters of their nerve-
ring ; this structure is, however, remarkable for its position at some
considerable distance from the edge of the umbrella and by its great
size ; at the base of the marginal bodies the nerve-ring is exceedingly
well developed. The mode in which its fibres enter into the conical
basal portion of the marginal body is a matter of some diflSculty ; it
might be supposed that they passed through the tissues of the wall of
the bell, and through the supporting lamella of the subumbrella with
the parts connected thereto ; as a matter of fact, their course is simjile,
for so soon as they have passed the supporting plate they immediately
bend towards the epithelial surface of the base of the marginal body.
Through his further details of these and of the other sensory organs
wc have not sj)ace to follow the author.

As to the gelatinous substance of Charybdea, it is shown to want
those oval or star-shaped cells which are found in so great abundance
in the similar parts of Bhizostoma, Aurelia, and Discomedusa ; but the
rigidity of the structure is clearly increased by the number of fine
elastic fibres which go to make it up. The endodermal epithelium
varies gi-eatly in character according to its position ; it may be said,
as a general rule, that in the Craspedota the sui)eriorly lying epi-
thelium of the umbrella consists of flat cells and the inferior of
cylindrical cells ; the changes which are seen in it at the points where
the substance of the gelatinous matter of the umbrella unites with the
supporting lamella of the subumbrella are very interesting ; contrary
to what haj^pens in the Acalephfe and Craspedota, the bands are hero
delicate, and the radial vessels consequently form, as in Lucernaria,
wide pouches. In the gastric wall of the subumbrella the endodermal
cells are high and cylindrical, while the character of their contents
leads us to suppose that this epithelium, like that of the small intestine
of higher animals, is able to absorb albumen ; at the surface of the
oral infundibulum the cells are not so high, and enclose a number of
goblet-shaped cells, while on the oral disk the epithelial cells are
cylindrical in shape and provided with rounded ends ; it is probable
that they secrete a digestive ferment. Treating shortly of the gene-
rative organs. Professor Claus comes finally to the conclusion that the
position he had already assigned to Charybdea is the right one.*

Halistemnia tergestinuni.t — In describing this new species, Claus
takes the opportunity of making some general observations on the

* Sec tliis Journal, ii. (1879) ]>. 431.

t ' Arbeit. Zool. lust. Uuiv. Wieu,' i. (1878).

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 585

histological characters of the Physophoridas. The form under descrip-
tion was observed at Trieste, and in nearly all its most important
characters agrees with the other species of Halistemma ; of this group
it would be one of the smaller representatives, as its whole length is
not more than ten inches. The stem, as in all Physophoridfe, is
spirally coiled, and this spire follows two directions ; on the axis of
the stem and at the base of the tentacles and of the gonophores there
are irregularly stellate spots of a red colour, which is most distinctly
marked on the male gonophores.

Our space docs not permit us to enter into the details of this
paper, and we must leave it wdth some brief remarks. The swimming
bells of this form are noted as being considerably smaller towards the
superior pole and the inferior end of the swimming column, and as
presenting a bilateral symmetry so distinct that they may well be
called dorsal and ventral ; as compared with the body of the Hydro-
medusfG, the bell of the Siphonophora displays many very striking-
points of agreement, not only in its histological structure, but in its
mode of development. In Halistemma the male and female buds are
reported as appearing on each tentacle, where they form distinct race-
mose groups, placed on a short stalk ; their medusoid structure is
feebly develoj)ed ; the male medusoids, which are distinguished by
their reddish-brown pigment, are, when mature, set free from the stalk,
and for some time swim about freely by the aid of a rich supjily of
cilia ; the female buds are, so far as Claus has observed, devoid of
pigment ; the egg is relatively large, and has a large germinal vesicle
with a nucleolus which is ordinarily homogeneous ; this body always
lies close to the distal pole, and appears to leave the egg when this is
matured.

The view that the Siphonophora are polymorphous, first put out
by Leuckart, has been opposed by that of Professor Huxley, who
regards the various appendages of the Siphonophora as organs of a
Medusa ; this latter view has been lately and independently supported
by P. E. Miillerand by Metschnikoff ; the processes of development do
indeed seem to bear out their conclusions, but Professor Claus points
out that the presence of an air-sac, which has a tendency to be reijeated,
seems rather to point to the Siphonophore being a complex of self-
repeating parts of a Medusa, and therefore to confirm the \iew of the
polymorphism of these animals ; the whole difficulty lies perhaps in
the conception of the "person " and of the " colony" ; in these forms,
as in the Cestodes, the difference is not one that is to be insisted upon,
but is one rather that is most marked when they are regarded com-
paratively.

Tubularia mesembryanthemum.* — An exhaustive study of the
histology and embryology of this species has lately been made by
Ciamician.

1. Methods. For examination of the tissues as a whole, the author

recommends treatment with 0-25 to 0-05 per cent, osmic acid; for

isolation of the separate elements of the tissues, maceration in 1 per

cent, chromic acid, staining with eosin, and teasing out in glycerine.

* ' Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.,' xxsii. (1879) p. 323.

580 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

2. Histology. The fibres of the mesoderm, instead of being, as iu
Hydra, mere processes of the ectoderm cells, are independent spindle-
shaped muscular cells with nuclei. Tubularia has thus the most
differentiated mesoderm of all the hydroid polyps, the simplest con-
ditions being represented by Hydra, Syncoryne, and Podocoryne, while
Eydractinia affords an intermediate state, its muscle-fibres having
separate nuclei, but being in connection with the ectoderm cells.
There are two layers of muscular fibres in Tubularia, an inner longi-
tudinal layer, in contact with the gelatinous connective lamina, and
an outer transverse or circular layer.

An account is given of the mode of formation of the thread-cells.
The cnidoblasts or smaller ectodermal cells in which these are formed,
are in direct continuity by means of fine protoplasmic processes with
the muscular fibres of the mesoderm. The thread-cells begin as a sort
of vacuoles in these cnidoblasts, in the neighbourhood of the nucleus,
but soon increase until they fill the cell. In all Hydrozoa yet
observed, the protoplasm of the cell is entirely absorbed j^C'^i passn
with the development of the thread-cell, but in Tubularia Ciamician
finds that a small portion of protoplasm surrounding the nucleus
becomes separated as a distinct cell, which may then itself give rise
to a new thread-cell.

The connective lamina (Stiitzlamelle) which lies between the
muscular layer and the endoderm, can be isolated by long maceration
iu water and in ammoniacal solutions of carmine. The side turned
towards the mesoderm is seen to be smooth, while the inner side is
indented, the indentations corresponding to the large endoderm cells.
It is very resistent, about 0 • 003 mm. thick, and shows no structure
under the highest powers.

3. Ontogeny. The development of the gonophore is first con-
sidered, but little is added to the author's former paper,* except a
more exact account of the mode ui which the spadix breaks through
the distal wall of the gonophore, and a description of structures, in
the latter, which evidently represent the marginal tentacles of a
medusa. These occur in the form of eight elevations arranged in a
circle, at the distal end of the gonophore, around the projecting
spadix ; they are formed from the combined ectoderm and " medusoid
lamella " (the double layer of invagiuated endoderm) of the wall of
the gonophore.

As in Hydra, only a few (four to eight) egg-cells in each gonophore
attain maturity, and become actual ova ; the remainder serve as food-
material for them. As in Hydra, also, sharply defined protoplasmic
spheres (pseudo-cells) appear amongst the clear yolk-spheres of the
egg, and these, Ciamician finds, multiply by a process of division,
which process, however, does not resemble these cell-divisions, but is
rather like a falling to pieces of the pseudo-cell. The egg is devoid
of a vitelline membrane.

The interesting observation is made that some of the undeveloped
egg-cells may undergo division from true seminal cells.

The process of yolk-division was actually followed in the living
* This Journal, ii. (1879) GG.

INVERTEBEATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 587

ovum. The first cleavage furrow is vertical, tlio second equatorial,
the egg becoming divided into two micromeres and two macromeres.
Both of these undergo further multijjlication, and the micromeres
gradually grow round the macromeres (epiboly), forming the epiblast
or primitive ectoderm, while the included macromeral cells constitute
the hypoblast or primitive entoderm.

The solid oval embryo thus formed elongates until it acquires a
fusiform shape ; the two ends of the spindle being the rudiments of
the first two tentacles. The gastro-vascular cavity is formed as an
excavation in the solid mass of endoderm.

The author furtlier traced the changes by which the newly freed
larva (Actinula) is converted into the attached Tuhdarin polyp ; he
describes the gradual differentiation of the larval body into hydrocaules
and hydrorhiza, the formation of the perisarc, &c.

Protozoa.

Tintinnus semiciliatus, a new Infusor.* — Dr. V. Sterki de-
scribes a new species of the genus Tintinnus, found by him at
Schleitheim, in Switzerland.

The body is of a wine-glass shape, truncated anteriorly, and behind
passing gradually into a long stalk by which it is attached to the
bottom of its tube. The animal was sometimes found witliout its
tube ; whether this was an accidental or a normal state of things is
uncertain ; when free the stalk was always wanting, the posterior end
of the body being rounded off, or, at most, was represented only by a
small stump. In some cases a constriction was observed near the
posterior end of the body ; probably this was due to pressure, not to
commencing division. The length of the body without the cilia is
0-04 to 0-06 mm., with the stalk 0-1 to 0-12 mm., the diameter
0 • 03 mm.

The anterior end of the body is surrounded by a raised circular
rim of firm consistency, from which spring the fifteen to twenty large
adoral cilia or membranelles, each of which is flat and band-like,
inserted obliquely on the rim, and split up distally into about six
filaments. Eound the inside of the rim, near its base, is a row of
shorter, fine cilia of the ordinary character, and perhaps homologous
with the paroral cilia of Oxijtrichina. | Also the anterior or free half
is sparsely covered with short, fine cilia.

Within the ciliated rim, the anterior end of the animal is slightly
convex, quite soft, and presents an irregular depression or peristomial
space, without, however, any distinct mouth or gullet. Neither cilia
nor undulating membrane occur in the peristome, but its inner wall
undergoes continual movement, acting like a sort of lip or tongue.
This fact is interesting as showing the possibility of independent
movement on the part of the soft endosarc or internal parenchyma.

The body-substance is clear and slightly yellowish. There are no
muscle-strife, and no discoverable structure in the stalk. In the
posterior end of the oval nucleus is a strongly repeating globular

* ' Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.,' xxxii. (1879) p. 4G0.
t See this Journal, ii. (1879) p. 91.

588 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

body, probably representing the nucleolus. There is a single con-
tractile vesicle, near the peristome. Many " serous " spaces are also
to be seen. No anus could be discovered.

The development was not made out, although the author had
evidence that multiplication takes place by transverse fission. The
tube is formed by the animal out of bits of decaying plants, and small
fungoid and algal filaments.

Blepharisma lateritia.* — A short note on the conjugation of this
infusor is contributed by Duncker, of Berlin. He states that the pro-
cess lasted for about an hour, and that while it was going on the nucleus
appeared to move somewhat farther backwards. On one occasion two
individuals in conjugation were seen to make vigorous efforts to separate
themselves by swimming backwards against the grains of sand found
in the fluid ; these seemed to act as wedges between the two animals,
gradually prising them apart ; the separation being eftected after forty
or fifty attempts. The separated animals, or at least one of them,
showed a degeneration of the nucleus, the further changes in which
were not observed. Eed masses were, however, found in the vessel,
which bore a close resemblance to the altered (? impregnated) nucleus,
and were possibly germ-masses, although no movement was observed
in them, and they were not seen to develop further.

Haptophrya gigantea, a new Opalinid from the Intestine of
the Anourous Batrachia.f — The intestine of Batrachians harbours
a whole world of parasites, which live and multiply with a truly sur-
prising abundance. Microscopists especially may thus make the
finest harvests of Infusoria and Bacteria. M. E. Maupas says that
he has often examined the contents of the intestine of Bufo pantherinus,
Discoglossiis pictus, and Bana csculenta, from Algiers, and always
found them richly populated. He was able to recognize the following
species : Nycthotherus cordiformis, Balantidium elongatum, B. entozoon,
Opalina dimidiata, 0. intestinalis, 0. ohtrigona, and 0. ranariim. With
these large ciliated Infusoria swarmed myriads of Bodos, Monads,
Amcebas, Bacilli, Vibrios, and Bacteria. All these species are Euro-
pean, but he also very often found in the intestine of the Bufo and
the Discoglossus (less frequently in the frog) a very fine species of
Opalinid, which appears to be undescribed, and which, from several
very curious details of its organization, must greatly interest proto-
zoologists.

This Opalinid may be regarded as the giant of the Infusoria, for
individuals were measured the length of which exceeded 1 mm. The
body has a very elongated cylindro-conical form, tapering from the
front backwards. The anterior extremity is pretty strongly depressed,
and is nearly twice the breadth of the posterior region, which
measures from • 08 to • 09 mm. This dej)resscd portion is occupied
by a circular sucker, formed by the retreat inwards of the wall of one
of the broad surfaces, which may be called the ventral surface. The
action of the sucker is ensured by cords of sarcode, which start from

* ' Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 260.

t ' Comptes Keiidus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 921.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, JriCROSCOPY, ETC. 589

its inner wall, and attach themselves to the opposite dorsal wall. The
concavity caused by the traction of these cords is of course very slight,
but nevertheless clearly visible with the Microscope. The animalcule
attaches itself to objects by means of this sucker. The surface of the
body is covered with very close rows of cilia. Four or five rows may
be counted in '01 mm., and in the concavity of the sucker they are
half as numerous again. The cilia, whose length is 'OOS mm., are
very close together, about thirteen or fourteen in '01 mm. These
cilia are the only organs of locomotion, and the progress of the animal
is never very rapid.

The integument or ectosarc has a thickness of • 045 mm., and is
composed of two very distinct layers — one external, in which the pro-
longation of the cilia may be followed in the form of bacilli, the other
internal, composed of transjiarent and absolutely amorphous sarcode.
This integument is entirely destitute of proper contractility, so that
the animalcule cannot in any way modify its form sjjontaneously ; but
on the other hand it possesses great elasticity, which allows the body to
resume immediately its normal contour when modified by an obstacle.
Theendosarc is composed of clear and liquid sarcode, at the periphery
of which exists a layer of large, opaque granulations.

The nucleus is free in the general cavity, and following the move-
ments of the body, can move from one extremity to the other. Its
form is that of a very elongate and rather flat ellij)soidal shuttle ;
it may measure as much as • 185 mm. Its substance consists of an
opaque, slightly yellowish gangue, in which are seen numerous
sj)herical corpuscles of nucleolar appearance. When, from the crush-
ing of the body, a fresh nucleus is placed directly in the water, its
substance contracts, and at the surface there appears a fine amorphous
membrane, as in many other Infusoria.

The body is traversed throughout its length by a long contractile
canal attached to the dorsal face, the pulsations of which, from one
systole to the next, last a little more tbau a minute. This canal is
not rectilinear, but describes numerous sinuosities irregularly disposed.
Its diameter in diastole is '018 mm. It is furnished with proper
walls, and thus constitutes a true vessel. By this character it difters
from the contractile vacuoles of the other Infusoria, which are only
temporary cavities hollowed out in the endosarc. The wall of the
vessel, visible even in the living animals, becomes still more apparent
with coagulating reagents. This vessel, moreover, is provided with
orifices, which traverse the integument and open outwards in the form
of very clearly visible pores in the midst of the rows of cilia. These
pores place the vessel in communication with the exterior, and serve
for the exit of the interior liquid at the moment of s^'stole, and very
probably for the entrance of the exterior liquid during diastole. The
pores, seven or eight in number in the large individuals, are placed
exactly in a straight line at irregular distances on the course of
the vessel. They are of an oval form, and measure '003 mm. in
length.

This Infusor multiplies by dividing transversely into segments.
The segmentation is at first indicated at the middle of the length of

VOL. II, 2 R

590 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tlie body by a clear band in the endosarc. Tbe nucleus divides in
two, a constriction contracts the body at tlie point of segmentation,
and tlie vessel becomes divided into two. The two segments remain
united together. The same operation is repeated, for a first time, at
the middle of each of the segments, so that we see four segments sol-
dered together, then a second time at the middle of each of these four
new segments, and the body is cut into eight segments still attached
to one another, and completely recalling by their external aspect and
arrangement the zoonites of the Tteniaj. These segments then sepa-
rate, and many of them are always found isolated in the rectum of the
hosts.

This fine Infusor much resembles the Opalinid found by Von
Siebold in Planaria torva, and figured by Max Schultze under the
name of Opalina polymorpha. If we adopt the generic divisions esta-
blished in the family of Opalinida by Stein, it will have to be j^laced
by the side of this latter species in the genus Haptophrya. On account
of its large size, M. Maupas names it H. gigantea.

Stem's ' Organismus der Infusionsthiere.' * — After an interval of
eleven yeai's, the first part of the third volume (comprising the Flagel-
late Infusoria) of this work has appeared. It is the result of long and
patient original investigation, and constitutes, as the author says, the
most laborious of his productions. The second part, containing the
characters of the genera and description of the species, is announced
as shortly to follow, completing the work.

The following is the classification adopted by Stein for Infusoria
which move by means of flagelliform filaments. It will be seen that,
returning to the traditions of Ehrenberg and of his school, he brings
back to the animal kingdom a number of organisms that most modern
authors consider as of a vegetable nature.

Infusoria Flagellata.

1. Monadina.

Cercomonas ; Monas ; Goniomonas ; Bodo ; Phyllomitus ;
Tetramitris ; Trepomonfis ; Hexamita ; Lophomonas ; and
Platytheca.

2. Dendromonadina.

Dendromonas; Cephalothamnium ; Anthophysa.

3. Sjjongomonadina.

Ciadomonas ; Ehipidodendron ; Spongomonas ; Phalansterium .

4. Craspedomonadina.

Codonosiga ; Codonocladium ; Codouodesmus ; Salpiugoeca.

5. Bikoecida.

Bikoeca ; Poteriodendron.

6. Dinohryina.

Epipyxis ; Dinobryon.

7. Crysomonadina.

Coelomonas ; Ehaphidomonas ; Microglena ; Chrysomonas ;
Uroglena ; Syncrypta ; Synura ; Hymenomonas ; Stylo-
chrysalis ; Chrysopyxis.

* M. J. Deby in ' Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr.,' v. (1879) p. 99.

INVERTEBKATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 591

8. Cldamydomonadina.

Polytoma ; Cblamydomonas ; Cblamydococcus ; Phacotus ;
Coccomonas ; Tetraselmis ; Goniuin.

9. Volvocina.

Eudorina ; Paudorina ; SteiiLanosplifera ; Volvos,

10. Hydromorina.

Chlorogonium ; Chloraugium ; Pyramidomouas ; Chloraster ;
Spondylomorum,

11. Cryptomonadina.

Chilomonas ; Cryptomonas ; Neplirosolmis.

12. CMoropeltidea.

Cryptoglena ; Chloropoltis ; Pliacns.

13. Euglenida.

Euglena ; Colacium ; Ascoglena ; Traclielomonas.

14. Astasicea.

Eutropia ; Astasia ; Heteronema ; Zygoselmis ; Pcrancma.

15. Scytomonadina.

Scytomonas ; Petalomonas ; Menoidium ; Atractoiiema ;
Phialonema ; Spenomouas ; Tropidocyplins ; Auisonema ;
Colponema ; Eiitosiplion.

Stein places Volvox, Eudorina, Pandorina, Euglena, and even
Chlamydococcus pluvialis amongst the Flagellate Infusoria, on tlie
ground principally of tlie presence of a contractile vesicle. His
observations on tbe multiplicity of Volvox and analogous genera
confirm tbose of Cobn.

Stein accepts tbe views of Clark on tbe nature of sponges, and
gives figures of a great number of new species of Infusoria discovered
by bim, wbicb seem to establisb incontestable links between tbe
Flagellate Infusoria and tbe true sponges.

He does not appear to bave verified or even to bave known of tbe
observations of Dallinger and Drysdale on tbe life-bistory of
Monads.

Effect of Light on Pelomyxa.* — In a very low, amoeba-like
organism, Pelomyxa pfl7«s^r/s, Herr Engelmann recently observed a
remarkable action from sudden incidence of a moderate ligbt.
Watcbed in tbe Microscope, tbis organism sbowed very slow move-
ments, wbicb, bowever, on sbading tbe object, became mucb more
lively. Wben tbe band was removed tbe glandular mass in tbe
interior became still, and tbe body contracted into a ball, as after an
electric sbock ; tbis effect occurred witbin a few seconds. Witb
continued moderate ligbt, weak cbauges of form appeared again, witb
bardly perceptible locomotion. Tbis experiment was several times
repeated witb equal success, and tbe results were especially notable in
a dark room, into wbicb diffused dayligbt could be admitted. Wben,
however, tbe room was illuminated — not suddenly, but gradually —
tbe Pelomyxa sbowed no effect.

* ' Arch. f. P]iy.s.' (Pfliiger), xix. (187D) p. 1 ; ' Nature,' xx. (1879) p. 100.

2 R 2

592 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology
of the Phanerogamia.

Permeability of Pellicle Precipitates.* — The well-known experi-
ments of Traube on artificial cells have been repeated by Hugo de
Vries, who comes to conclusions quite opposite to those of the German
observer.

Starting with Traube's experiments upon the artificial cell or
pellicle-precipitate produced by a copper salt in a solution of potassium
ferrocyauide, De Vries says that if, as Traube maintains, the precipi-
tated membrane is impermeable to its two membranogens (i.e. the
copper salt and the ferrocyanide), the membrane will not undergo any
increase in thickness ; while if, on the other hand, the pellicle is
permeable by the membranogens, it will continually increase in thick-
ness until one of them is exhausted.

De Vries experimented upon a flaccid cell of cojiper ferrocyanide,
obtained by introducing a drop of a 3 to 5 per cent, solution of cupric
chloride, by means of a fine pipette, into the bottom of a tall vessel
containing a 20 per cent, solution of potassium ferrocyanifl6. The blue
drop became sui'rounded with a delicate, colourless, transparent pel-
licle, which for a half to one hour seemed to undergo no change. At
the end of this time, however, brownish spots appeared on it, and
increased in number and size until the whole cell-wall had a brown
tint, which gradually darkened, until the whole pellicle was dark
brown, opaque, and quite rigid and brittle. During the whole time
— at the end of twenty-fuur hours, in fact— the cell had undergone no
increase in size. If ruptured at this time, the rent was not closed up
by the formation of a new pellicle, showing that all the copper salt
had passed out of the cell ; moreover, the colour of the contents of the
latter was seen to be yellow — that is, to consist of the ferrocyanide.

Thus, the pellicle of cupric ferrocyanid is proved to increase in
thickness, and must therefore be permeable to one or both of the
membranogens. Several other experiments of similar nature were
made, and all tended to prove the same thing — in all there was a
progressive increase in the thickness of the pellicle, and a continual
change in its physical properties.

The author concludes by remarking that, by these results, the
supposed analogy between pellicle-precipitates and living protoplasm
is shown to be only apparent, and devoid of all real significance."]"

Origin of Chlorophyll-grains. — The view of Mohl, Sachs, Wiesner,
and others, that grains of chlorophyll are formed directly from the
starch and other carbohydrates which constitute the reserve food-

* 'Arch. Neerland.,' xiii. (1878) p. 344.

t This remark can hardly be said to apply to Traube's experiments "with
gelatin-taunate pellicles, althongli the fact of the copper-ferrocyanide pellicle
growing by deposition of layers, and not, as Traube thought, by intussusception,
renders a repetition of these experiments necessary. (See Sachs' ' Textbook of
Botany,' p. 594.)

INVEKTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 593

materials of plants, has been subjected to rigid investigation by
Mikosch,* who has arrived at the following results : —

1. In all young organs whicli are filled with starch-grains, the
chlorophyll-grains are formed by the investiture of the starch-grain
with a green or yellow protoplasm. Within this envelope a gradual
absorption of the starch goes on, followed, when the starch-grain is
compound, by its breaking up into its derivative grains. Grains
formed in this way he calls starch-chlorophyll-grains.

2. The starch-chlorophyll-grains are, as a rule, parietal ; only in
the leaf-stalks of the primordial leaves, and in the young axial organs,
do they more often originate from a mass of protoplasm which
surrounds the central nucleus.

3. The starch-chloroijhyll-grains are functional when fully de-
veloped; they assimilate, and multiply by division. The only ex-
ception to this rule occurs in the case of the large grains found
in the cotyledons of the pea, in which no vital activity was ever
observed.

4. When no starch is present in the tissue in the form of grains,
the chlorophyll-grains are formed in the way already described by
Sachs, by the breaking up of the hyaline parietal layer of protoplasm
into separate green portions, which eventually become yellow. These
grains, formed directly out of the protoj)lasm, without a starch-grain
taking any apparent share in the process, Mikosch calls protoplasm-
chlorophyll-grains. The differentiation of the protoplasm goes on
both in the light and in the dark ; but is more rapid in the former
case, and, within certain limits, the more raj)id the greater the intensity
of the light.

Heliotropism of Plants. — Professor Wiesner reprints from the
' Denkschriften der math.-naturw. Classe der kais. Akad. der Wissen.'
of Vienna, vol. xxxix., the first part of an important monograph, ' Die
heliotropischen Erscheinungen im Pflanzenreiche.'

After a copious historical sketch of previous investigations, he
divides the subject as follows :— In the first chapter the influence of
the intensity of light on heliotropism is investigated ; and the author
shows that a maximum effect is produced by a certain intensity, on
each side of which there is a gradual decrease to zero. In the same
manner he found an upper limit of light-intensity for growth in
length, and also that the upper limit for heliotropism is above or below
that for growth in length. Direct sunlight may completely arrest
growth in length. In the second chapter he shows, in opposition to
the received theory, that all rays of light, with the exception of yellow,
even the dark and ultra-violet (red ?) rays of heat, may produce helio-
tropism ; in plants which are but little sensitive to heliotropism, the
action of the colours of the spectrum decreases in proportion to their
heliotropic power. The hypothesis that the heliotropic power of light
is in proportion to its mechanical intensity or thermal power is alto-
gether disproved. The third chapter is devoted to the investigation
of the connection between heliotropism and gcotropism ; and in the

* ' SB. Akml. Wiss. Wion,' Ixxviii. (1878) p. 205.

594 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

fourth it is proved that free oxygen is essential to heliotropism, and
that all holiotrojiic curvatures are dejjeudeut on unequal growth.
The fifth and last chapter treats of photo-mechanical induction in
heliotropism ; the important fact being here demonstrated that the
inductive actions of light and gravitation do not cooperate, but are in
opi)osition to one another, and that heliotropic induction is virtually
mechanical.*

Symbiosis.f — Professor L. de Bary, in his address at the last
Meeting of German Naturalists, proposed the term " symbiosis "
as a general designation for parasitism and analogous phenomena
(" mutualism," &c.) in the vegetable kingdom, for which the terms
used in zoology are not always exact or appropriate. He distinguishes
two j)rincipal divisions — " antagonistic symbiosis," in which there is
a struggle ; and " mutualistic symbiosis," in which the two organisms
receive a reciprocal advantage.

Is the Ovule an Axial or a Foliar Structure ? J — The theory that
the ovi;le is of the nature of a bud was powerfully upheld by the great
morphologist, Von Mohl. Of recent years the opposite view, that it has
more the character of a leaf or of a part of a leaf, advocated with great
weight of ai'gument by Celakovsky, and finally supported by Eichler,
has met with favour from the majority of botanists. Great ingenuity
has been disj^layed on both sides in adapting to each theory, facts
which appear at the first sight plainly to contradict it, especially in
the case of malformations, on which both j)arties greatly rely to prove
their case.

Under the title " Ueber Placentarsprosse " Peyritsch supplies
another contribution to the literature of the subject. He starts with
the assertion that cases, in his opinion, unquestionably occur, of
placental shoots or buds taking the place of ovules, with regard to
which there is no reason for regarding them as adventitious shoots.
This view he supports by the description of abnormal placental struc-
tures in Besecla lutea, Sisi/mbrium AlHaria, and other cases. He
believes that neither of the two rival theories can be accepted as of
universal apidication, but that a series of intermediate forms exists
between the normal ovule and the nucleus-bearing segment of a leaf.
Notwithstanding all that has been said to the contrary, the normal
ovule has more the characters of a bud than of a leaf, and can best
be compared to a minute bulb, while malformations often partake
much more of a foliar character. He regards, therefore, the ovule as a
structure adapted for sexual reproduction, of a variable morphoL)gical
natiire, and is not of opinion that abnormalities are of any great value
in determining this last question. As an analogical structure he
adduced the cyathium of the Eui^horbiacete, intermediate between an
inflorescence and a true flower, and regarded by the best authorities
in dificrcnt lights.

* See 'Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 341.
t 'Eev. Internat. Sci.,' iii. (1879) p. 301.
J 'SB. Akad. Wi.ss. Wieu,' Ixxviii. (1S7S) p. 220.

INVERTEBEA.TA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 595

Starch-transforming Ferments.*— Substances whicli possess the
power of producing fermentation in starch, i.e. of transforming it into
sugar, were found by Barauetzky in dormant and germinating seeds
which contain starch, in germinating starchy tubers, in stems and
leaves, and also in receptacles for reserve materials which contain no
starch, as in germinating turnips and carrots. The result was the
same whether the plants grew in the light or in dark. The product
of the fermentation of starch was determined by quantitative analysis
to consist of a mixture of glucose and maltose, the analysis being
made as soon as the starch reaction with iodine failed. The forma-
tion of these sugars was hindered by elevation of the temperature.
From the similarity of its action, Baranetzky concluded the identity
of the ferment obtained from different plants. He believes, in accord-
ance with Payen, that the chemical process which takes place is, that
dextrin is first formed, and subsequently sugar by absorption of water ;
not as O'Sullivan thinks, a division of the molecule of starch into
dextrin and sugar. The granulose in the starch-grains is first acted
on, then the cellulose (farinose). The action takes place with very
different rapidity in different starch-grains ; those of wheat and
buckwheat ferment speedily ; those of rice and potato only with
great difficulty ; and this is not altogether dependent on the relative
proportion of the two ingredients in the starch ; since the grains of
the scarlet-runner, which leave behind a tough skeleton of farinose,
are acted upon very rapidly, those of the horse-chestnut only with
great difficulty, although they leave but a very delicate skeleton. The
actual ferment he believes to be an albuminoid, and its action to be
dependent on the presence of oxygen. The distribution of this
ferment in the vegetable kingdom he concludes to be very general.

Krauch differs from Baranetzky in maintaining diastase to be a
definite chemical compound, which he has detected in onions and the
seeds of the gourd. He agrees with that writer in regarding diastase
as a widely distributed substance in organs which contain starch, and
generally in proportion to the amount of starch. It sometimes exists
in the organ while in a dormant state ; sometimes it is only found
when active growth begins.

Tannin in Vegetable Cells-f — J. B. Schiitzler records the results
of some experiments on this subject. The test emjjloyed was the
action on ferric chloride or some other iron salt, which causes the
protoplasm to contract, kills it, and then produces a black precipitate
when tannin or a substance belonging to the same series is present.
This was first observed in the glands which cause the oily feel of the
upper surface of the leaves of Paulownia impcrialis, and subsequently
in the leaves of Prunus Laurocerasus. Tannin was also found in
fresh-water algae belonging to the genera Vaucheria, Sjnrogyra, Con-
ferva, &c., in sufficient quantities for a good ink to be prepared from the

* ' Die sfarkeumbildenden Fermeute in der Pflauzen,' von Dr. J. Baranetzky,
Leipzig, 1878. ' Beitrage zur Kenntniss der uugeformten FL-rmeute in der Pflun-
zen,' von K. Krauch, Erlangeu, 1878. See ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 156.

t 'Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat.,' i. (1879) p. 344.

596 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

alcoholic solution of tlieir cliloropliyll. A marine alga, Ulva Laduca,
sliowecl no precipitate of tannin when treated in the same way ; and
the same was the case with a moss, Hypnum triquetrum, examined in the
mouth of March.

Functions of Vessels.* — In a somewhat elaborate article on this
subject, J. Bohm gives two reasons for arriving at conclusions in
some respects at variance with the views hitherto entertained.

The dictum dogmatically asserted by Schleiden, that the matnrc ves-
sels, and especially the spiral vessels, never contain water, but only air
— an assertion made on his authority by most subsequent writers — Bohm
maintains, from the result of a series of observations, to be incorrect.
The original fluid contents of the cambial vessels are in most jilants
partially, in others completely absorbed by the sap-condncting cells,
without any corresponding volume of air being given off. When the
vessels have become older, they are filled from the adjoining cells
either more or less completely with saj) or with air of ordinary
tension. In those vessels whose gaseous or fluid contents are subject
to less than the ordinary atmospheric pressure, drops of gum or
protoj)lasm are given off from the adjoining cells through the bordered
pits, the latter being enveloped in cellulose, and developing into the
so-called " Tiillen " or " thyllfe." Air-dried branches in which the
vessels do not possess thyllae absorb only a small quantity of water.
Branches cut ofl" and placed immediately in water in the summer
increase considerably in weight, but if laid for any time in dry or
damp air before being placed in water, they absorb only so much water
as they lose by evaporation. In the first case the vessels immediately
absorb water ; in the latter case their open ends become filled with
air, and hence less easily permeable to water.

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Embryology of Vascular Cryptogams, f — Leitgeb contributes a
paper on this subject to the ' Proceedings of the Vienna Academy of
Sciences,' relating chiefly to the Ehizocarpeas. The following are
the principal results arrived at : —

1. The position of the first partition-wall in the embryo of Marsilea
is a definite one, and independent of that of the macrospore and
prothalliiun, inasmuch as it in all cases includes more or less exactly
the axis of the archegonium ; but it is movable round the latter, and,
as soon as the axis of the archegonium deviates from the vertical,
assumes such a position that the embryo is divided into two superposed
halves.

2. The embryos of Marsilea and Salvinia resemble in their
development those of the Polypodiacefe until the formation of the
octants. The organs are developed after the formation of the
octants ; up to this time the embryos are thallomes.

3. The " pedicel " of Salvinia is developed from that half of the

* ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) pp. 225, 2il.

t ' SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien,' Ixxvii. (1878) p. 222.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 597

embryo from which the stem is formed ; the posterior half of the em-
bryo (the " hypobasal " half, from which in Marsilea and Polyi)odiacefB
the root is formed) appears in Salvinia only as a swelling or " bulb"
at the base of the pedicel.

4. The " pedicel " of Salvinia corresponds therefore, in its origin
and develo2:)meut, to the pedicel of the sporogonium in Hepaticaa.

5. The embryo of Salvinia bears a closer resemblance than that of
any other vascular cryptogams to the embryo of Hejiaticfe, since in
the latter the " bulb " and " pedicel " are similar in origin and
development ; the ultimate diflfcrence depends on the " apical octants,"
which in the Hepatica3 enter partially or entirely into the formation
of the sporogonium, while in Salvinia they take part in the formation
of the " peltate leaf" and the stem.

Adventitious Buds in Ferns. * — Accepting Mettenius's definition
of adventitious buds as " those which arise, equally independently of the
base of the leaf with those which result from dichotomy, in the form
of a new formation beneath the growing-point of the main axis," the
lateral buds described imder this category by Hofmeister in Pteris
axjuilina, Aspidium filix-mas, Asplenimn filix-femina, Stndliiopteris
germanica, and Asj^lenium Belangeri, must, with the exception of those
of the last-named species, be excluded from it. To the list of ferns
producing true adventitious buds on the lamina of the frond
Heinricher now adds Diplazium celtidifolium, Aspleniuni hulhifernm,
and A. viviparum. The following is an epitome of the results of
his observations : —

1. The adventitious buds of ferns are united to the parent organ
by the course of the vascular bundles.

2. The position of the buds varies ; but is constant in the same
species within certain limits.

3. In all the cases examined, in their later stages, at all events as
soon as a frond is formed, the buds grow by an apical cell which
becomes segmented triangularly.

4. In earlier moderately advanced stages, but before the formation
of a frond, an apical cell is scarcely ever to be recognized.

5. But in the youngest stages observed, an apical cell with
triangular segmentation could be detected.

6. The origin of all the buds is exogenous, and the series of their
stages of development points to an acropetal succession.

7. The buds may proceed from a single superficial cell, in which
a triangular apical cell is formed.

8. The origin of the buds is at a very early period. The separa-
tion of the parent-cells of the adventitious buds can apparently not
take place too far from the apex of the frond or of the pinna.

Production of the first vegetative Shoot of Equisetum palustre.t
— From the prothallium of Equisetum arvense, palustre, variegatum
and probably other species, is produced first of all a vegetative shoot,
which soon perishes, distinguished from the permanent ones by the

* ' SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien,' Isxviii. (1878) p. 249.
t ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 289.

598 EECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

leaf-slieatbs liaviiig only three teeth. A. Tomascbek lias succeeded
in keeping these first shoots alive for a space of two years. The colls
of these shoots possess an active power of vegetative reproduction,
and the writer believes that, in favourable circumstances, sporangia
may arise on them. The secondary stems produced from them have
also leaf-sheaths with only three teeth.

Muscineae.

Origin of Tubes in the Nostoc-colonies in Blasia.* — The forma-
tion of colonies of Nostoc in the thallus of Blasia, especially in its
tballoid appendages or " auricles," has been fully described by
Janczewski, Leitgeb, and others. They have also sj^oken of the
production of long tubes penetrating these colonies, a phenomenon
which has received further elucidation from M. Waldner. The fol-
lowing are the main results arrived at : —

1. The formation of tubes in the auricle of Blasia, when infected
by Nostoc, proceeds from the papilla (trichome) which projects into
the cavity of the auricle ; this j^apilla consisting of a bluntly conical
basal cell and a capitate terminal cell.

2. The tubes developed from this papilla, in consequence of the
infection by Nostoc, are not constituted of a single cell.

3. In most cases the tube is developed from the basal cell, while
the terminal cell remains unchanged and then dies otf, or less often
also developes into a tube.

4. The formation of the tube commences by the upper margin
of the basal cell swelling out on one side into the form of a cushion,
or putting out protuberances on all sides, which become separated
by septa from the parent-cell, grow at their apex, and branch, the
lateral branches also becoming separated by septa.

5. No regularity can be observed in the development of the tubes.
The numerous modifications in their origin, number, and branching,
are dependent on the development of the Nostoc.

Fungi.

Endophytic Fungi in Pollen-grains.f — A. Tomascbek has inves-
tigated the occurrence of parasitic fungi within pollen-grains, espe-
cially in the largest or " antheridial " cell of the multicellular grains
of some Coniferfe.

Among the pollen of Finns sylvestris were found cells from
which zoospores were occasionally seen to escape, and which were
identified by Cohn as being closely allied to the Chytridimn pol-
linis pini of A. Braun. Tlie writer, however, prefers to establish
it as a distinct genus under the name Diplochytrium, distinguished
from Chytriditim by possessing a double cell- wall, and also by not
being actually endophytic within the pollen-cells. The organism
may, however, be simply the resting-stage of a Chytridiiim. The
Chytridimn pollinis pini is readily detected within the largest pollen-

* ' 813. Akiul. \Vi.,s. AVicu,' Ixsviii. (1878) p. 204. t Hji-l., p. Ut7.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 599

cells of Pinics amerkana, as many as twenty or thirty of the para-
sites being found in a single grain. The escape of zoospores
from these may occasionally be observed. Chytrklia were also ob-
served in the pollen-grains of Typha latifolia, Lilium lancifolium, and
Cannabis sativa. Chjtrklium luxurians, also endophytic in the pollen
of Pinus sylvestris, is distinguished by the fact that it never leaves the
pollen-grain, but, when mature, emits a tube which projects outside
the pollen-grain, through which the zoospores are ejected. The de-
velopment of these truly endophytic fungi is often obscured by the
growth of other fungi among the pollen-grains, the germs of which
have been floating in the air, &c. ; especially of Apisporium pinophilum
Fuckel, which first appears as a torula, and then develops dark
brown, club-shaped perithecia.

Rate of Germination of Fungus-spores and Growth of My-
celium.*— Dr. G. Winter has made a series of experiments on this
subject, extending over a considerable number of species belonging
to several diiferent orders of fungi.

The germination of the spores he found to be dependent on
a variety of circumstances, such as sufficient access of oxygon and
a sufficient supply of moisture, some germinating in moist air,
others only when swimming on or actually submerged in water.
In some species the development of the germinating filaments takes
place at the expense of the food-materials stored up in the spore ;
others require an external supjily. For the germination of most
fungus-spores a temperature of from 12 to 20^ C. is necessary. Of a
large number of fungus-spores which were subjected to experiment,
the most rapid germination was exhibited by Nectria cinnabarina,
viz. in 2^ hours ; the least rapid by Actrostalagmus cinnabariniis,
viz. in 65i hours. The slowest development of the germinating
filament was manifested hj Mucor Mucedo, viz. at the rate of 2' 5
mmm. (micro-millimetres) per minute in a nutritive fluid, | mmm.
per minute in water ; the most rapid by Pilobolus crystallinus, viz.
at the rate of 36 mmm. per minute.

New parasitic Phycomycete.f — In the ' Sitzungsberichte des hot.
Vereins der Prov. Brandenburg' W. Zopf describes a new fungus
allied to the Saprolegniete, which is parasitic on Spirogyra and other
filamentous Conjugatte, and which he names Lagenidmm RabenJiorstii.
The biciliated swarmspores attach themselves to a cell of the host,
invest themselves with a cell-wall, perforate the wall of the infected
cell by means of a filament, and develop into a unicellular mycelium.
The hyplias afterwards become septated, and each cell is a zoosporan-
gium, containing from two to thirteen zoospores. The sexual plants
are produced from zoospores which penetrate a cell of the host in
pairs, one giving rise to a male, the other to a female plant. The
male plant becomes divided into a number of cells, all but one of
which produce zoospoi*es, the other becoming an antheridium ; it
does not give birth to antherozoids, but pierces the female cell, into

* ' Hedwigia,' xviii. (1879) p. 49.

t Sec ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 351.

600 RECOED OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which its protoi)lasinic contents pass. The female cell resembles a
sporangium, bnt has no perforating filament. After fertilization the
oosphere develops into a yellowish brown double- walled oospore, the
epispore of which is covered with elegant spines.

The "Carolo vero " and "Carolo bianco" of the Rice.* — The
cause of these two diseases to which rice is subject is described by
Professor Garovaglio in a i)ami)hlet entitled ' Del Brusone o Carolo
del Kiso.' It is a fungus belonging to the genus Pleosjjora, to
which he gives the name P. Oryzce, and of which he describes the
spermogonia, perithecia, and pycnidia. In the " carolo bianco " the
parasite has attained only an earlier stage of its development ; in
the " carolo vero " it has reached a more perfect stage. Its presence
is shown by the dry, dull-red leaves and leaf-sheaths, the blackish,
often torn nodes, which have sometimes altogether disapj)eared, and
the dark, smutty sjiike which falls out on the least touch. The grain
is empty, both embryo and endosperm having completely dis-
appeared. The fructification makes its ai^pearance over the whole
plant.

Sporormia, a Subgenus of Sphseria.-j- — E. Pirotta proposes to re-
establish, with some modifications, Do Notaris's genus Sporormia,
nearly synonymous with the Hormospora of the same author, usually
sunk in the enormous genus Sjjhceria.

The following is his diagnosis of the genus : — Stroma none or
simjile ; perithecia scattered or gregarious, half-immersed or super-
ficial, never enclosed, smooth, globose or oblong-conical, black, some-
times transparent, pajjillose, prolonged into a mamillfeform or
irregular conical neck ; asci cylindrical, subclavate or widest in the
middle, containing usually eight ascospores, prolonged into a pedicel,
rarely sessile ; parajihyses, when present, filiform, undivided or septate,
simple or branched, numerous, flaccid, gelatinous ; ascospores cylin-
drical, composed of from four to twenty jointed or moniliform sjjori-
dioles, dusky or nearly black, sometimes encircled by a hyaline
gelatinous ring ; when mature breaking uj) into the sej)arate spori-
dioles. The description of the genus is followed by that of twenty
species.

Sclerotium Oryzse.iJ: — This form of "sclerotium" is described by
Cattaneo as appearing in enormous quantities on the lower portions
of the haulm of the rice beneath the water, to which it is excessively
destructive, appearing especially in the hollow of the stem, and in the
leaf-sheaths. It is globular and very small, with brownish membrane
and yellowish protoplasm. The writer states that cavities are
developed within the sclerotium, which increase and finally coalesce ;
and that spores are then formed by abstriction from the ends of
hypha? which appear within the cavities. Their germination was not

* See ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 359.
t 'Nuov. Giorn. Bot. It.,' x. (1878) p. 127.

X 'Archivio tiienruilc del lavoratorio di Botanica Crittiigamica di Pavia,'
vol. ii. ; see ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 327-

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 601

followed out. The disease thus caused has only recently made its
appearance.

Structure of Depazeacese. — Under this head M. Crie includes *
a section of Pyrenomycetes comprising the genera Diploch'a, Septoria,
Glceosporium, Sjphceropsis, Hendersonia, Phyllosttcta, Pestalozzia, Mor-
thiera, Depazea, and their allies, all of very minute size, which cause
the coloured spots on the leaves of many trees that contribute so
much to the autumn tints of foliage. The fungi described as Xyloma
and Edostroma, generally regarded as distinct organisms, but treated
by De Bary as merely pathological products of the leaves, M. Crie
considers to be stages in the development of other Depazeacefe. The
Depazeacefe are distinguished from other foliicolous Sphferiacea3 by the
thalloid spots which serve as a support to the rejiroductive organs.
Their first ajipearance is in the form of a simple black dot, in which
state they form the genus Edostroma. The reproductive organs are
spermogonia with their spermatia, pycnidia with theii' stylospores,
and perithecia with their asci and aseospores ; these do not present
anything especially dilferent in their structure from that of other
Sphferiacete. The spermatia of Depazea, Crie considers, along with
Berkeley and Cooke, to be not sexual organs of reproduction, but a
kind of non-sexual sj)ore less perfectly developed than the stylospores
or aseospores. He finds that they germinate only with difficulty, and
never produce a mycelium comparable to that which proceeds from the
other kinds of spores. The stylospores he found to germinate, after
they had been preserved in a herbarium for half a centiu-y, just as if
they were fresh gathered.

Two New Vine-Parasites. — In the ' Archivio triennale del
Lavoratorio di Botanica Crittogamica di Pavia,' f Dr. Cattaneo describes
two new fungus-parasites on the vine which have made their appear-
ance in North Italy, Sphcerella fumaginia and PJioma haccce, the latter
closely allied to the P. uvicola which is so destructive to the vine in
America. The nearly ripe berries shrivel up and become more or
less strongly coated with a sweetish granular substance soluble in
water. The black conceptacles are formed inside the berry, and
finally burst the skin ; the spores are yellowish and unicellular.

Conjugation of Swarmspores of Chroolepus. — Although this
phenomenon had not been observed during the careful investigation
of this alga by Frank, Wille claims to have detected it J in a few
instances in Trentepohlia umhrina (Chroolepus umhrinnm') growing on
the horse-chestnut. Of a very large number of swarmspores observed,
the immense majority disappeared without conjugating or becoming
invested with cellulose. In a very few instances conjugation was
detected, the swarmspores thus proving to be planogametes, in De
Bary and Strasburger's use of the term. In only one or two instances
was the subsequent investment with cellulose detected. The question
needs further investigation.

* ' Ann. des Sci. Nat. (Bot.),' vii. (1878) p. .5.

t See ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 358.

X ' Botaniska Notiser,' 1878, p. 165 ; see ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 294.

602 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Formation of Conidia by a Bacillus.* — M. Engel draws attention
to the discovery of the fact that certain Bacilli taken from a woman
during childbirth produced, when placed in Pasteur's solution, conidia ;
he points out that this observation was published before the paper of
Koch on the same subject, and he states that he has applied to the
Bacillus in question the specific name of puerperalis. The body from
which the blood containing the Bacillus was taken had a peculiar
odour; and the blood when injected into a rabbit produced death in
thirty-six hours, whereas the conidia had no poisonous effect. The
author further draws attention to what he believes to be an error in the
statement! ^^^^ ^ species of Leptotlirix had produced illness, and is of
opinion that the form, if immobile, is probably one of the Bacteridia,
and, if mobile, is in all likelihood the Bacillus discovered by M.
Spillmann, and examined and described by himself.

Fermentation of Cellulose.:]: — As long ago as 1850, Mitscherlich
announced the fact that cellulose can be made to ferment ; and in 1865,
Trecul found that this fermentation is due to minute amylaceous
particles to which he gave the name Amylobacter. Van Tieghem has
now determined that the various forms of this body which Trecul
described, are different states of the same bacterium belonging to the
genus Bacillus, to which he gives the name Bacillus Amylobacter.

This bacterium attacks the cell-wall, which it finally destroys, with-
out in any way affecting the cell-contents, whether albuminoid or amyla-
ceous. It does not however attack aU cell-walls indifferently, except
in the case of the embryo. Those tissues have the greatest powers of
resisting its attacks which are cuticularized, suberized, lignified, or
encrusted with mineral substances. Gelatinous tissues are especially
liable to be disintegrated by it. In aquatic plants the cellulose, even
of the stem and leaves, has a remarkable power of resisting the attacks
of this agent. The spores of Amylobacter, like those of other bacteria,
have the power of resisting without injury a lengthened exposure to
a temperature of 100^ C, or that of boiling water. The first effect of
Amylobacter is to transform cellulose or soluble starch (it has no effect
on insoluble starch) first into dextrin and then into glucose, with
elimination of carbonic acid, and production of an acid the exact
composition of which is not yet determined. The action of the Amy-
lobacter on cellulose apj)ears to be direct, without the intervention of
a diastase.

Resistance of Germs to a Temperature of 100" C.§— M, Ch.

Chamberland has already shown the existence of a microscojjic organ-
ism (Bacillus subtilis ? of Cohn) having the following i^roperties : —

1st, It is exclusively aerobian, and does not develoj) at all in a
perfect vacuum or in pure carbonic acid.

2nd. It grows in almost all organic liquids (infusions of yeast,
hay, carrots, &c.), provided they are previously neutralized by potash.
There is no development in acid liquids,

3rd, It gives rise to germs or spores which, in neutral media, resist

* ' Comptes Rendus,' Isxxviii. (1879) p, 976.

t See this Journal, ii. (1879) p. 454.

X ' Comptes Rendus,' Ixsxviii. (1879), p. 205. § Ibid., p. G.")9.

INVEETEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 603

for many hours a temperature of 100^ C. In infusions of yeast or
hay they may resist for five hours, whilst in distilled water they are
killed by two or three houi's' boiling. A temperature of 115^ kills
them very rapidly.

4th. When boiled for a few minutes in a slightly acid mediimi
these spores are not killed, for they develop when the liquids are
placed in sterile neutral media.

5th. A temperature of 40^ seems most favourable to the growth of
these organisms, though they still develop at 50^.

Whilst pursuing these researches he encountered another organism,
also a Bacillus, which is both aerobian and anaerobian. When in
air it absorbs oxygen from it, but in vacuo it acts as a ferment, and
disengages a mixture of carbonic acid and hydrogen ; thus resembling
the yeast of beer.

It develops also in neutral or slightly alkaline media, and not at
all in very acid liquids.

Its germs or spores resist a temperature of 100°, but for a much
shorter time than the spores of Bacillus suhtilis. In distilled water
at 100° they resist for thirty minutes, but are killed in forty minutes.

Like Bacillus suhtilis, the spores are not killed when sown in
slightly acid liquids and boiled for some minutes.

The temperature most favourable to their development is that
which suits Bacillus suhtilis.

The liquids in which the new Bacillus multiplies become distinctly
acid, whereas Bacillus suhtilis produces no change.

These results lead to important conclusions.

1st. The boiling of water in an apparatus for some minutes, and
even for more than an hour, may not be sufficient to deprive it of all
living germs, since the germs of the organisms here referred to are
found in ordinary water, although in variable proportions.

2nd. In manipulating neutral or slightly alkaline organic liquids
the apparatus used must have been previously subjected to a very
high temperature.

It is doubtless because apparatus was made use of which it was
believed was freed from germs merely by the boiling of the water,
that natural milk fresh from the cow's udder could not hitherto be
preserved.

By the use of the above apparatus, however, M. Chamberland
proved two years ago that such milk will keep indefinitely, without
producing organisms, in contact with pure air.

Many experiments claimed as favouring the spontaneous generation
theory are therefore explained in a very simple and rational way.

Ijichens.

Observations on Microgonidia.*— The Eev. J. M. Crombie, writ-
ing on the investigations of Dr. Minlts and Dr. Miiller | on what the
former calls microgonidia (or the minute corpuscules which, according
to him and Dr. Miiller, are in their evolution changed into gonidia,
and constitute the initial state of the latter), says that he does not

* ' Grevillea,' vii. (1879) p. 143. t ^ee this Journal, ii. (1879) p. 311.

604 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

hesitate to affirm that every competent observer will entirely coincide
in the view of Dr. Nylauder, who declares that the " microcjonidia "
are no new discovery whatever, have nothing at all in common with
gonidia, and in fact are simj^ly what is called in vegetable anatomy
" molecular granulations," which never, if present in the cellules, go
forth from them, and never present any cellular metamorphosis ;
that so far from their being any novelty, their existence has been well
known to every microscopic observer, and that vaiuly in these granu-
lations shall we seek for anything having any special relation to
gonidia or their origin.

Mr. Crombie considers therefore that " the labours of Dr. Minks "
cannot in any way, in so far at least as his discovery of " micro-
gonidia " is concerned, be regarded as " profoundly modifying the
anatomical notions which were entertained concerning the thallus of
lichens." Eather is it to be regretted, in the interest of true science,
and for the final suppression of Schwendenerian oj)inions, that these
labours, valuable in some respects as they may be, should liave
resulted in the promulgation of another theory as untenable as that
which Dr. Minks set himself to destroy.

In regard to the " zoospores or zoosporoid corpuscles," which Dr.
Miiller mentions as having been observed by him in certain gonidia,
" contento contracto," gyrosely agitated (and also in the spores of
Agaricus rimosus), Mr. Crombie considers this a discovery of exactly
the same nature as that of microgonidia, and that they are in reality
nothing more than the same " molecular granulations." The motion
which he saw is evidently the well-known Brownian movement, an
ordinary property of molecular granulations to agitate themselves
where sufficient space is allowed them.

Leighton's ' Lichen-Flora.'— The third edition of the 'Lichen-Flora
of Great Britain, Ireland, and the Channel Islands,' has been issued,
and is the consequence of the extensive discoveries of Mr. Larbalestier
in the west of Ireland, and the inferior, but very interesting, ones of
Mr. Crombie, Dr. Stirton, and others, in the north of Scotland, and
the author's own extensive researches in North and South Wales,
whereby our lichen-flora has been raised to an equality in numbers,
rarity, and novelty with that of any other country in Euroj^e.

The number of species and varieties or forms comprised in the second
edition of the work amounted to 1156, whilst in this third edition
they have risen to 1710. The work is preceded by an introduction
to the study of lichens, with their geographical distribution, general
and local, and their uses. The descriptions have been revised and
corrected throughout, and measurements of the spores from the works
of Mudd, Nylander, T. M. Fries, and tlie author's own, have been
added. A copious glossary, list of authors and exsiccati quoted, and
an exhaustive index have been appended.

Microscopical Slides of Lichens.— Messrs. Holmes and Joshua's
first fasciculus of a series of microscopical slides of British lichens,
announced some time since,* has now been issued. The fasciculus
* See this Journal, i. (1878) p. 379.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 605

contains 48 slides, very neatly mounted and secured in a suitable
box. These slides are intended to illustrate groups of lichens, and to
be of use also in teaching amateurs and beginners the outlines of
lichenology by making the appearance of the different parts of
lichens familiar to the eye. Special care has been taken to exhibit
the final organs of reproduction — the spores — of much use in determin-
ing the systematic position of lichens; and we may venture to sug-
gest that a similar attention to tlie eax'lier stages of the reproductive
organs and the thallus would improve futui'e fasciculi. A consider-
able number of the sj)ecimens are rare, or recently discovered in
Britain, and from this point of view will be interesting to the expert
lichenologist Such a series as this must be of more use to the
microscopist for the purposes of reference than the illustrations of
any lichenological work we know of. We have had the opportunity
of examining, at the British Museum, a parallel series of slides of
Alga) and Hepaticfe.

Algae.

Structure and Mode of Reproduction of Cutleriacese.* — The
history of development of the Cutleriaceae has been carefully fol-
lowed out by Reinke in the cases of Cutleria multifida, Zanardinia
collaris, and Aglaozonia reptans.

As regards the vegetative development, he finds that the margin
of the thallus becomes dissociated into a number of thi-eads, which
he calls " cilia," a term obviously open to objection. At the basal
part of these threads is a meristem ; and here the threads coalesce
into a solid thallus. The increase in breadth of the frond is due
to branching of these threads. The reproductive organs of Cutleria,
Reinke terms autheridia and oogonia. The former, arranged in
groups on the thallus, are septated chambers placed on a multi-
cellular pedicel. The antherozoids are formed in pairs in a cell.
The oogonia, which occur on separate plants, are far less numerous.
They resemble the antheridia in form and arrangement, but are
considerably larger. From them are developed sixteen or thirty-
two oospheres, which escape in the form of biciliated swarmspores,
to which the antherozoids attach themselves and disappear, probably
becoming absorbed in the substance of the swarmspores. These
lose their cilia and secrete a cellulose envelope ; their further
development has scarcely been traced. Thuret found the swarm-
spores germinate without assistance from the antherozoids. The
development of the thallus of Zanardinia agrees with that of Cutleria.
In addition to the sexual organs Reinke found "neutral spores"
formed in unicellular sporangia, which break up into four or six
pear-shaped swarmspores. The antherozoids force their way into the
oosphere, which then germinates. In Aglaozonia no sexual organs
were found, but non-sexiial sporangia similar to those of Zanardinia.

These observations, and those of Gobel on Ectocarpus j seem to

* ' Nova Acta Leop.-Carol. Akad. Naturf.,' xl. p. 37 ; see ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii.
(1879) p. 142.

t ' Bot. Zeit.,' 1878, Nos. 12, 13.
VOL. II. 2 s

606 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

indicate that the Pligeosporese form a connecting link between tho
Zygosporeee and the Oosporea^.

New Parasitic Alga.* — J. Kiihn has made the interesting disco-
very of an alga parasitic on the leaves of Arisarum vulgare (^Arum
Arlsarum) in the neighbourhood of Mentone and Nice.

On otherwise normally developed leaves, specks were observed of
a roundish form, usually 10 or 12 millimetres in diameter, having
all the ajipearance of a parasitic fungus. Closer examination showed,
however, that the parasite consists of filaments always densely filled
with chlorophyll-grains ; in fact, that it is an alga nearly allied to
Vaucheria, and propagating in the same way, by the whole contents
of the cell breaking up into microgonidia, which remain for a con-
siderable period in a dormant condition. The author proposes for it
the name Phyllosiplion Arisari. He considers the discovery to be of
considerable interest from a systematic point of view, in forming a con-
necting link between the two sections of Sachs's subclass Coeloblastas,
those containing chlorophyll, viz. the Siphonete, and those destitute
of chlorophyll, the Saprolegniepe and Peronosporefe. It is a very
interesting addition to the small number at present known of truly
parasitic algae.

Siphonocladaceae, a new Group of Green Algae.t — In a descriptive
article of the green alga? of the Gulf of Athens, T. Schmitz describes
a new species and genus under the name Sijjhonodadiis Wilbergi, which
he proposes as the type of a new group, the Siphonedadacece, to
include a number of genera of hitherto imcertain affinity, viz.
Chcetomorpha, Cladophora, Pitliopliora, Microdictijon, Anadyomene,
Valonia, Botrydium, and Struvea.

The characters of the proposed group are to be found in the
structure of the thallus, but still more in that of the protoj)lasmic
cell-contents. The parietal primordial utricle is sometimes, though
not always, furnished with a number of reticulate and anastomosing
strings which run across the cell-cavity ; imbedded in this are a number
of small, flat chlorophyll-grains of irregular angular form and very
variable size, which multiply by bipartition. The parietal protoplasm
invariably contains a number of nuclei, scarcely distinguishable by
their refractive power, but only by the application of reagents. The
vitality of the protoplasm shows a remarkable power of resistance to
external influences. As the mode of reproduction is not at present
known in all the genera, and presents a variety of differences where
it is known, it is probable that the group may hereafter be broken up
into several subdivisions. In Cladophora and Botrydium non-sexual
macrozoospores and sexual microzoospores are described ; in ChMo-
morpJia, Anadyomene, Valonia, and Siphonodadas, only zoospores of
one kind ; in Microdidyon and Pithophora no organs of the kind
have yet been detected. The bodies described by Wittrock in the
last genus as "spores," Schmitz believes to be gemmai of peculiar
form ,

* ' SB. Nat. Gesell. Halle,' 1878; see 'Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 322.
t Ibid., Nov. 30, 1878 ; see ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 167.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 607

Resting- Condition pf Vaucheria geminata.* — It has long been
known tliat the unicellular vegetative thallus of various species of
Vaucheria is liable to segmentation as the result of injury, the attacks
of parasites, &c. In addition to this, in certain circumstances they
are capable of undergoing a change, visible to the naked eye by the
brighter green colour by which it is accompanied, in which the fila-
ments become divided into a large number of cells of nearly equal
size by thick gelatinous septa. In this state they form the genus
Gongrosira of systematic works.

E. Stahl has made a special study of this condition of Vaucheria
geminata. The Gongrosira is multiplied by the production of fila-
ments from the various cells. A not unfrequent phenomenon is also
the escape of the entire contents of one of the cells siu'rounded with
cellulose, which thereupon proceeds to germinate. But more common
is the breaking up of the protoplasm of a cell into a variable number
of portions, at first, as they escape from the mother-cell, enclosed in
a thin membrane, which subsequently swells up and bursts. The
separate portions of the protoplasm then move about with an amoeboid
motion, slowly creeping over the substratum. The motion ulti-
mately ceases, the protoplasm assumes a spherical form, and clothes
itself with a thin membrane. All these changes may take place, and
the resting-cyst be formed, even within the mother-cell. These cysts
sometimes develop immediately into new filaments, but more often
they remain for a time in a resting condition, in which they entirely
lose their green colour. Their germination is marked by the re-
appearance of chlorophyll.

This condition of Vaucheria bears a striking resemblance to one
of the forms of another of the Siphonese, Botrydium, described by
Rostafinski and Boronin.

Italian Algae.— The first volume (1878) of the ' Atti della Societa
Crittogamologica Italiana ' is chiefly occupied by Ardissone's study of
the Italian Algae belonging to the family Rhodomelacese, which
comprises the genera Chondriopsis, Acanthophora, Alsidium, Digenea,
Pohjsiphonia, Hytipjhloea, Vidalia, Dasi/a,aTid Hanovia. Oi Poh/siphonia
alone there are forty-eight species. The volume includes besides a
description of a new form of Melosira Borrerii, by F. Castracane ; an
enumeration of the diatoms collected at Ostia, by M. Lanzi (a
little over 100 species, no novelties) ; and a diagnosis of the genera
belonging to the family Hypocreacefe of Pyrenomycetes, by P. A.
Saccardo, several of them new.

Subalpine Desmidiese. — The last part of the 'Mem. della real.
Accad. delle Scienze di Torino,' vol. xxs. 2nd ser., is occupied by the
continuation of J. B. Delponte's ' Specimen Desmidiacearum siib-
alpinarum,' the first part of which was published in 1876. It is
intended to be supplemented by additions to our knowledge of the
subject which have come to hand since the publication of the first
part. The present part is illustrated with fifteen plates, and the
whole will form a magnificent monograph of the subalpine Desmi-
* ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 129.

2 S 2

608

RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

diere, and will include the descrijition of a very large number of new
species.

Algae from Lake Nyas?a.* — Dr. G. Dickie describes in a paper to
the Linnean Society some Algas collected
by Dr. Laws, of the Livingstonia Mission,
Lake Nyassa, East Africa, all the genera
of which are well-known European, &c.,
forms.

Of the Diatomaceae thirty-two species
are enumerated, nearly all of which are
also very widely diffused elsewhere ; the
exceptions are few, Diadesmis for in-
stance, hitherto confined to the West
Indies.

The only peculiar form is Epithemia
clavata^ n. sp. : — " Mediocris, plus minusve
clavata, apicibus rotundato-obtusis, costis
validis subparallelis, 15 in • 001 ; latere
superiore (dorso) convexo, inferiore subrecto.
Long. = • 001 — • 007 poll." It was more
or less plentiful on aquatic Phgenogams,
but especially on Spirogyra. The clavate
form at once distinguishes it from any
known species ; at first sight it has a resem
blance to SiirireUa (see figures). The striae
projier are not represented here; they are
30 in -001.

Epithemia clavata.
A, frontal ; B, lateral view
C, small frustule in outline
all " greatly ruagniflcd."

Thallus of the Diatomacese.t — Mr. J. Deby differs from the
observations of Dr. Lanzi on this subject referred to in a paper by
Mr. Kitton, which will be found on p. 38. What Dr. Lanzi describes
as the " thallus," and as forming part of the living matter of the
diatom is, Mr. Deby points out, nothing beyond what has been hitherto
a matter of common observation, no species during a part at least of
its existence being without a thin protecting envelope resting directly
on the external surface of the siliceous envelope, and often so hyaline
that to see it it is necessary to employ chemical reagents. The
" thallus " is, in fact, nothing but an exudation, a special secretion.

He also considers that the " spores " which Dr. Lanzi found
enveloped in the thallus are either granules of endochrome, drops of
oil, &c., or unicellular algae common in all stagnant waters, and which
are often met with enveloped in a mucous mass similar to that
described by Dr. Lanzi.

Mr. Deby still further doubts the assertion of Dr. Lanzi as to his
having found a diatom in all its intermediate states from small spores
up to frustules arrived at complete matui-ity, and asks for additional
proofs of such assertions ; the proper proof he considers would be to
follow step by stej}, without discontinuing the observation, tlie exist-

* ' Journ. Liun. See. (Bot.),' xvii. (1879) p. 281.
t ' Brebissonia," i. (1879) p. 113.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 609

ence of an isolated individual from the moment of its birth to its com-
l)lete transformation and maturity.

In a subsequent paper * Dr. Lanzi replies to M. Petit's criticisms
and reaffirms his belief in the correctness of his previous observations.

Systematic Position of the Volvocinese.t — M. E. Maupas criticizes
in a recent number of the ' Coinptes Eendus ' the view put forward
by Stein (in his ' Flagellate Infusoria '), that the Volvocineae are
Infusoria, thus returning to Ehrenberg's opinion and reopening the
old discussions which after the researches of Cohn might be supposed
to have been closed for ever.

According to Stein the true criterion which distinguishes a
Protozoon from a Protophyte is the presence of vibratile flagella, con-
tractile vacuoles, and a nucleus combined in one organism. The
Protozoa alone combine these three, and it is upon this view that
he excludes the Volvocinefe from the vegetable kingdom, and places
them among the Flagellate Infusoria.

M. Maupas considers Stein's criteria to be without value, the three
characteristics being found in algfc, whose vegetable nature Stein
would not venture to dispute.

Everyone knows that all zoospores are provided with vihratile
cilia.

As to the contractile vacuole it is astonishing that such an exact
and generally well-informed observer as Stein should still deny the
existence of this organ in the vegetable kingdom. It has been seen
by Leitgeb, De Bary, Fresenius, Strasburger, Dodel-Port, and Cien-
kowski, in the zoospores of the Saproleguieae, Myxomycetes, Ulothrix,
&c., and the writer himself has observed it in Microspora floccosa and
Stigeoclonium tenue, and is satisfied that it would be found in many
other zoospores if the research was made with sufficiently high
powers and in good conditions of observation ; at any rate the
numerous facts already established are sufficient to disprove Stein's
assertion.

"With regard to the nucleus, Stein in denying its existence in the
zoospores of algae is no doubt in accord with most authorities. All
observers who since Thuret have studied these organisms have failed
to discover a nucleus, and Strasburger very recently J allows that the
nucleus of the zoospores of Ulothrix does n(,t exist during its free life
and is reconstituted at the moment of germination. M. Maupas,
however, by using methods of observation which he has long employed
for the study of the nucleus and nucleolus of the Infusoria, has
succeeded in discovering a very clearly defined nucleus in the zoospores
of Microspora floccosa, and of an CEdogonium.

He places a small drop charged with zoospores of Microspora on a
piece of glass, covering it with the cover-glass and sucking out water
so that the zoospores should be somewhat compressed and rendered
nearly immovable ; he then cements with paraffin two of the
opposite margins of the cover-glass and draws under it a drop of

* ' Brebissonia,' i. (1879) p. 129.

t 'Coinptes Rcudub,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 1274.

X ' Bot. Zeit.,' April 25, 1879, p. 274.

61 0 EECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

alcohol by sucking out the water with blotting-paper, by which means
the zoospores are killed suddenly. The alcohol is then replaced by
water, and that by saturated carmine. At the end of some minutes
the latter is sucked out by blotting-paper, and replaced by Avater, and
that finally by crystallized acetic acid which instantaneously clarifies
the objects. There can then be seen in the rostral region of the
zoosj)ores a small spherical nucleus coloured an intense red and very
clearly defined, the rest of the body remaining very pale. As acetic
acid is very volatile, it is only necessary to place at the side of the
cover-glass a drop of glycerine, which penetrates and replaces the
acid which has evaporated, preserving the form of the zoospores ; a
preparation is thus made which on being sealed down will be
permanent.

For the zoospores of the CEdogonium the process is somewhat
difi'erent ; they are killed by exposing the drop of water for a minute
to the vapours of a 1 per cent, solution of osmic acid, and then
cemented beneath the cover-glass by paraffin, coloured by carmine,
and clarified by acetic acid and glycerine ; the action of the carmine
should be more prolonged than with the alcohol method. The
nucleus, situated at the median region of the body rather nearer the
posterior end, appears as a small sphere coloured red.

These zoospores were killed during their period of mobility — the
nuclei could not be confused with the amylaceous corpuscles which are
met with in many of the Volvocineas by the side of the true nucleus,
as the corpuscles are never coloui'ed red in preparations prepared as
above — we have therefore a true nucleus combined with vibratile cilia
and contractile vacuoles.

The two algae studied have zoospores of two different types, those
of Microspora being flagellated, and of CEdogonium furnished with a
crown of vibratile cilia, and M. Maupas is persuaded that if the
zoospores of other algse are examined they will all be found to have
a nucleus.

MICEOSCOPY, &c.

Corrosion as a Histological Method.*— The process of corrosion
has been applied with considerable success to anatomical preparations.
Dr. Eichard Altmann, of Geissen, now proposes to apply the process
to the investigation of certain microscoi)ical structures.

The method adopted is, in the first place, to impregnate the tissue,
or to inject its vessels, with olive or castor oil, then to place it in
osmic acid until the oil is hardened and blackened, and finally to
transfer it to a solution of potassium or sodium hyjwchlorite (eau de
Javelle), which completely destroys the tissue, the fatty material being
left, and retaining the form of the vessels or spaces into which it was
injected.

Thin membranes may be placed, immediately after injection, into
osmic acid, but as that reagent has very little penetrating pov/er, large
organs have to be frozen, thin sections of them cut, and these sections

* ' Airh. Mikr. Anat.," xvi. (1879) p. 471.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 611

placed iu the acid until properly hardened. An immersion of
twenty-four hours in 1 per cent, osmic acid is recommended.

During the actual process of corrosion it is advisable to place the
section, or other fragment of tissue, in a glass vessel, so that it may
be examined from time to time, under a low magnifying power, by
transmitted light. This is rendered necessary by the fact, that if the
hypochlorite is allowed to act after the tissues have been eaten away,
it begins to act upon the blackened fat itself, discolouring and finally
disintegrating it.

When the section has been acted upon for the right time, it is
taken out of the fluid on a lifter of platinum foil, any hypochlorite
adheriug to it is removed with bibulous paper, and it is then ex-
amined in glycerine. A good deal of care is required in manipulat-
ing the sections, as they become by corrosion extremely tender,
although the osmic acid imparts a really astonishing firmness and
elasticity to the olive oil.

The eau de Javelle may be diluted, either for the j)urpose of
watching the stages of the process of corrosion, or in the case of very
delicate structures, which would be destroyed by a strong solution.

The method of oil injection and subsequent corrosion is very
satisfactory for demonstrating the blood-vessels of the kidney, and
those of the iris and choroid ; with the latter it is esj)ecially useful,
as the i^igment which interferes with the examination of an ordinary-
injection is removed. In some cases also the oil will extra vasate, fill
all the cell-spaces in the tissues, and thence pass to the lymphatics.
Good preparation of the minutest lymph-capillaries may thus be
obtained in such cases as the frog's-skin and mesentery, the cornea of
Triton, and the periosteum of the skull of mammals. In the latter
case the injection is best performed by a pressure of about 3 metres
of oil applied for 12 to 24 hours.

When tissues are to be impregnated instead of injected with oil,
a special modus operandi is employed. The oil is mixed with half its
volume of absolute alcohol, and with as much ether as suffices to
make the mixture clear when shaken — usually about the same quantity
of ether as of alcohol is required. A fluid is thus obtained which will
take up a certain quantity of water, but which, if this quantity be
exceeded, undergoes a separation of its constituents. Instead of
olive oil, alcohol, and ether, a mixture of two parts of castor oil with
one of alcohol may be employed ; the oil being soluble in all propor-
tions in alcohol, the addition of ether is rendered unnecessary.
Larger pieces of tissue, and smaller quantities of fluid, may be used
with the latter than with the former mixture.

In either case, the tissue is placed in the oil mixture for 5 to 8
days. It is then transferred to water in order to precipitate the fat
in the interstices of the tissue, and to wash away any that may be
adhering to the surface. Next the tissue is placed for 24 hours in a
1 per cent, solution of osmic acid, and finally corroded with aqua
Javelli, and mounted in glycerine.

Altmann has employed this method for the investigation of
medullated nerve, striped muscle, epithelia, cornea, choroid, and retina.

612 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The memoir is illustrate! by three plates, which show the very
striking effects iiroduced by the corrosion process : two of his figures
are reproduced on Plate XVIII.

Plate XVIII. Fig. 1. — Kidney of rabbit. Injected from renal

artery with olive oil, frozen, treated with osmic acid and

aqua Javelli ( X 100). The large veins are seen accompanied

by the finer arteries, ou the branches of which are the glomeruli ;

one of these is filled with the blackened fat ; the vasa efferentia

are seen to j^ass into the capillaries.
Fig. 2. — Vessels of iris of tortoise. Injected from aorta with

olive oil, and treated with osmic acid and aqua Javelli (x 10).

The circlet of vessels is complete, but separated in j)reparation.

From a photograph.

Staining-fluids * — Prof. H. Grenadier publishes a notice of some
new methods of staining, which he considers superior to those already
known, especially as applied to nuclei.

1. Alum- carmine. —A 1 to 5 per cent, solution of common or ammo-
nia alum in water is boiled for 10 to 20 minutes with ^ to 1 per cent, of
powdered carmine, and the solution filtei*ed when cold. The solution
is of a rich red colour, inclining to jmrple, and, when concentrated,
stains a section in 5 to 10 minutes. Sections, when washed in water
for a coujile of minutes after staining, have a purple or lilac colour ,
the staining also is less difiuse, and more confined to the nuclei, than
in the case of the ordinary solution of carmine, or picrocarmine. It
also has the advantage of not overstainiug even if a section is left in
it for a whole day, and if it dries up by evaporation (in a watch-glass
for instance), the addition of a little water will render it once more
ready for use — no precipitate being produced. It is advisable to add
a few drops of some antiseptic, such as carbolic acid, to the solution :
it will then keej) for years.

2. Borax-carmine. — A 1 to 2 per cent, aqueous solution of borax is
boiled with i to f per cent, of powdered carmine. To the dark purple
solution acetic acid is continuously added, drop by drop, with con-
stant shaking, until a bright red colour is attained. It is then
filtered, or, as it filters very slowly, allowed to stand, and decanted.

Tliis solution stains sections very rajiidly, in from ^ to 3 minutes,
but quite uniformly. If, however, they are washed with water, and
placed in a watch-glass of 50 to 70 per cent, alcohol, containing a drop
of hydrochloric acid, the colouring matter is removed from all parts
of the tissue except the nuclei, which remain deeply stained.

3. Alcoholic-carmine. — To 50 cub. centim. of strong alcohol (60 to 80
per cent.) 3 or 4 drops of HCl are added, as much powdered carmine
as will lie on the point of a knife is added, and the whole boiled for 10
minutes, and filtered when cold. The exact projiortion of carmine
and acid depend upon the quality of the former. If a section placed
in the fluid stains in 5 to 10 minutes uniformly, there is not sufficient
acid, and more must be added. If after standing for some days the
solution acquires a yellowish-red colour, too much acid has been

* 'Arch. Mikr. Aiiat.,' xvi. (,1879) p. 463.

JOUR "R.MIC.SOC.VOL.II.Pl.JCIX.

Kidney of RabJoit .

Ins of Tortoise

Westl/eAvmofv&iCc.'lUh..

Corrosion as an Histolo gical Method.

INVERTEBEATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

613

added, and tlie excess must be neutralized by cautious addition of
ammonia.

After staining, the sections must be rinsed in alcohol, not in water:
also if the solution be too strong it must be diluted with alcohol, as
water precipitates the carmine.

4. Purpurin. — About as much purpurin as will lie on the point of
a knife is boiled in 50 c. c. of glycerine, the latter may be concen-
trated, or may have a little water added to it. The resulting orange-
red fluorescent solution is allowed to stand for two or three days, and
is then filtered. Unlike Eanvier's solution of purpurin, it may be
kept for months without precipitation.

All the above fluids are stated to be quite permanent in the case
of balsam jjreparations : if glycerine is used as the mounting fluid it
should be slightly acidulated.

Dr. Seller's Staining Processes.*^Dr. Carl Seller, continuing the
l)aper which we referred to at p. 329, gives the details of two pro-
cesses, which he has found to be so universally successful that he has
discarded all others.

The first is a simple carmine solution (published by Dr. J. J.
Woodward in the ' Lens '), and is made as follows : —

Best carmine (No. 40) gr. xv.

Borax 5i.

Water fl. .^vss.

Alcohol (95 per cent.) fl. ^xi.

Mix and filter, dissolve the crystals in 8 ounces of distilled water,
and evaporate over a water bath to 4 ounces.

Sections placed in this fluid will become stained very evenly in a
few seconds, and be of a violet red when removed. They are then
immersed in a solution of

Hydrochloric acid 1 part.

Alcohol 4 parts.

until they assume a bright rose colour, which appears in a very few
seconds. The sections are then well washed in several changes of
alcohol, after which they are ready for mounting.

A specimen thus treated exhibits only the nuclei with the granules
stained, while the cell-contents and fibrous tissue are not tinted.
This is, in many cases, of great advantage, as a much clearer picture
results than if the colouring matter is also seen in the non-nucleated
structures, and the nuclei are marked only by a deeper staining. If,
however, for purposes of diagnosis, it is desirable to stain the con-
tents also, this can be accomplished by using a concentrated solution
of oxalic acid in alcohol, or by employing a very weak solution of
hydrochloric acid after the specimen has been stained.

The second is a double staining with carmine and indigOn The
sections are first stained with carmine as described above, care being
taken to wash all traces of acid out of the tissues ; they are then im-
mersed in a solution of two drops of sulphindigotate of soda solution
in one ounce of 95 per cent, alcohol, which should be filtered before
* 'Am. Quart. Micr. Journ.,' i. (1879) p. 220.

614 EECOKD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

using, and are left tberciu from six to eighteen hours, according to
the rajiidity with which the elements take uj) the indigo. When
sufficiently stained the sections are placed in strong alcohol, and are
ready for mounting.

The sulphindigotate of soda solution is prepared, according to the
process devised by Mr. Bullock, by first digesting best Bengal indigo
with Nordhausen sulphuric acid. The excess of acid is then removed
by washing, the colouring matter precipitated with chloride of
sodium, and left standing for several days. The precipitate is then
separated from the mother liquor by filtering through flannel,
and the excess of chloride of sodium washed out by pouring cold
water through the filter until the colouring matter begins to dissolve.
The washing is then stopped, and the precipitate dissolved in warm
distilled water to saturation, which makes a solution of a deep
greenish-blue colour.

The efifect of this mode of staining is to leave the nuclei bright
red, while the formed material of the cell is slightly tinged with
blue. The connective tissue fibres become stained with a deep blue
colour, while the blood-vessels are purplish and mapped out with
surprising distinctness. Epithelium and hair take this staining in a
very curious manner, inasmuch as the cells of different ages take
different colours, ranging from a brilliant emerald-green to purple-
violet and olive-green, thus affording a valuable means of differentia-
tion, especially in epitheliomas, where the so-called j^earls are brought
out with great distinctness, being of a different colour from the rest of
the cells.

This process seems somewhat troublesome, especially if the
microscopist attempts to make the indigo solution himself. But, even
if it should jirove so, the result obtained is well worth the pains
taken, and fully repays the outlay of time and patience bestowed
upon it.

Isolation of the Optic Nerve Fibres and Ganglion Cells of the
Mammalian Retina.* — Dr. George Thin, in an article in the ' Journal

of Anatomy and Physiology,' says that the isolation of the ganglion
cells and optic nerve fibres of the retina has certainly not been found
by histologists to be invariably an easy task, and he can testify from
experience that methods which are well fitted for the observation and
study of other parts of the retina, destroy the processes of the
ganglion cells and the nerve fibres. Max Schultze has acknowledged
this difficulty in his article on the r tina in Strieker's ' Handbuch,'
iniblished in 1872. Dr. Thin is induced, therefore, to believe that
the publication of a method by which he found the isolation of these
elements singularly easy, may be considered justifiable.

The method holds good for the retina of the cat and the sheep ;
but there can be little doubt that it will prove equally useful in the
case of many other mammalia. His observations have been limited
to the eyes of these two animals.

It is well known that if a sheep's eye be placed in a sufficient

* ' Joui-n. Anat. and Phys.' (Humphry), xiii. (1879) p. 139.

INVERTEBKATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 615

quantity of alcohol for twenty-four hours, and at the end of that time
be laid open, and the retina be then examined in glycerine, the optic
nerve fibres and ganglion cells will be found more or less well
preserved. But it is a matter of no small importance to regulate the
strength of the alcohol, and diluted alcohol will be found more useful
than strong alcohol. A mixture of equal parts of methylated alcohol
and water is a strength that he used for some time, with such excel-
lent results that he adhered to it during most of the time that he was
engaged in examining this part of the retina ; but latterly he found
that, in most respects, a weaker strength secured as good preparations,
and for some purposes produced better ones. For the preservation of
ihe processes of the ganglion cells, mixtures of one part of methylated
alcohol with two of water, and of one of methylated alcohol with three
of water, are peculiarly well adapted. The fibres of the optic nerve
expansion are well seen, whichever of these strengths is used. They
may be isolated in great numbers, and for great lengths, after the
bulb has been in equal parts of water and alcohol. When only a
fourth strength of alcohol was employed, the nerve fibres were, unless
well teased out, slightly obscured by adherent granules — probably
the remains of connective substance of the layer.

"When the strengths of a third and a fourth were used, the bulb
was allowed to remain in the fluid for thirty-six or forty-eight
hours.

Although both the ganglion cells and the nerve fibres in eyes,
treated by the above methods, can be examined at once in glycerine,
it may be found advantageous to subject the retina to other processes,
through which the hardened nerve elements can now pass without
injury. It may be placed first in water for a short time, and then
may remain overnight in staining fluids, and finally be examined and
preserved in glycerine, or, after being stained, it may be passed
through alcohol and oil of cloves, and preserved in dammar varnish.
The glycerine preparations show both the fibres of the optic nerve
expansion and the ganglion cells. The dammar preparations are
useful as permanent specimens of the nerve fibres. In either case
some careful manipulation with needles is necessary to disentangle
the nerve fibres, a process which is particularly troublesome in the
dammar prejiarations. Of all the staining fluids tried, a solution in
water of aniline blue was found to be by far the best. For the nerve
fibres aniline blue alone is sufficient ; for the ganglion cells a double
staining with aniline blue and eosin is useful.

Eyes which have been placed in alcohol, as above directed, may
be preserved for a long period in glycerine without the nerve fibres
or ganglion cells sufi"eriug in the least. The effect of the glycerine
by its affinity for water is to produce a complete collapse of the eye-
ball. The lens preserving the shape of the anterior part of the bulb,
the posterior half is doubled up into the anterior half, forming a
cavity at the bottom of which is the stump of the optic nerve. It is
thus possible to prepare eyes at any time, and keep them ready for
examination. He had excellent preparations of the optic nerve fibres
and ganglion cells from the eye of a kitten, which, after being twenty-

616 RECOKD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

four hours in equal parts of metliylated alcohol and water, had been
kei>t sixteen months in glycerine.*

Preparation of Diatoms in situ : means of avoiding Air-
bubbles. f — M. Petit, referring to the process of Brebisson of preparing
Odontidium Tabellaria, viz. by placing the filaments on thin glass
or mica, and heating on a plate of platinum, says that this presents
serious difficulties to amateurs who regard the beauty and cleanness
of their preparations. In the first place, it is rare tliat we are able
to carry the calcining sufficiently far to completely destroy the cel-
lulose, which reduced simply to charcoal blackens the frustules ;
secondly, preparations thus calcined are with difficulty penetrated by
Canada balsam, even although care may have been taken to make it
sufficiently fluid by the addition of an essential oil, &c. ; thirdly, in
calcining on the cover-glass only one of the faces of the diatom is
ordinarily seen, whilst it is often essential in determining the
species to see the two aspects.

He therefore proposes the following method to get rid of these
inconveniences. He places the diatoms (previously washed in fresh
water if they are marine) in concentrated cold nitric acid for twelve
hours ; this time is sufficient to " nitrify " the cellulose, without destroy-
ing it or dislocating the filaments After sufficient washing, they are
j)laced on the cover-glass, and calcined to a red heat on a plate of
platinum until the deposit has become white ; it is then easy to make
dry preparations in which there is no deposit of charcoal ; for in this
case the cellulose, owing to the action of the nitric acid, is destroyed
without aiii)reciable residue.

To avoid bubbles of air with Canada balsam, he makes use of oil
of lavender, jjlacing a small drop, after the calcination and when the
preparations have got cold, on the cover-glass ; this infiltrates into
all the cavities, and facilitates the penetration of the balsam. The
cover-glass should then be j^laced on a drop of balsam deposited on
the elide, and heat applied with a spirit lamjj, so as to di'ive away the
oil of lavender and to evaporate a part of the balsam.

In order to ijrejjare diatoms in situ in their various aspects on one
slide, he boils about the third part of the collection, and mixes this,
after washing, with the two other parts, treated with cold nitric acid
as above mentioned, and thus obtains excellent preparations containing
both diatoms m situ and those separated, which is of great advantage
for study.

Mechanical Turntables,^ — Mr. Spencer Eolfe, referring to Mr.
Rogers' electrical mounting table,§ says that some time since he

* The method is one tliat rniglit be used for the examination of the retina of
rare animals when the eyes have to be procured from a distance. After the
remarkable observation of the anastomosis of the ganglion cells of the elephant's
retina by Corti, to which there has been as yet no parallel, a further examination
of the retina of that animal is very deskable. The eyes of elephants in a condi-
tion suitable for such an examination are not easily procurable, but by the use
of the above method available specimens might be had from India.

t ' Brebissonia,' i. (1879) p. 121. % ' English Mechanic,' xxix. (1879) p. 139.

§ This Journal, ii. (1879) p. 4G9.

mVERTEBKATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 617

tliouglit he would apply clockwork to a table, but on considering the
matter, it seemed unnecessary to give it a continuous motion, as a slide
can be ringed in a very short time, and the table must then be stopped
to remove it. He therefore adopted a method which he considers
simpler, more convenient, and less costly.

The milled portion which is used to spin an ordinary turntable is
replaced by a small cog-wheel, and in a horizontal slot in the maho-
gany support, in a line with this wheel and gearing into it, is a
segment of about one-sixth of a cog-wheel, say 4i inches diameter ; this
segment is continually pressed by a strong spring to the left-hand side,
against a small indiarubber stop, and has then moved so far as to be
out of gear with the small wheel, and plenty of clearance. A trigger
in the form of a hook, working vertically in the mahogany — the hook
catching the lower side of the segment when pushed over — completes
the arrangement. The action is as follows : — The segment is pushed
over and is held by the catch, the slide bsing in position. On placing
the hand holding the brush on the support, the catch is released, the
segment flies round, carrying the table round in the opposite dii-ection ;
and clearing it, the table continues to revolve. If we could only
manage to remove and replace the slides, a moderately well-balanced
and weighty table would turn a sufficient time to ring, perhaps, five or
six slides.

Improved Turntables * — Mr. Eolfe also communicates the fol-
lowing (the apparatus having been exhibited at a recent meeting of
the Quekett Microscopical Club) : — My object has been to remove the
following objections which I have experienced whilst using the ordi-
nary turntable. A slide having been partly finished and allowed to
dry, it is very difficult to replace it with the cell or ring of varnish
perfectly centered, and indeed with great practice such can only be
done by a considerable expenditure of time and patience. Again,
should a very delicate object be mounted, it is very often driven with
the rush of fluid near the outside of the cell, and unless the finishing
ring of varnish can be put on correctly it stands great chance of being
covered by it. With only the springs to hold the slide it is constantly
shifting about, and I have found it most annoying when, as has
frequently happened, I have spoilt a carefully mounted object from
this cause.

My first endeavour to avoid these disadvantages is shown in
Fig. 1. It consists of a parallel system of levers, actuating two clii>s,
working in slots in the table, each clip embracing one corner of the
slide. The clips are constantly drawn together by an elastic spring.
I found this work admirably for a time, but by wear the slides were
not correctly centered, and I found moreover that nearly every slide I
used was a trifle out of square, and it was therefore necessary to take
care that the same corners were always engaged by the same clips.
This fact gave me the idea of a far simpler and equally efficient turn-
table, shown in Fig. 2. The top A has two small pins B B pro-
jecting about the thickness of a glass slide, and diagonally opposite

* 'Englisli Mechanic,' xxix. (1879) p. 365.

618

EECOED OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

these is a catcli C, a piu from wliich projects through a slot in the
table, anrl is drawn towards the centre by a spring, shown dotted.
This I find acts admirably in every way, and provided the slide to be

Fig. 1.

re-ringed has been previously ringed in it, it will always go back truly
centered. The stops B B are placed in such a position that the centre
of the slide is a little out of truth with the centre of the table, and it

is then seen in a moment, when a slide is placed in the clip, if the
right corners are engaged, and if not correct it only requires reversing
end for end. Glass cannot be held in a rigid grip, and I find the

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 619

pressure given by common elastic bands admirable, and they can be
renewed at a nominal cost.

The two holes shown in both the tables are to take springs in
order to be able to use it in the usual way for old slides. I have
found it of great advantage to make the support for the hand (not
shown in the figures) slide back so as to be able to take in exception-
ally large or deep cells.

Large Micro-photographs.* — Dr. S. Th. Stern says that to obtain
a micro-photograph on a large scale the screen of the camera has to be
placed at too great a distance from the objective for the operator to be
able to adjust the focus without complicated machinery for connecting
the fine adjustment with the camera which is uncertain in action,
troublesome to work, and of considerable cost. He dispenses with the
machinery by simj^ly placing a mirror behind the ground-glass screen.
The image thrown upon the screen is reflected in this mirror, and
may be viewed through an opera-glass by the operator as he stands by
the objective and adjusts it. The adjustment is effected by this
means with the greatest ease.

Dr. Sorby at Cambridge. — The following neat reference to
Dr. Sorby's labours made by the Public Orator at Cambridge on the
occasion of conferring the LL.D. degree, may appropriately find a
place in this Journal which numbers so many readers " qui minuta
ciiriositate arcana ilia quce oculorum aciem fugiunt instrumentorum novo-
rum auxilio perscrutantur " : —

" Quam magna est rerum natura, in magnis quam immensa,
in minimis quam magna ! Quam multa miracula, antiquis ignota,
illis nuper ostendit qui minuta curiositate arcana ilia qute oculo-
rum aciem fugiunt, instrumentorum novorum auxilio perscrutantur !
Hie autem ille est qui, et terrestrium et de cfelo delapsorum lapi-
dum investigandis elementis primis, primus inter Britannos talium
instrumentorum usum accommodavit. Nuper Societatis Geologicfe
presses electus, annorum triginta labores oratione cumulavit in
qua vere marmoreum sibi monumentum exegit.f Illud vero acutissi-
mum quod crystallis etiam minutissimis exploratis in quibus (ut fit)
pars altera est aquse plena, altera aeris quoque vacua, olim indicavit
qua potissimum caloris temperie inclusa ilia aqua totum illud vacuum
implere, quo potissimitm rerum statu saxum illud, quondam ignibus
prorsus liquidum, primum durescere potuisset. Scilicet crystallum
illud (ut Claudianus ait)

' Non potuit toto mentiri corpore gemmam,
Sed medio mansit proditor orbe latex
Auctu3 honos ; liquidi crescunt miracula sasi
Et conservatse plus meruistis aquae.'

Suo phaselo vectus quot maria mox lustrabit, in terra iara pridem
unum saltem Argonautarum, qui terram oculis penetrabat, eatenus
semulatis, quod in intima saxorum materia perspicienda, ipse oculo

* ' Zeitsch. Mikr.,' i. (1879) p. 321.

t In allusion to Dr. Sorby's Presidential Address "On the Structure and Origin
of Limestones."

620 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

potuit 'quantum contendere Lynceus.' Duco ad vos Henricum
Clifton Sorby."

Unit of Micrometry."' — Eeferring further to this subject, Professor
Eomyn Hitclicock points out that the resolution of the Tiuliauapolis
Congress did not deal as is sometimes supposed with a unit for micro-
meter-makers to subdivide, for which the -j i^ of a millimetre would
probably be the most appropriate subdivision, but with a unit in the
sense of the smallest whole number used in giving dimensions.

The xxfVo iiii^i-5 the so-called micromillimetre, or micra of the
French (designated /x), appears to him more suitable for the unit.
A few examples of its application may serve to support this view.

The diameter of a human blood-corpuscle is about 7 ■ 7 /x ( • 0077
mm,). In birds, the corpuscles measure from 12 to 14 fx in one
direction and from 6 to 8 /x in the other (-012 to -014 mm. x "006 to
• 008 mm.). The corpuscles of Proteus anguinus measure 58 fx, and
still larger are those of AtnjjMuma tridactjjlum, 175 /x ("058 and
•175 mm.).

If the reader will assume some other unit, as the cm., or mm., or
even the ^-J^ ™iii'5 ^^^ endeavour to express the same dimensions in
these terms, the advantage of the micra will, he thinks, be obvious.
With it a single decimal is sufficient for ordinary purposes.

Formation of the Paraboloid as an Illuminator for the Micro-
scope.!— In an article in the ' American Quarterly Microscopical
Journal ' Mr. Wenham gives some useful information relating to
practical methods of obtaining parabolic forms.

The glass parabolic illuminators are ground up to form by means
of templates. These may be accurately formed by a purely mechanical
method, based on the principle that every section of a cone taken in a
plane parallel to the opposite side, is a parabola. Proceed as follows : —

Fig. 1.

Turn a cone either of metal or hard wood, between the lathe centres,
then on the face plate (which of course should run quite true) chuck
the cone on one side, either by cement or clamps as shown in Fig. 1.

* ' Am. Quart. Micr. Journ.,' i. (1879) p. 235. t Ibid., p. 18G.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

621

Witli the slide rest take off tlie section a, remove the cone, and on
the jjarabolic face screw a well-flattened piece of sheet brass slightly
exceeding it in size ; back this uj) by a block of the same wood as the
cone ; fix both thereto by two countersunk screws passing through
holes drilled in the brass plate. The cone is now returned to the
lathe centres and the surplus piece of wood turned down, together with
the edge of the brass plate, by means of the slide rest till the cone is
again complete. A dead smooth file may then be held against the

Fig. 2.

Fig.

revolving cone ; this trims the edge of the contained template which
comes out as a true parabola. Unless this is made to match a parabolic
figure of known focus, it may be necessary to ascertain the focal point
of the blank parabola. This can be easily found as follows (Fig. 2) : —
Draw a line a equal to the diameter of the base of the parabola ; take
a perpendicular to this &, equal to the height from the base to the

Explanation of Figures.
Fig. 1. — A wooden cone clamped down by screws on to the face plate of a
lathe. The axis from which the cone was turned inclined in the direction shown.
The dotted section a is turned off parallel with the opposite side ; on the para-
bolic face the template is formed.

Fig. 2. — Method of finding the focal distance of a blank parabolic figure.
a. Diameter of base.
6. Distance from base to vertex.
d Half tlie semidiameter.
Connect (/ with end of 6 by line c ; a perpendicular from this, taken from d at
the point where it intersects the axis below the base, will be equal to the focal
distance below the vertex.

Fig. 3. — Outline of rectangular brass plate to form a template for paraboloid.
h. Focal distance.

a. Equal to focal distance above vertex of parabola.
Cross lines drawn at irregular but increasing distances, as shown, measure-
ments on the axis, by compasses, from a to each of these lines ; each line bisected
by the same measurements from the focus or point 6 describes the outline of a
parabola.

The dotted segment cf a circle is struck from the focus h representing a non-
immersion paraboloid.

VOL. II. 2 T

622 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

vertex ; from the termination of tlie perpendicular take a line c inter-
secting the half-diameter of the base line at d ; another line is set
off from this point at right angles to c ; the distance at the inter-
section of the axis beyond the base line will be the required focal
distance of the parabola.

To those not possessing the requisite tools, this method of cutting
out a temj^late, of course, cannot be available. The plan of drawing
with a square and piece of string, described in all elementary works
on geometry, is so irregular in its action, as to be iiseless for small
parabolas; bisection must therefore be resorted to, which by careful
manipulation gives a very true figure. This operation depends upon
the following property of a parabola : that any point taken on the axis
at a distance beyond the vertex equal to the distance of the focus
within it, to any transverse line on the axis, will be equidistant from
the same line to the focus. Proceed as follows : —

Provide a thin brass plate (Fig. 3) perfectly square and flat, of
sufficient size to enclose the required parabola for which it is to serve
as a template. In a centre line quite parallel with the sides, prick off
two equidistances, the directrix a without, and the focus h within
the vertex of the parabola. Draw a number of parallel lines at right
angles across the centre line ; these lines need not be set at any par-
ticular distance, but may be ruled at sight, taking the precaution of
setting them close together towards the vertex, and progressively in-
creasing the distance between tliem towards the base. With fine-pointed
dividers, take the distances of these lines on the axis from the directrix
or outside mark a in succession. For each measurement, shift the
point to the focus b within the vertex, and bisect the line from which
the distance was taken on both sides ; the intersection of all the lines
by the arcs from the focus will give the outline of a true parabola.
The crossing points are now to be dotted in with a thin, sharp-pointed
centre punch applied at the right spot under a hand magnifier. The
surplus brass is cut out with a fine saw, and the template carefully
filed up till the punch marks appear as sunk in the metal.

The block of glass if intended for a flat-topped or immersion para-
boloid, should have both its base and apex polished off to the right
thickness before it is cemented to the lathe-chuck with black sealing-
wax. By means of the rough edges of an old saw-file, ground on one
side and used with plenty of turpentine, the glass is turned away at a
very slow speed till it is seen apj^roximately to fit the temj^hite. The
edges of this are then slightly smeared with reddle and oil, and the
paraboloid fine turned with a keen edge, until the template marks it
evenly all over. In order to take out the rings left from the turning,
a block of brass, not larger than half an inch square, is traversed over
the revolving glass with coarse and then smoothing emery, till all
scratches disappear. The glass is then polished with a buff-stick, and
crocus and water, and finally a piece of hard beeswax is held against
it with finer crocus, in order to obtain the last degree of polish.

If the paraboloid is to be a non-immersion one with a cupped top,
it may be turned flat on the end till the required thickness is arrived
at and the hemispherical cavity roughly turned out to a half-circle

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 623

template till the centre is brought to the focus ; the cavity is then
finished in the same way as a concave lens. Finally, while rotating
in the lathe the paraboloid is perforated through the axis with a steel
drill and turpentine.

Paraboloids can be made true enough for most purposes if finished
as above described ; but if great accuracy is a desideratum, the figure
may be corrected after the rough turning by means of the following
appliance.

It is a property of the paraboloid that the face of every section
taken parallel to the axis, is an exact counterpart, and, in form, is the
same parabola. This enables us to verify and correct the figure.
From the further end of a base board, clamped to the bed of the lathe,
hinge a piece of board about two inches wide. Let this be so adjusted
that when the front edge is raised, the upper plane of the board falls
exactly parallel with the lathe centres. Rough file out a piece of sheet
brass, something like the template, to serve as a grinder. Lay this
on the face of the hinged piece of wood, and press it up on the revolv-
ing glass, smeared with fine emery and water. After a few turns,
lower the board and shift the brass grinder endways to another posi-
tion, either in or out. Eepeat this continually, occasionally turning
the brass over to equalize the sides. By this operation the parabolic
figures, of both the grinder and the glass, will soon correct each other.
Of course a piece of the swing board must be scooped out sufficiently
to admit nearly half the paraboloid.

In accordance with the above mode of procedure, the parabola is
originated and its size predetermined by the given focal distance.
The ordinary dry parabolic illuminator is usually made about 1 inch
focus ; for an immersion yL will do better ; but if this is to be used as
an animalcule-holder, ^^ will be found sufficient.

Black-Ground Illumination. — Mr. Wenham in the same article
says, that he has never seen minute organisms or animalcula so beau-
tifully displayed as by the truncated paraboloid described in a paper
published in the ' Transactions of the Microscopical Society of London '
in 1856. The paraboloid is mounted so as to be used also as an
animalculse cage or live box, the object to be placed in water on the
flat top, and confined by a thin glass cover ; rays from a lamp made
parallel to be sent in beneath, using a dry object-glass. The minutest
details are visible in their true colours on a black field. He is not
aware that anyone has provided himself with this piece of apparatus,
and the knowledge of its effects probably does not extend beyond the
half-dozen friends who have seen his demonstration.

Rotating Clips for Cheap Microscopes. *^ — The rotating stage,
when well made, is acknowledged to be a most imj)ortant and useful
addition to any Microscope. It has this objection, however, that
when well made it is expensive, and when badly made it is worthless.
Moreover, it adds considerably to the thickness of the stage, thus
interfering with the use of very oblique light.

* ' Am. Journ. Micr.,' iv. (1879) p. 93.

2 T 2

624

RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES, ETC,

In tlie new Microscope of Mr. George Wale these difficulties are
obviated by means of a rotating clip, shown in the annexed woodcut.

In this form the stage is circular, but immovable ; near the outer
edge of the stage, both on the upper and the under sides, are two
narrow circular grooves, in which slide two pins attached to a bar,
which lies beneath the stage (as shown in the figure) and which carries
the clips. To the middle of the bar is attached a spring, which keeps
the frame of the clips in place on the stage.

This arrangement not only allows the clips to rotate round the
stage, and thus permit the object to be placed in any direction as
regards the light, but it enables the microscopist to remove the clips
instantly from the stage, and thus leave a clear space for work when
the Microscope is used in a vertical position. The clips may also be
placed on the imder side of the stage, so as to hold the slide from
beneath. In this way light of the utmost degree of obliquity may be
used, as the stage then vii-tually has no thickness whatever.

Contrivance for holding Objects beneath the Stage.* — Dr. Phin
himself describes in his Journal the contrivance which we quoted
and figured under this heading (at p. 466) from an English con-
temporary. In addition to what is there said. Dr. Phin remarks that
another important feature of the sub-stage is that if the spriug clips
be made very light the arrangement serves as a safety stage, and the
most delicate slides may be used even by bunglers without danger of
having the slide or cover fractured.

* ' Am. Journ. Micr.,' iv. (1879) p. 92.

( 625 )

BIBLIOGKAPHY

OF INVERTEBEATA, CEYPTOGAMIA, MICEOSCOPY, &c.

including Embryology and Histology generally.

JOURNALS, TRANSACTIOXS, &c., received since the last number, the

CONTENTS OF WHICH ARE INCLUDED IN THE FOLLOWING BIBLIOGRAPHY.*

UNITED KINGDOM.
England.

Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Fifth Series, Vol. III., No. 18 ;

and Vol. IV., No. 19 (Jime-Jiily).
Entomologist, Vol. XII., Nos. 188-191, 192*. 193-4 (January-July).
Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, Vol. XV., Nos. 176*-178*, 179, 180*-181* ;

Vol. XVI., No. 182 (January-July).
Geological Magazine, N. S., Dec. II., Vol. VI., Nos. l*-3*, 4-7 (January-
July).
Grevillea, Vol. VII., No. 44 (June).
Hardwicke's Science-Gossip, Nos. 174-5 (June-July).
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology (Humphry), Vol. XIII., Part 4 (July).
Journal of Botany, N. S., Vol. VIII., Nos. 198-9 (June-July).
Midland Naturalist, Vol. II., Nos. 18-19 (June-July).

Monthly Journal of Science, Thnd Series, Vol. I., Nos. 66-G7* (June-July).
Naturalist, Vol. IV., Nos. 47-48 (June-July).

Nature, Vol. XX., No.-;. 499, 500*-l*, 502, 503*-4*, 505-8 (May 22-July 24).
Popular Science Review, N. S., Vol. III., No. 11 (July).
Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, N. S., Vol. XIX., No. 75

(July).
Zoologist, Third Series, Vol. III., Nos. 30*-31* (June-July).
London. Entomological Society — Transactions, 1879. Part I.*

Geological Society — Quarterly Journal, Vol. XXXV., Parts 1-2,
Nos. 137-138 (February and May).

„ Ltnnean Society — Journal (Botany), Vol. XVII., No. 101.

„ „ Journal (Zoology), Vol. XIV., No. 79.

„ ,, Transactiuns, Second Series (Zoology), Vol. I.,

Part 8.

,, Mineralogical Society — Mineralogical Magazine and Journal of the
Society, Vol. II., No. 12* (April).

„ PalEeontographical Society— Pul)lications, Vol. XXXIII.
Royal Society— Proceedings, Vol. XXVIII., Nos. 194-196*.

„ „ Philosophical Transactions. Vol. 169, Part 2.

„ Zoological Society — Proceedings, 1879, Part 1.

Transaction.^ Vol. X., Fart 12.

Scotland.

Scottish Naturalist, Vol. V., No. 35 (July).

Ireland.
Dublin. Royal Geological Society of Ireland— Journal, Vol. XV., Part 1.

* Those marked (*) do not contain any article, &c., within the scope of the
Bibliography.

626 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

COLONIES.
India,

Calcutta. Asiatic Society of Bengal— Proceedings, 1879, No. 1* (January).

Canada.
Canadian Entomologist, Vol. XI., Nos. 1-3 (January-March).
Canadian Naturalist, N. S., Vol. IX., Nos. 1-2*.
Halifax. Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science — Proceedings and

Transactions, Vol. IV., Part 4.
Toronto. Canadian Institute — Canadian Journal : Proceedings of tlic Institute,

N. S., Vol. I., Part 1.

Australasia.
New South Wales. Linnean Society — Proceedings. Vol. III., Parts 2-3.

UNITED STATES.

American Journal of Microscopy, Vol. IV., No. 5 (May).

American Journal of Science and Arts, Third Series, Vol. XVII., No. 102 ;
Vol. XVIII., No. 103 (June-July).

American Naturalist, Vol. XIII., Nos. G-7 (June-July).

Philadelphia. American Philosophical Society — Proceedings, Vol. XVIII.,
No. 102.*

Salem. American Association for the Advancement of Science— Proceed-
ings, 26th Meeting (1877). (Published 1878.)

Washington. Smithsonian Institution — Miscellaneous Collections, Vols. XIV.*
and XV.

GERMANY.
Archiv fiir Anatomic und Entwickelungsgeschichte (His), 1879, 3rd and 4th

part.
Archiv fiir die Gesammte Physiologie des Menschen und der Thiers

(Pfliiger), Vol. XIX., Part 10-11* & Part 12*.
Archiv fiir Mikroskopische Anatomic, Vol. XVI., Part 4.
Archiv fiir Pathologische Anatomic und Physiologie (Virchow), Vol.

LXXVI., 3rd part.*
Botanische Zeitung, Vol. XXXVII., Nos. 17-24 (April 25-Juuo 13).
Flora, Vol. LXII., Nos. 15-20 (May 21-July 11).
Hedwigia, Vol. XVIII., No. 5 (May).
Lmnaea, Vol. XLII., Parts 3-4.
Malakozoologische Blatter, N. S., Vol. I., No. 1.
Naturforscher, Vol. XII., Nos. 21*-3*, 24, 25*, 26-27, 28*, 29 (May 24-

July 19).
Zeitschrift fiir Mikroskopie, Vol. II., Parts 1 & 3.

„ Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, Vol. XXXII., Part 3.

Zoologischer Anzeiger, Vol. II., Nos. 28-33 (May 12-July 14).
Berlin. Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg— Sitzungsberichte,

1878. Verhandlungen, Vol. XX.

,, K. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften — Monatsberichte,

1879, March & April.* Abliandlungen, 1878.*

Bonn. Naturhistorischer Verein der Preussischen Rheinlande und West-
falens — Verhandlungen, Vol. XXXV.. 1st half (including ' Sitzungsberichte
der Niederrheinische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde in Bonn ').

Bremen. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein — Abhandlungen, Vol. VI., Part I.

Gbttingen. Botanisches Laboratorium der Universitat — Untersucbungen
(Reinke) No. 1.

INYERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 627

Munich. K. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften— Sitzungsberichte,
1879, Part 1. Abhaudlungen, Vol. XIII., Parts 1-2.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Oesterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift, Vol. XXIX., Nos. 6-7 (June-July).

Vienna. K. Akademie der Wissenschaften — Sitzungsberichte — Muthein.-

Nuturw. Classe, Vol. LXXVIIL, 1st Section, 1878, Parts 2 &8-5 (July

Sc October-December). 3rd Section, 1878, Part 1-5 (June-Decemljer).

„ K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt — Verliandlungen, 1879, Nos. l*-6*.

Jabrbuch, Vol. XXIX., No. 1
(January-March).

HOLLAND.

Archives Neerlandaises des Sciences Exactes at Naturelles, Vol. XIV.,

Parts 1*-:^*.
Tijdschrift voor Entomologie, Vol. XXII., Parts l*-2*.
Amsterdam. K. Akademie van Wetenschappen — Verslagen en Mededeel-

ingen, Second Series, Vol. XIV., 1st part.*

DENMARK.

Copenhagen. K. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab — Oversigt, 1879, No. 1*.

SWEDEN.
Botaniska Notiser, Nos. 1-2 (15th January & 1st April).

RUSSIA.
St. Petersburg. Academie Impe'riale des Sciences — Me'moires, Seventh Series,
Vol. XXVI., Nos. 5*-6*, 7, 8*-9*, 10, & 11*.

SWITZERLAND.
Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, Third Series, Vol. I., Nos.
2*. 3, 4, 5* & 6, Vol. II., No. 7* (January-July).

FRANCE.
Annales des Sciences Naturelles (Botanique), 6th Series, Vol. VII., No. 4.
Archives de Zoologie Experimentale et Gen§rale (Lacaze - Duthiers),

Vol. VI., No. 4.
Brebissonia, Vol. I., No. 10 (April).
Journal de Conchyliologie, Vol. XXVII., No. 1.
Journal de I'Anatomie et de la Physiologic, &c. (Robin), Vol. XV., No. 3

(May-June).
Journal de Micrographie, Vol. III., No. 5 (May).
Revue Bryologique, Vol. VI., No. 4.
Revue Internationale des Sciences, Vol. III., Nos. 5-6 ; Vol. IV., No. 7

(May-July).
Revue Mycologique, Vol. I., Nos. 2-3 (April-July).
Bordeaux. Societe des Sciences Physiques et NatiireUes— Me'moires, Second

Series, Vol. III., Part 1*.
Paris. Academie des Sciences— Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances,
Vol. LXXXVIII., Nos. 17-20 (April 28-June 30).

„ Societe Botanique de France— Bulletin, Vol. XXV., Part 3. Biblio-
graphical Review, Part E.

„ Societe de Biologie— Comptes Rendus des Seances et Me'moires, Vol.
XXIX. (for 1877, pubhshed 1879).

628 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

BELGIUM.
Brussels. Academie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts
de Belgique — Bulletin, Second Series, Vol. XLVII., Nos. 4-5*. '
„ Societe Beige de Microscopie — Annales— Meinoires, Vol. IV.

Bulletins, Vol. IV.f

Bulletins, Vol. v., Nos. 7*-8.
„ Societe Entoraologique de Belgique — Annales, Vol. XXII., Tri-

mestre 1.

ITALY.

Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano, Vol. XL, Nos. 2-3 (April & July).

Naples. Zoologische Station — Mittheilungen, Vol. I., Part 3.

Rome. R. Accademia dei Lincei — Atti, Third Series. Transunti, Vol. III.,
Parts l*-5*, 6 (December 1878-May 1879).

Turin. R. Accademia deUe Scienze— Atti, Vol. XIV., Parts 1, 2*-3* (No-
vember-December 1878, January & February 1879).

SPAIN.
Madrid. Sociedad Espanola de Historia Natural— Annales, Vol. VIII.,
Part 1.

ZOOLOGY.
A. GENERAL, including' Embryolog-y and Histology

of the Vertebrata.
Aeby, Prof. Dr. C. — Tlie Musculature of the Human Mouth and Oral Aper-
ture. (1 plate and 1 fig.) Arch. MUir. Anat, XVI., pp. 651-61.
Balbiani, Prof. — Fecundation of the Vertebrata, IV.

Journ. de Mlcr., III., pp. 221-8.
Balfour, F. M., M.A., F.R.S., &c.— On the early Development of the Lacer-
tilia, together with some Observations on the Nature and Relations of the Primi-
tive Streak. (1 plate and 1 fig.) Quart. Journ. Mlcr. ScL, XIX., pp. 421-30.
Baumijller, Dr. B. —On the Final Changes in Meckel's C;irtilage. (2 plates.)
Zeitschr. viss. ZooL, XXXII., pp. 466-511.
Benecke, B. — On the Maturation and Fecundation of the Ovum of Bats.

Zool. An-:ei<;., II., pp. 304-5.
Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory.— Scientific Results of the Session of
1878. 170 pp. (13 plates.) 8vo. Baltimore, 1879.

CoRNiL, V. — On the Structure of Cells of the Kidney in the Normal State.

Comptes J^rndus, LXXXVIIL, pp. 1271-2.

Danforth, Prof. I. N., M.D.— A Typical Case of Tubercular Meningitis.

(1 plate.) Am. Quart. Mia: Journ., I., pp. 180-5.

Daheste.^Ou the Evolution of the Embryo in Eggs incubated in Warm

Water. Comptes h'endus, LXXXVIIL, p. 1138.

„ On the Total Absence of Amnios in the Embryos of the Hen.

Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIIL, pp. 1329-32.
DissE, Dr. J. — The Origin of the Blood and the Primary Vessels in tlie Hen's
Egg. (3 plates.) Arch. Mlkr. Anat., XVI., pp. 545-96.

Famintzin, Prof. A. — Embryological Studies. (3 plates.) 19 pp.

Mem. Acad. Imp. Set. St. t'etersbonrg, XX VI., No. 10.

Frazer, p., jun. — A Speculation on Protoplasm. Am. Nat., XIII., pp. 420-6.

Fredericq, L. — On the Theory of Respiiatory Innervation. (1 plate and 10

figs.) Bull. Acad. Roy. Sci. Belg., XLVIL, pp. 413-39.

Freud, S. — On the Spinal Ganglia and Spinal Cord of Petromyzon. (4 plates

and 2 woodcuts.) SB. Akad. Wien, LXXVIII. (3rd Sec), pp. 81-167.

Graber, Prof, v.— On Amoeboid Epithelium. Zool. Ameig., II., pp. 277-80.

Huechcl, Prof. E. — Monogenetic and Polygenetic Origin of tlie three Organic

Jiingdoms and of the Organs. (Analysis by J. Soury.)

Rev. Internat. Set., III., pp. 481-97.

t These have been noted as they appeared since 1877.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

629

Hasse, Prof. C— On the Structure aud Developmeut of the Cartilage in

Elasmobranchii, If. Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 351-5.

Henneguy, L. F.— Kescarches on the Vitality of the Spermatozoids of the

Trout. CE. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 274-5.

Klein, E., M.D., F.R.S.— Observations on the Glandular Epithelium and

Division of Nuclei in the Bkin of the Newt. (1 plate.)

Quart. Joura. Micr. Sci., XIX., pp. 404-20.
KoLLMANN, J. — Human Ova of 6 mm. (2 plates.)

ArcJi. Anat. Entw. {His), 1879, pp. 275-311.

Kraus, Dr. M.— On the Minute Structure of the Touch-bodies of JMeissner.

(1 plate.) SB. Akad. Wien, LXXVIII. (3rd Sec), pp. 55-63.

Lepine, E., and U. Germont. — Note on the temporary Presence in Human

Blood of a great number of very small red Globules (Microcytes).

Cli. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 164-8.
„ „ Note on the Influence of Bleeding on the

Appearance in the Human Blood of small red Globules (Microcytes).

CR. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 270-2.
Lowe, Dr. L. — Contribution to the Anatomy of the Eye. (2 figs.)

Zeitschr. Mikr., pp. 1-10.
„ ,, On a peculiar knotted Body in the Nerve of the Frog.

(1 fig. of a plate.) Arch. Mih: Anat., XVI., pp. 615-17.

„ „ On the Changes in the Osteoklasts of the Medullary Sub-

stance of Bone ; witli some Observations on tlie Growth of
Bone. (6 figs, of a plate.) 4rc/i. JMr.^na^.,XVL, pp. 618-26.
„ „ On the Chorda Dorsalis of Mammals. (10 figs, of a plate.)

Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVI., pp. 597-614.
Machate, Dr. J. — Eesearches on the minute Structure of the Enteric Canal of
Emys Europosa. (4 figs, of a plate.) Zeitschr. wiss. Zuol., XXXII., pp. 443-59.

Marshall, A. Milnes, M.A., D.Sc, &c. — The Morpliology of the Vertebrate
Olfactory Organ. (2 plates.) Quicrt. Journ. Micr. Sd., XIX., pp. 300-40.

Newman, D., M.B. — New Theory of Contraction of Striated Mutcle, and
Demonstration of the Composition of the Broad Dark Bands. (2 plates.)

Journ. Anat. Phys. {Humphnj), XIII., pp. 549-76.
Parker, Prof. W. K. F.P.S.— On the Evolution of the Vertebrata, III. {Abstr.
of Hunterian Lectures delivered at the College of Surgeons.) (1 fig.)

Nature, XX., No. 499, pp. 81-3.
Parker, Prof. W. K., F.R.S.— On the Structure and Development of the Skull
in tiie Common Snake {Tropidonotus natrix). (7 plates.)

Phil. Trans., CLXIX., pp. 385-417.
PoucHET and Beavregard. — Note on the Development of Eggs to the Albumen
of which has been added 50 centigrammes of Crystallized Sugar.

CP. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 338-40.

Eanvier, L. — On the Eegeneration of Nerves of the Anterior Epithelium of

the Cornea, and on the Theory of Continuous Development of the Nervous

System. Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIIL, pp. 979-81.

Eeport of the Committee on Zoological Nomenclature to Section B. of the

American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Proc. Am. Assoc, 1877 (1878), pp. 7-56.
Salensky, Prof. W. — On the Embryology of the Auditory Ossicles.

Zool. Ameiij., II., pp. 250-3.
Sanders, A., M.E.C.S. — Contributions to the Anatomy of the Central Nervous
System in Vertebrate Animals. (8 plates.) Phil. Trans., CLXIX., pp. 735-76.
SiNETY, DE. — Histology of the Human Ovary during Pregnancy.

CR. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 377-80.
„ „ Eemarks on Ovulation without Fecundation.

CR. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 267-70.

Wagenee, G. E. — Observations on the Ovary and the Corpus luteum.

(2 plates.) Arch. Anat. Sf Entw. {His), 1879, pp. 175-200.

Wattenwyl, C. B. de. — The Present Task of Natural Histor}'. Presidential

Address at the opening of the 61st Session (August, 1878) of the "Socie'te'

Helvetique des Sciences Naturellea.'' Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., I., pp. 514-34.

YuKG, E. — Influence of Coloured Light on the Development of Animals.

Arch. Sci. Phys. el Nat., I., pp. 209-26.

630 BIBLIOGKAPHY OF

B. INVERTEBRATA.

Baily, W. H., F.G.S.— Ou the PaliBontology of County Dublin.

Journ. R. Geol. Soc. Ireland, XV., p. 78.
Cadiat.— Structure of the Liver of Invertebrates.

CK Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 217-19.
Credner, Prof. — Treatise on Geology and Pal aeon tology. (Translated by
R. Moniez, from the third German edition.) (448 figs.) 682 pp. 8vo. Paris,
1878-9.

Duncan, Prof. P. M., M.B., F.R.S., &c.— Some Facts and Thoughts about
Light-emitting Animals. (1 plate and 2 woodcuts.)

Pop. Sci. Rev., III., pp. 225-42.
Fries, Dr. S. — Supplementary Remarks to his Notes on the Fauna of Sunless
Regions. Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 308-9.

Hlghes, W. R., F.L.S.— Marine Zoology at Arran. II.

Midi. Nat., II., pp. 182-5.
Jenkins, C, L.S. — On the Geology [Paleontology] of Yass Plains. Second
paper. (1 plate.) Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 111., t^^.1\Q-2\.

Joseph, Dr. G. — Further Communications on Cave Fauna.

Zool. Anzeig., II , pp. 305-7.
Slack, H. J. — Marvels of Pond Life. 3rd ed. (7 plates and 50 woodcuts.)
158 pp. [New title-page.] 8vo. London, 1878.

SoRBY, H. C F.R.S., Pres. G. S., &c.— Anniversary Address — " The Structure
and Origin of Limestones." Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, XXXV., pp. 56-95.

Verrill, a. E. — Notice of Recent Additions to the Marine Fauna of the
Eastern Coast of North America. No. 5.

[Polyzoa : Bugulella, gen. nov. ; Echinodermata : Solaster Earllii, sp. nov. ;
Molpadia turgida, sp. nov. ; Anthozoa : Actinemus, gen. nov. ; Synanthus,
gen. nov.] Am. Journ. Sci. ^ Arts, XVIL, pp. 472-4.

No. 6.

[Polyzoa : Bugula decorata, n. sp. ; B. cucullata, n. sp. ; Porellina stellata, n. sp.]

Am. Journ. Sci. ^ Arts, XVIIL, pp. 52-4.

ZiTTEL, Prof. K. A., and Prof. W. Ph. Schimper.— Handbook of Palteoutology.

Vol. I., Part 2, pp. 129-307. (155 figs.)

[Sponges; Corals; Hydrozoa.] 8vo. Munich, 1879.

MoUusca.

Bayle, Prof. E. — Rectificatory List of some names of Genera.

Journ. Conchy., XXVIL, pp. 34-35.
Bergh, Dr. R. — Remarks on Pleurophyllidia Loveni. (In part.) (1 plate.)

Malak. Bllitt., I., pp. 77-80.
BuAziER, J., C.M.Z.S., &c. — Descriptions of seven new Species of Terrestrial
and Marine Shells from Australia. \_Helix 6 ; Valuta 1.]

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., III., pp. 77-81.
„ „ MoUusca of the " Chevert" Expedition.

[Turbo svpragranosus.'] Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. W., III., pp. 155,

Call, P. E.— Synonymous Unios. Am. Nat., XIII., pp. 392-3.

Clessin, S. — From my ' Novitatea-Mappe.' (1 plate.)

\_Vivipara hdlenica, n. sp. ; Limncea truncatida Miiller var. Thiesscc m. ; Pla-

norbis Atticus Roth var. Arethusa; m. ; Spharium Wildi, n. sp. ; Chondrula

Gallcicnsis, n. sp. ; Helix Qfferophila) instabilis Zglr. v. Bakoviskyana m. ;

Helix {Xerophila) obvia Ziegler var. Krdli m. ; Limnwa ovata Drap. var.

Janoviensis Kr6l. ; Ij. peregra var. Bakowshyana m. ; L. peregra var. Tcha-

pecki VI. ; L. peregra var. Raiblensis m. ; Helix arhustorum var. septentrionalis

m.; H. lapicida, var. Medelpadensis m.] Malak. Bldtt., I., pp. 3-16.

„ „ Limncea truncatula Mull. (1 plate.) Malak. Bldtt., I., pp. 20-32.

Crosse, H. — Description of two Genera and three new Species of MoUusca

from New Guinea and Japan. (1 plate and 1 fig. of 2nd plate.)

[Lcucoptychia Tissotiana ; Perrieria Clausiliwformis ; Voluta Prewstiana.']

Jmtrn. Conchy., XXVII., pp. 36-43.

INVEBTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 631

Ckosbe, H. — Description of Undescribed Terestrial Mollusca from New

Caledonia. (2 figs, of plate.) {^Helix Berlierei ; II. Berhesiana^

Journ. Conchy., XXVII., pp. 43-5.

„ „ Note on the Identity of Valuta Americana Reeve with V. Cleryana.

Petit. Journ. Conchy., XXVII., pp. 5-6.

Crosse, H., and P. Fischer. — Description of a new Genus and two Species of

Terrestrial Mollusca from Mexico. (1 fig. of a plate.)

\_Ainphicyclotus ; Eucalodium Sumichrasti ; E. Blandianum.'\

Journ. Conchy., XXVII., pp. 46-9.
„ „ Description of a New Species of Pu2oa from Nossi-Be.

[P. Seiijmiciana.'] Journ. Conchy., XXVII., p. 49.
„ „ Diagnoses Trochorum novorum.

\_T, smaltatus ; T. semiustus ; T. unicarinatus ; T. subincarnat'is.']

Journ. Conchy., XXVII., pp. 22-5.
Fischer, P. — Remarks on the Synonymy of Bulla dilatata Leach.

Journ. Conchy., XXVII., pp. 21-2.
Fischer, P., and R. Touknouer. Diagnoses Molluscorum fossilium.

\_Ostrea Sellei ; Voluta miocenica.'] Journ. Conchy., XXVII., p. 50.

Hartog, M. M., M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S. — Additional Note on the Organ of

Bojanus. Journ. Anat. Fhys. (Humphry), XIII., p. 578.

Heckel, E. — On the Action of Salts of Strychnine on Gasteropodous Molluscs.

Comptes Eendus, LXXXVIII., pp. 918-21.

Hesse, P. — Contribution to "Westphalian Mollusca Fauna.

Verh. Nat. Ver. Westf., XXXV., pp. 83-103.
Jaillard, Dr. — Green Oysters. {Ahstr. of Article in ' Bull, de la Soc. des Sci.
d' Alger.) Bull. Soc. Bclg. Micr., V., p. 196.

JouRDAix, S. — On the Respiratory Apparatus of Ampullaria.

Comptes Bendus, LXXXVIII., pp. 981-3.
Klemensiewicz, Dr. R. — Contributions to our Knowledge of the Change of
Colour of the Cephalopoda. (2 plates and 4 figs.)

SB. Akad. Wien, LXXVIII. (3rd. Sec), pp. 7-50.
KoHLMANN, R. — Mollusca Fauna of the Lower "Weser.

Abh. Nat. Ver. Bremen, VI., pp. 49-98.

Lycett, J., L.R.C.P.E., &c.— A Monograph of the British Fossil Trigoniw,

No. V. (1 plate and 6 figs.) pp. 205-245. Balcvont. Soc, XXXIII.

„ „ On Trigonia Elisce Cornet & Briart. (2 figs.)

Geol. Mag., VI., pp. 195-6,
Martin, Prof. Dr. K. — The Tertiary Strata of Java. Palaeontological Part.
Part 1. Univalves. (14 plates.) 89 pp. 4to. Leiden, 1879.
Mayzel, Dr. W. — See Vermes.
Mer, E. — Researches on Cutaneous Absorption in Eelix pomatia.

CR. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 186-97.
Nevil, G., C.M.Z.S.— Hand List of Mollusca in the Indian Museum, Cal-
cutta. Part 1. Gastropoda ; Pulmonata and Prosobranchia ; Neurobranchia.
pp. 338. 8vo. Calcutta, 1878,

„ „ Mollusca. Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand

Mission. (1 plate.) 21 pp. [62 sp. et var. ; 23 nov.] 4to. Calcutta, 1878.
Paulucci, M.— Critical Study of Helix Balmci Potiez & Michaud.

Journ. Conchy., XXVII., pp. 6-15.

„ „ Critical Study of some Hyalina of Sardinia and Description of

a new Species [^H. Libysonis']. Journ. Conchy., XXVII., pp. 15-21.

Pfeffer, Dr. G. — Summary of the Pteropoda collected during the Voyage

round tlie World of the ' Gazelle ' in 1874-6, and by Dr, F. Jagor in his Voyao-e

to the Philippines in 1857-61. (1 plate.)

3JB. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 1879, pp. 230-47.

ScHLTJTER, Prof. — Somc new Discoveries of Cephalopoda of the North German

Chalk. SB. Niederrhein. Gesell., 1877, pp. 35-7.

SouvERBiE, Dr., and C. R. P. Montrouzier.— Description of new Species from

the Caledonian Archipelago. (1 plate.)

\_Bulinvis Loyaltycnsis ; Echinella Gaidei ; Plesiotrochus Souverbianus ; Monilea
Lifuana ; Tectaria Montrouzieri ; Trochus Giliherti.']

Journ. Conchy., XXVII,, pp. 25-34.

632 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

SoWERBY, G. B., F.L.S. — Thesaurus Coucbyliorum, or Figures and Descrip-
tions of Kecent Shells. Parts XXXIII.-XXXI V. (Monograph of Murex.) (24
plates.) 8vo. London, 1879.

Steenstruf, Prof. Dr. J. — Kcmarks in correction of Herr S. Clcssin's Notice

of Limncca Stccnstrupu from Iceland. lialah. Bliitt., I., pp. 16-20.

Taylor, J. E., F.L.S., &c. — Our Common British Fossils and where to find

them. (9 tig.s.) ["Star-fishes" and " Sea-urchins."] Sci.-Gossip,'No. 175, pp. 156-9.

Tenison-Woods, liev. J. E., F.G.S., F.L.S., &c. — On Bulinms Uufresnii.

(1 plate.) Proc. Linn. Soc. K.S. IF., III., pp. 81-91.

„ „ ,, On some Fresh-water

Shells from New Zealand. (5 figs, of a plate.)

[_Bythinella coralla ; Physa Gtiyuncnsis, nov. sp. ; P. lirata, nov. sp.]

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. W., III., pp. 135-9.
,, „ „ On some Tertiary Fossils

from Muddy Creek, Western "Victoria. (2 plates.) [30 sp. nov.]

I'roc. Linn. Sue. N.S. W., III., pp. 222-40.
„ „ „ On Two New Species of

Laud-shells. (3 figs, of a plate.) \_IIdicarion fumosa ; Helix mucoides.']

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., IIL, pp. 123-6'
TouLA, F,— On Limestones containing Orbitoida and Nummulites from the
" Goldberg," near Kirchberg, on the Wechsel. (1 plate.)

JB. GcoL Reichsanst. Wien, XXIX., pp. 123-36.
ToiiKKOLiSB, E. — On the Synonymy of two Species of Mollusca.

Journ. Conchy., XXVIL, pp. 35-36.
Tkyon, G. W., jun. — Manual of Conchology, Structural and Systematic.
Part 1. (32 plates.) 64 pp. 8vo. Philadeipliia, 1879.

VuLPiAN. — On tlie Action of Toxic Substances, called " Poisons du coeur,"
on the Snail {Heiix poymdia). Comptes Pendtis, LXXXVIIL, pp. 1293-7.

Wood, Seakles, V., F.Cjt.S. — Second Supplt. to the Monograph of the Crag
Mollusca. Vol. IV. Univalves and Bivalves. (6 plates and 4 tigs.) 58 pp.

Pahvontogr. Soc, XXXIII.
Wright, T., M.D., &c. — Monograph of the Lias Ammonites of the British
Islands. Part II., The Lias Formation. (10 plates and 9 figs.) pp. 49-164.

L'alwontogr. Soc, XXXIII.
Molluscoida.
Etheridge, R., jun., F.G.S.— On the Occurrence of Emmpora Toula in the
Caradoc Beds of the neighbourhood of Corwen. {I plate.)

Geol. Mag., VI., pp. 241-44.
Lacaze-Duthiers, Prof. H. de.— Hi.4ory of the Simple Ascidia of the French
Coasts. II. Studies of the Species. (10 plates, 3 figs.;

Arch. Zool. {Lacaze-Duthiers), VI., pp. 457-673.

Schmidt, 0.— Remarks upon the Memoii-s on Loxosoma. (2 figs.) {Transl.

from ' Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.') Ann. ,^ Alag. Nat. Hist., III., pp. 39.3-404.

Shrcbsole, G. W., F.G.S. — A Review of the British Carboniferous Fenes-

tellidfe. [The 26 species hitherto described can be reduced to 5.]

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, XXXV., pp. 275-84.
Tenison-Woods, Rev. J. E., F.L.S., &c.— On a New Genus of Polyzoa.
(4 fin's, of a plate.) [Euktimenaria ducalis.]

I'roc. Limi. Soc KS.W., III., \>ixl2G-S.

Arthiopoda.

a. Insecta.*

Bailey, J. S., M.A., M.D.— The Natural History of Cossus centcrensis. (I

plate.) ^'<^"*- Hut., XL, No. 1, pp. 1-5.

Bairstow, S. D.— IchneumonidiB {concluded). Naturalist, IV., pp. 161-7.

Barrett, C. G.— Notice of the Discovery of the Larva of Acrolepia perlepidella.

Ent. M. Mag., XVI., pp. 34-6.
Bassett, H. F. — Agamic Reproduction among the Cynipidas.

Proc Am. Assoc, 1877 (1878), pp. 302-6.

Omitting libts and descriptions of new species, local fauna, &c.

IN\rEIlTEBRATxV, CRYPTOaAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

G33

Buckler, W. — Natural History of Lycctna Medon Huf. ? (Aqestis Ochs.).

Ent. M. Mag., XV., No. 179, pp. 241-4.

BcRMEiSTER, Dr. H. — Physical Description of the Argeutkie Republic. Vol. V.

Lepidoptera, Part I. (In French.) [Diurna ; Crepuscularia ; Bombycokles.]

Atlas of 13 plates (4 to follow). With 40 pp. description. 4to. 524 pp. 8vo. Buenos-

Ayres, 1878.

Camerano, Dr. H. L. — Description of some Monstrous Insects in the Entomo-
logical Collection of the Turin Royal Zt ological Museum. (7 figs.)

Ait. JR. Accad. ScL Turin, XIV, pp. 148-54.
Dechabme. — Note on a IMigration of Butterflies ( Vanesm cardui), observed at
Angers on June 10th. Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIII., p. 1280.

Fitch, E. A. — Granary "Weevils — Sitophilus granarius and S. oryz(e.

Ent., XII., pp. 41-50.
„ „ Hybernation of British Butterflies. iJ/(i., XII., pp. 1-4.

, Hymenoptera bred from Cvnips Kollari Galls.

Ent., XII., pp. 113-9.
Fitzwilliam, S. — Economic Entomology, (/n part.) Ent., XII., pp. 176-9.
FoREL, A. — Study of the Habits of Fogonomynnex barbatiis, by M. McCook.
(Abst)\ of Rev. H. C. McCook's paper in ' Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.')

Arch. Sci. Phys. et JSat., I., pp. 481-6.
Fowler, W. W., M.A. — Notes on Coleoptera (continued).

Midi. Nat., II., pp. 142-4.
Fullagar, J. — Notes on Hydrophilus piceus. (4 figs.)

Sci.-Gossip, No. 174, pp. 132-3.

Goss, H., F.L.S., &c. — Introductory paper on Fossil Entomology. No. 7,

Part II. Mesozoic Time. [On the Insecta of the Jurassic Period and the Animals

and Plants with which they were correlated.] Ent. M. Mag., XVI., pp. 25-9.

GossE, P. H., F.R.S. — Attacus Atlas : a Life-history. (1 plate.)

Ent., XII., pp. 25-41, 67-75.

HuLST, G. D.— The Scientific Names of Insects. Can. Ent., XI., pp. 22-5.

KoKOUYEW, N. — Note on a Monstrosity observed in a Specimen of Umaseus

vulgaris L. (1 fig.) Ann. Soc. Ent. Bely., XXII., CR., ii.-iii.

Laker, A. G. — Note on tlie Habits of Rmatra linearis. Ent., XII., pp. 142-5.

LiCHTENSTELN, J. — A brief Life-history of Cantkaris vesicatoria. [Successfully

bred.] Ent. M. Mag.^JiNl.,^ p. 34.

„ „ On the Metamorphoses of Blister-beetles (Li^t'ta vesicatoria

Fab.). Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIII., pp. 1089-92.

„ „ The Cochineals of the Elm. A new genus, Ritsemia pupi-

fera. Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIII., pp. 870-2,

Lichtcnstein, J. — „ „ [_Transl.']

Ann. <!■ Mag. Nat. Hist., III., pp. 455-6.

LowNE, B. T., F.R.C.S. — On the Modifications of the Simple and Compound

Eyes of Insects. ( 3 plates.) Phil. Trans.. CLXIX., pp. 577-601.

Lubbock, Sir J., Bart., M.P., F.R.S., &c. — Observations on the Habits of

Ants, Bees, and "Wasps. Part VI. Ants.

Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), XIV., pp. 607-26.
McCooK, H. C. — The Natural History of the Agricultural Ant of Texas. A
Monograph of the Habits, Architecture, and Structure of Pogonomyrmex barbatus.
(24 plates.) 310 pp. Author's ed. 8vo. Phila., 1879.

McCvok, H. C. — On the Architecture and Habits of the Cutting Ant^ of
Texas {Atta fervens). [From ' Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.']

Ann. 4- Mag. Nd. Hist., III., pp. 442-9.
McLachlan, R., F.R;S., &c. — Neuroptera. Scientific Results of the Second
Yarkand Mission. (7 figs.) 6 pp. [15 sp., 3 nov. sp.] 4to. Calcutta, 1878.

„ ,, A Monographic Revision and Synopsis of the

Trichoptera of the European Fauna. Part VIII. (7 plates.) 8vo. London and
Berlin, 1879.

Mayer, Dr. P.— On certain Organs of Sense in the Antennaj of the Diptera.

\_Report on.'^ Transun. Accad. Lincei, HI., pp. 184-5.

Meade, R. H. — On Parasitic Diptera. Naturalist, IV., pp. 167-8.

MosLEY, S. L. — Persistent Variations among the British Species of Butterflies.

(In part.) Naturalist, IV., pp. 182-4.

634 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Mt'LLER, F. — Communications on Plivyganidse. Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 283-4.

Newton, E. T. — On the Brain of the Cockroach, Blatta orkntalis. (2 plates.)

Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., XIX., pp. 340-56.

Ormerop, E. a., F.M.S.— Considerations as to Effects of Temperature on

Insect Development. E'lt, XII., pp. 137-42.

„ „ Sitophilus granarins. (1 fig.) £?ii., XII., pp. 51-4.

Potts, E., Shedding of the Tracheae in the Moulting of Insects.

Am. Nat., XIII., p. 454.

„ „ Two Chrysalids in the same Cocoon. Am. Nat., XIII., p. 455.

Eead, K. B., M.K.C.S.— Lepidoptera having the Antlia terminal in a Teretion

or Borer. (1 plate.) Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. W., III., pp. 150-4.

SlEWERS, C. G. — The Tails of CalUmorpha interrupto-marginata $ . (1 fig.)

Can. Ent., XL, jjp. 47-8.
Smith, F.— Hymenoptera. Scientific Eesults of the Second Yarkand
Mission. (1 plate.) 22 pp. [63 sp., 54 nov. sp.] 4to. Calcutta, 1878.

Snellen van Vollenhovcn, Dr. S. C. — Life-histories of Saw-flies {continued).

\_Trans. by J. W. May from Dutch.] £nf., XII., pp. 4-8, 101-6, 149-51, 171-5.

Thornewill, EeV. C. F., M.A. — Caterpillars, how to find and how to rear

them. Mdl. Nat., II., pp. 177-82.

Wailly, a. — Further Notes on certain Silk-producing Bombyces.

Ent., XII., pp. 168-71.

Westwood, J. O., M.A., F.L.S., &e.— Descriptions of some minute Hymenop-

terous Insects. (1 plate.) Trans. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), I., pp. 583-93.

„ „ „ Observations on the Uraniidfe, a Family

of Lepiilopterous Insects, witli a Synopsis of the Family, and a Monograph of

Coronidia, one of the Genera of whicli it is composed. (4 plates.)

Trans. Zool. Soc, X., pp. 507-42.

White, F. B., M.D., F.L.S.— The Mountain Lepidoptera of Britain; their

Disiribution and its causes. (Li part.) Scot. Nat., V., pp. 97-105.

Wilson, A. S. — Headless Butterfly laying Eggs. [78 eggs laid in 29| hours.]

Nature, XX., p. 267.
)3. Myriapoda.
Balfour, M.A., F.E.S.— On certain points in the Anatomy of Fcripatus
Capcnsis. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., XIX., pp. 431-3.

Zool. Anzeig., XL, pp. 332-5.
y. Arachnida.

Becker, L. — Catalogue of the Arachnida of Belgium. Part 2,

Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., XXIL, pp. 24-30.
,, Diagnosis of a New Species of European Araneida.

[Tegen-iria Berthw.'] Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. XXIL ; CE., xx.-xxi.
„ „ Eesunie of the Indigenous Spiders.

Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., XXIL ; CE., xxi.-xxxii.

Butler, A. G., F.L.S., F.Z.S., &c. — On a small collection of Arachnida from

the Island of Johanna, with Note on a Homopterous Insect from the same locality.

(1 plate.) Ann. # Mag. Nat. Hist., IV.. pp. 41-4.

Cambridge, Eev. O. P., M.A., C.M.Z.S. — On a New Genus and Species of

Spiders of the Family Scdticides. (3 figs.)

\_Fritzia Muelleri. Curious little three-entranced, white, silken nests on

midribs of leaves.] Froc. Zool. Soc, 1879, pp. 119-21.

Lowe, Dr. L.— On the Occurrence of Ganglia Cells in the Arachnoidea.

(2 figs, of a plate.) Arch. Mihr. Annt., XVI., pp. 613-5.

Simon, E.— The Arachnida of France. Vol. IV. Drassidse. 336 pp.

(5 plates.) 8vo. Paris, 1878.

S. Crustacea.

Boas, J. E. V.— Ampliion and Polycheles (Willemoesia).

Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 256-9.
BuLLAR, J. F., B.A. — On the Develipment of the Parasitic Isopoda. (4 figs,
and 3 plates.) Fhil. Trans., CLXIX., pp. 505-21.

Frederioq, L. — Note on the Blood of the Lobster (preliminary).

Bud. Acad. Roy. Sci. Belg., XLVIL, pp. 409-13.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 635

Gruber, Dr. A. — Contributions to the Knowledge of the Generative Organs of
the free Copepnda. (4 plates.) Zeltschr. wiss. Zool., XXXII., pp. 407-42.

Henry, J., Sec. Smithsonian Institution. — Circular of Inquiries relative to the
Natural History of the American Crawfish and other Fresb-water Crustacea.
(2 woodcuts.) Smiths. Hiss. Coll., XV. (8 pp.).

Jones. T. Rupert, F.E.S., and J. W. Kirkbt. — Notes on the Paleozoic Bivalved
Entumostraca. No. XII. Some Carboniferous Species belonging to the Genus
Carbonia Jones. (2 plates.) Ann. 4' Hag. Kat. Hist., IV., pp. 28-40.

Joseph, Dr. G. — On the Geographical Distribution of Nipharcjus puteamis
Koch. Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 380-1.

KoELBEL, C. — On some New Cymothoida. (2 plates.)

[_Ceratothoa oxyrhynchwna ; C. Steindachneri ; Livoneca pterygota ; L. sinuata ;
Anilocra allocercBa ; Nerocila rhabdota ; N. dolichostylis ; Einphylia (nov. gen.)
ctemphora.] SB. Akad. Wiss., LXXVIII., p. 401-16.

MiERs, E. J., F.L.S., &c. — Descriptions of new or little-known Species of
Maioid Crustacea (Oxyrhyncha) in the Collection of the British Museum.
(2 plates.) Ann. (|- Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 1-28.

„ „ On a Collection of Crustacea made by Captain

H. C. St. John, R.N., in the Corean and Japanese Seas. Part I. Podcphthalmia.
With an AppendlK by Captain H. C. St. John. (3 plates.)

[64 sp. and var., 26 nov.] Proc. Zool. Soc, 1879, pp. 18-61.

„ „ On the Classification of the Maioid Crustacea

or Oxyrhyncha, with a Synopsis of the Families, Subfamilies, and Genera.

(2 plates.) Journ. Linn. Soc. {Zool.) XIV., pp. 634-73.

RiCHET, C. — On the Form of the Muscular Contraction of the Muscles of the

Crayfish. Comptes Eendus, LXXXVIII., pp. 868-70.

„ „ On the Influence of Heat on the Functions of the Nervous

Centres of the Crayfish. Comptes Eendus, LXXXVIII., pp. 977-9.

„ ,, On the Action of Electric Currents on the Muscle of the Claw of

the Crayfish. Comptes Eendus, LXXXVIII., pp. 1272-4.

Ryder, J. A. — Strange Habitat of a Baiuacle on a Gar Pike.

Am. Nat., XIII., p. 453.

St. John, Captain H. C— See Miers, E. J.

VoGT, Prof. C— Parasitic Crustacea of Fishes. (6 plates.) 104 pp. 4to.
Geneva, 1879.

Ward, J., M.A. — Observations on the Physiology of the Nervous System of
the Crayfish {Astacus fluvmtilis). Proc. Eoy. Soc., XXVIII., pp. 379-83.

Woodward, H., LL.D., F.R.S., «S:c. — Notes on Palaeozoic Crustacea —
Eiirypteriis Sconleri Hibbert. (1 plate and 1 fig.) Geol. Mag., VI., No. 5, pp. 196-9.
„ „ „ On the Occurrence of Branchipus (or

Cliirocephalus) in a Fossil State, associated with Eosphasroma and with numerous
Insect Remains in the Eocene Fresh- water (Bembridge) Limestone of Gurnet Bay,
I.W. (1 plate.) Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, XXXV., pp. 342-50.

Wkzesniowski, Prof.— Preliminary Communications on some Ampliipoda.
II. On Goplana Polonica (n. g. et sp.). III. Lada Chalubinskii, (n. g. et sp.).
IV. Mixra Miersi (n. sp.). V. (concl.) Callisoina Branickii.

Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 299-302, 322-5, 348-51.

Vermes.

Benecke, B.— Trichinaj and the Microscopic Examination of Meat. (22 figs.)
8vo. Strassburg, 1879.

Chatin, J. — On FdarioB observed in the Muscles of an Otaria.

CE. Sue. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 204-5,
„ „ Anatomical and Zoological Study of the Ascaris of the Lion.

CE. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 266-7.
„ „ Cysts and Parasites of Callychtys asper.

CE. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 277-8,
,, ,, On a rare Form of the Muscular Elements in the Nematoidea.

CE. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX.. pp. 278-9.
„ „ Anatomical and Zoological Study of the Ascaris of the Orang-
outang. CE. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 384-7.

636 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

CoBBOLD, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S. — Parasites : a Treatise on the Entozoa of
Man and Animals; including some Account of the Ectozoa. (85 woodcuts.)
510 pp. 8vo. London, 1879.

CosMovici, M. — On the Body-cavity of Sedentary Annelids and their Seg-
mental Organs. Some Eemarks on the Genus Phascolosomn.

Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIII., pp. 1092-4.
Cosmovici, M.— „ „ „ [TransL']

Ann. ^ Mag. Kat. Hist, IV., pp. 94-5.

Davis, W., F.G.S. — On a new Species of Fossil Annelide,

Terehella Leiresiensis. GeoL Maq., VI., pp. 145-8.

Geddes, p. — Observations on the Physiology and Histology of Comoluta
Schultzii. P'-oc. Roy. Soc, XXVIII., pp. 449-57.

Gelle, Dr. — Pcntastoma tcenioidcs in the Ear of a Dog.

CR. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., p. 394.

Greeff, Dr. R.— On tl:e Alciopidse of the Mediterranean, and especially of

the Gulf of Naples. (1 plate.) Mittheil. Zool. Stat. Neapcl, I., pp. 448-56.

Heckel, E. — On a Case of Trichinosis observed in a young Hippopotamus from

the Nile, which died in Captivity. Lomptes Rendus, LXXXVIII, pp. 1139-40.

Hcckcl, E.— „ „ „ [ Tra7isL']

Ann. 4- Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., p. 99.
Jensen, O. S. — Turbcllaria ad Litora Norwegise Occidentalia. (8 plates.)
98 pp. Fol. Bergen, 1878.

Joseph, Dr. G. — On the Nematoidea inhabiting the Stalactite Cave of Car-

iiiola. Zool. Ameig., II., pp. 275-7.

Lankester, Prof. E. Eat, M.A., F.R.S., &c.— Chlorophyll in Turbellariau

Worms and other Animals. Quart. Journ. Micr. ScL, XIX., pp. 434-7.

Lcid'/, Prof. — On Gordi'is, and on some Parasites of the Rat. (Verbal.)

[From 'Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Pbila.']

Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., III., pp. 457-8.

Mayzel, Dr. W. — On the Processes of Segmentation in the Ovum of Worms

(Nematoda) and Gasteropoda. Zool. Anzeig., II , pp. 280-82.

Megnin, P. — New Observations on the Development and Metamorphoses of

the Tmnice of Mammalia. (4 plates.)

Journ. Anat. et Phys. (Rohin), XV., pp. 225-47.
MoNiEZ, R. — On Twnia Gvtrdi, and on some Species of the Group of Inermes.

Comjjtes Rendus, LXXXVIII., pp. 1094-6.

Spengel, Dr. J. W. — Contributions to the Knowledge of the Gephyrea, I.

(5 plates and 7 figs.) Mittheil. Zool. Stat. Neapel, I., pp. 357-419.

Wright, Prof. R. R.,M.A., B.Sc. — Contributions to American Helminthology.

(2 plates.)

[Trematodes ; Cestodes ; Nematodes.] Canadian Journal, I., pp. 54-75.

Echinodermata.

Carpenter, P. H., M.A. — Preliminary Report upon the Comatnla; of the
' Challenger ' Expedition. Proc. Rog. Soc, XXVIII., pp. 383-95.

CoTTEAU, M.— On the Salenidse of the Jurassic Strata of France.

Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIII., pp. 1217-18.

LuDWiG, H. — Morphological Studies on the Echinodermata. Vol. I., Parts 1-3.
(23 plates and 5 figs.) (Extracted from ' Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.') 8vo. Leipzig,
1877-9.

Stewart, C, F.L.S., M.R.C.S., &c.— On certain Organs of the Cidarida;.
(1 plate.) Trans. Linn. Soc. {Zool), I., pp. 569-572.

Ccelenterata.

Chun, Dr. C. — Histological Remarks on the Ctenophora.

Zool. Ameig., IL, pp. 329-32.
DtJNCAN, Prof. p. M., M.B., F.R.S., &c.— On the Upper-Gitensand Coral
Fauna of Haldon, Devonshire. (1 plate.) [1 gen. nov., 9 sp. nov.]

Quart. Journ. Gcol. Soc, XXXV., pp. 89-97.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 637

Haacke, Dr. W.— On the Classification and Phylogeny of the Corals.

Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 261-2.
HiNDE, G. J., F.G.S.— On a new Genus of Favosite Coral from the Niagara
Formation (U. Silurian), Lake Huron. (4 tigs.)

[Si/ringolites Iluronensis.'] Geol. Mag., VI., pp. 244-6.

Klipstein, Dr. A. v. — The Tertiary Deposits of Waldbockheim and its Polyp

Fauna. JB. Geol. Eciohsanst. Wicn, XXIX., pp. 61-8.

Lapworth, C, F.G.S. — On the Geological Distribution of the Ehabdophora

(continued). (1 table.) Ann. ^ Mag. Kat. Hist., III., pp. 449-55.

MosELEY, H. N., F.E.S. — The Croonian Lecture. On the Structure of the

Stylasteridse, a Family of the Hydroid Stony Corals. (11 plates.)

Fhil. Trans., CLXIX., pp. 425-503.

Nicholson, Prof. H. A., M.D., D.Sc, &c., and R. Etheridge, jun., F.G.S.—

On the Microscopic Structure of three Species of the Genus Cladochonus M'Coy.

(1 plate.) Geol. Mag., VI., pp. 289-96.

ScHAPER, E. A. — Observations on the Nervous System of Aurclia aurita.

(2 plates.) Phil. Trans., CLXIX., pp. 563-75.

Tenison- Woods, Rev. J. E., F.L.S., &c. — On three new Genera and one new

Species of Madreporaria Corals. (1 plate.)

[Nov. gen. Vasillum tuljerculatun ; Diechorwn holetiformis ; Phyllopora spinosa ;
nov. sp. Balanophyllia dentata.'] Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., III., pp. 92-9.

„ „ „ On some Corals from Darnley Island.

(2 plates.)

[Sijmphi/llia hemispherica, nov. sp. Mussa solida, nov. sp. M. laciniata, nov. sp.
aut. var.] Proc. Lian. Soc. N.S.W., IIL, pp. 128-31.

„ „ „ On some new Extra-tropical Corals.

(6 figs, of 2 plates.)

ICylicia Huttoni; C. vacua; Placotrochis pedicellatus.']

Proc. Linn. Soc. KS. W., III., pp. 131-5.

Porifera.

Dezso, Dr. B. — The Histology and Gemmation of the Tet/ii/idw, and especially
of Tethya lyncurium Lieberkiihn. (4 plates.)

Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVI., pp. 626-51.
Duncan, Prof. P. M., F.R.S. — On some Spheroidal Lithistid Spongida from the
Upper Silurian Formation of New Brunswick. (1 plate.)

Ann. 4' Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 84-91.
Keller, Dr. C. — On the Embryology of the Chalinida.

Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 302-3.
Merejkowsky, C— studies on the Sponges of the White Sea. (3 plates.)
51 pp. 3Iem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbourg, XXVI., No. 7.

Metschnikoff, Prof E. — Spongiological Studies. (4 plates.)

Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., XXXH., pp. 349-87.
Schmidt, Prof O. — The Continuation of my ' Sponges of the Gulf of Mexico.'

Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 379-80.
„ „ The Sponges of the Gulf of Mexico. Part 1. (4 plates.)

32 pp. 4to. Jena, 1879.

SOLLAS, W. J., M.A., F.G.S., &c.— On Pharetronema zingiber is, a new Genus
and Species of Renierid Sponge. (1 plate.)

Ann. 4r Mag. Nat. Hist., III., pp. 404-7.
„ ,, „ „ On Plocamia plena, a new Species of

Echinonematous Sponge. (2 plates, 4 figs.)

Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 44-53.
Zittel, K. a. — Contributions to the Classification of the Fossil Sponges. (10
plates.) pp. 132. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1879.

„ ., Studies on Fossil Sponges. Sec. I. Hexactinellidse. Sec.

II. Lithistida?. (10 plates.) Sec. III. Monactinellidse, Tetractinellidae, and Calci-
spongiae. (2 plates.)

Abh. Bag. Akad. Munchen, XIII., Part 1, pp. 1-63 ; pp. 65-154 ; Part 2, pp. 1-48.
Zittel, C. A. — Studies on Fossil Sponges. V. Calcispongise (continued).
[Transl. of preceding.] Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 61-73.

VOL. II. 2 u

638 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Protozoa.

Brady, H. B., F.R.S. — Notes on some of the Reticularian Rhizopoda of the
'Challenger' Expedition. II. Additions to the Knowledge of Porcellanous
and Hyaline Types. (1 plate.) Quart. Joum. Micr. Sci., XIX., pp. 261-99.

Carter, H. J., F.R.S. — Notes on Foraminifera.

Ayin. Sf Mag. Nat. Hist., III., pp. 407-14.

Champernowne, a., F.G.S. — Note on some Devonian Stromatoporidse from
Dartington near Totnes. Quart. Jonrn. Geol. Soc, XXXV., pp. 67-8.

Dawson, G. M., D.S., F.G.S. , &c.— On a new Species of Loftusia from British
Columbia. (1 plate.) [L. Columbiana.'] Quart. Joum. Geol. Sac, XXXV., pp. 69-75.

Dawson, J. W., LL.D., F.R.S., &c.— On the Microscopic Structure of Stroma-
toporidse and on Palaeozoic Fossils Mineralized with Silicates in illustration of
Uozoon. (3 plates.) Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc, XXXV., pp. 48-66.

DuNCKER, H. C. J. — On Blepharisma lateritia. Zool. Anzeig., II., p. 260.

Eyferth, B. — See Algse.

Maupas, E. — On Haptophrya gigantea, a new Opalina from the Intestine of
the Anourous Batrachia of Algeria. Comptes Eendus, LXXXVIIL, pp. 921-3.

Maupas, E. „ „ [Trans/.] Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., i^p. 97-9.

Mayer, Dr. P. — Wagnerella borealis. Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 357-8.

i/obiiis, K. — Professor Mobius on the Eozoon Question. [^Abstr.] (18 wood-
cuts.) Nature, XX., pp. 272-5, 297-301.

RoBSON, M. H. — Euglena viridis, and its Sucker-bulb.

Sci.-Gossip. No. 175, p. 159.

Sterki, Dr. V. — Tintinnus semiciliatus. A new Species of Infusoria. (5 fiy:s.
of a plate.) Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., XXXII., pp. 460-5.

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology of the
Phanerogamia.

Behrens, Dr. W. J. — The Nectaries of Flowers. Anatomical-physiological
Researches. {In part.) (5 plates.)

Flora, LXII., pp. 2-11, 17-27, 49-54, 81-90, 113-23, 145-53, 233-40,

241-7, 305-14.
Capus, G. — Anatomy of the conducting Tissue [of the Style]. {In part.)

Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), VII., pp. 209-48.
Celakotsky, Dr. L. — On Gymnospermy in the Coniferse.

Flora, LXII., pp. 257-64, 273-83.
D'Arbaumont, M. — Contribution to the History of Adventitious Roots, apropos
of the Lenticels of Cissus quinquefolia. (1 plate.)

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., pp. 185-205.
Dawson, Prof. — The Genesis and Migrations of Plants. {Ahstr. from ' Prince-
town Review.') Nature, XX., p. 257.
Fbemy, E. — Chemical Researches on the Formation of Coal.

Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIIL, pp. 1048-55.
Gbothe, H. — '■ Tela contexta " in the Vegetable Kingdom. 8vo. Berlin, 1879.
GiJMBEL, Dr. C— Geognostic Communications from the Alps. V. The Vegetable
fossiliferous Sandstones of Recoaro. SB. Bai/. Ahad. Miin.chen, 1879, pp. 33-85.

Haberlandt, Dr. G. — History of the Development of the Mechanical Tissue-
system of Plants. (9 plates.) Leipzig, 1879.

Hennigee, K. a. — On Hybridization in the Vegetable Kingdom. (Zn part.)

Flora, LXII , pp. 225-33, 247-54, 265-72, 298-302, 314-17.

Henslov?, Rev. G., M.A., F.L.S., &c. — On the Absorption of Rain and Dew

by the Green Parts of Plants. Joum. Linn. Soc. {Bot.), XVII., pp. 313-27.

HoHNEL, Dr. F. v. — On the Cause of the Rapitl Diminution of the Capacity

of Branches for allowing "Water to pass through. (1 fig.)

Bot. Zeit., XXXVIL, pp. 297-311, 313-22.
HoLTZ, L. — On the Flora of South Russia {continued).

Linnaca, XL VII., pp. 193-202.

Kerner, A. — Contribution to the History of the Migrations of Plants. (From

Deutsche Revue.') Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., pp. 174-82, 212-24.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 639

Kracs, Dr. C. — Causes of the Change of Form of Etiolated Plants (conclideJ).

Hot. Zeit., XXXVII., pp. 332-5.

Lanessan, J. L. DK. — On the Circulation of Gases and the Phenomena of the

Gaseous Diffusion of Heat in Plants. Rev. Intemaf. ScL, IV., pp. 70-85.

LuERSSEN, Dr. Chr.— Outlines of Botany. 2nded. (216 figs.) 483 pages. 8vo.

Leipzig, 187'J.

Macchiati, L. — Experiments on the Emission of Carbonic Acid by Roots.

Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital, XI., p. 203-11.
Mayer, J.— Process of Eespiration in Marsh and Water Plants. \_Note —
Orig. in ' Landwirtschaftl. Versuchs-Stationen,' XXIII.]

Naturforscher, XII., pp. 257-8.
Mer, E. — On tlie Influence of Media on the Structure of Roots

Comptes Eend'ts, LXXXVIII., pp. 1277-80.
MiKOSCH, Dr. K.— Researches on the Origin of Chlorophyll-grains.

SB. Akad. Whs., LXXVIII., pp 265-88.
Moisson, H. — The Diffusion of Gases in the Respiration of Plants. ( Transl.
from ' Annales Agronomiques.') Naturforscher, XII., pp. 2-16-8.

MuscuLUS, F. — On the Physical Modifications which Starch undergoes.

Bot. Zeit., XXXVII., pp. 315-51.

Nobbc, F., H. Hanlein, and C. Councler. — Phosphate of Lime in the Living

Plant-cell. [_Note — Orig. in ' Landwirtscliaftl. Versuchs - Stationen,' XXIIL,

p. 471.] Naturforscher, XII., p. 276.

Peyritsch, Dr. J. — On Placental Outgrowths. (2 plates.)

SB. Akad. Wiss., LXXVIII., pp. 220-43.
ScHiMPER, A. F. W. — Researches on the Protein Crystalloids of Plants. 66 pp.
8vo. Strassburg, 1879.

Schmoger, M. — On the Assimilation of Carbon by Plants out of Organic Sub-
stances. (From 'Ber. Deutsch. Cliem. Gesell., XII., p. 753.)

Naturforscher, XII., pp. 228-9. .
ScHNETZLER, J. B. — On the Presence of Tannin in Plant-cells.

Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., I., pp. 344-8.

Schwendener, Z>r.— Mechanical Theory of the Position of Leaves. (^Transl.

of the author's Re'sume'.) Bev. Inter nat. Sci., III., pp. 450-3.

Stearns, R. E. C. — Form of Seeds as a Factor in Natural Selection in Plants.

(8 figs.) Am. Nat., XIIL, pp. 411-20.

Strasburger, E. — New Observations on Cell Formation and Cell Division.

(1 plate.) (171 part.) Bot. Zeit., XXXYIL, pp. 265-79.

Templin, Rev. L. J. — Leaves and their Functions. (From ' Kansas City Review

of Science and Industry.') M. Journ. Sci., I., pp. 406-11.

Trelease, W. — On the Fertilization of several Species of Lobelia. (9 figs.)

Am. Nat., XIIL, pp. 427-32.
„ The Mutual Relations between Flowers and the Insects which

serve to cross them. (Review of Dr. Miiller's paper in Schenck's ' Handbuch der
Botanik.') Am. Nat., XIIL, pp. 451-2.

Vesque, J. — New Researches on the Development of the Embryonal Sac in
the Augiospermous Phanerogams. Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIII., pp. 1359-61.

ViLLEPOix, R. M. DE. — Note on the Resinous Canals of the Fruit of the Umbel-
lifers. CR. Soc. Biol. (Pans), XXIX., pp. 346-7.
VoGEL. — On the Acid Reaction of Flowers.

SB. Bay. Akad. Munchen, 1879, pp. 19-29.

Williamson, Prof. W. C, F.R.S. — On the Organisation of the Fossil Plants

of the Coal Measures, Part IX. (7 plates.) Phil. Trans., CLXIX., pp. 319-64.

„ „ „ „ „ PartX.

Proc. Roy. Soc, XXVIII., pp. 445-9.

Weight, E. Perceval.— On Pollen Plants. (3 figs.) Nature, XX., pp. 225-6.

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Daily, W. H., F.G.S.— See Zoology, B.

BouLAY. — Revision of the Flora of the Northern Departments of France.
2nd Fasc. 46 pp. 18mo. Paris, 1879.

Italian Cryptogamic Herbarium, published by the Italian Cryptogamic
Society. Ser. II., Fasc. XV., XVI., XVII., Nos. 701-850. Milan, 1878.

2 u 2

640 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Lesqtjeueux, L. — Atliis to the Coal I'loia of Poinisylviinia and of Carboni-
ferous Formations throughout the UniteJ States. (87 plates. Text to follow.)

Maechand, Dr. Ij.— On the Utility of the Study of Cryptogams from a Medico-
Pharmaceutical point of view. Jonrn. dc Mia:, III., pp. 211-20.

KoDRiGUEZ, J. J. — Botanical Excursion to Puig de TorroUa (Mallorca). [Cryp-
togamia = 2 Ferns.J Ann. Soc. E^p. Hist. Nat., VIII., pp. 39-64.

RouMEGciiuE, C. — Homage to the Memory of J. B. Mougeot, author of ' Stirpes
Cryptogamse Vogeso-Ehenanse.' Reliquise Mougeotiana>.

Rev. Mi/coL, I., pp. 49-54.

„ „ Tlie Countess Elizabeth Fiorini-Mazzanti. (Biographical

Notice ) Bcv. Mijcol, I., pp. 104-9.

Crjrptogamia Vascularia.

Andra, Prof.— Some Ferns of the Carboniferous Flora.

SB. Niederrhein. GeselL, 1877, pp. 13-14.

Bailey, F. M., F.L.S., &c.— On the Ferns of Queensland.

I'roc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., III., pp. 118-22.

Boreas, Dr. V. de. — Pteridophyta herbarii Doetoris L. Haynaldi Hungarica.
[addenda nova]. Linnwa, XLVII., pp. 203-16.

Davenport, G. E. — Catalogue of tlie Davenport Herbarium of North American
Ferns, Massachusetts Horticultural Society. 42 pp. 8vo. Salem, 1879.

Gardner, J. S., F.G.S., &c., and Prof. C. Baron Ettinghaisen, Ph.D., &c. —
A Monograph of the British Eocene Flora. Part I. Filices. (5 plates and 15 figs.)
pp. 1-38. Palccvntoiir. Soc, XXXIII.

Goode, J. B. — Notes on Canadian Ferns. Can. Nat., IX., p. 49.

Hart, II. C, B.A. — On the Flora of North-Western Donegal. Addenda.
[Filices 8.] Jonrn. Bat., VIII., pp. 183-4.

Heinkicher, C. — On Adventitious Buds on the liamina of the Frond of some
•Ferns. (1 plate.) SB. Akad. Wiss., LXXVIII., pp. 249-64.

Leitgeb, H.— On Bilateralness of Prothallia. Flora, LXII., pp. 317-20.

Muscineae.

Ekstrand, E. v.— Notes on Scandinavian Hepaticcc. (Li part.)

Bat. Notiser, 1879, pp. 36-45.
„ „ On Bud-formation on the Leaves of Hepaticw.

Bot. Notiser, 1879, pp. 33-6.
Fekgcsson, Eev. J. — Recent Advances in British Bryology.

Scot. Nat., v., pp. 125-31.
FoCKE, Dr. W. 0. — The Moss-flora of the Lowlands of Lower Saxony.

Abh. Nat. Vcr. Bremen, VI., pp. 99-108, and 336.

Kirk, T., F.L.S. — Notice of the discovery of Monoclea Fursteri Hook in New

Zealand. Grevillea, IV., p. 151.

Leitgeb, Prof. Dr. H. — Researches on the Liverworts, Part IV. The Riccieas.

(9 plates.) 101 pp. 4to. Gratz, 1879.

Malinvatjd, E. — A Word on the Bryology of Haute-Vieune and Mont Dore,
according to the recent researches of M. E. Lamy de la Chapelle.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., pp. 214-17.
MiJLLER, C. — Prodromus Bryologise Argentiuicte, I. (fn part.)

Linnwa, XLVII., pp. 217-88, 289-384.

Philibert. — On two new Mosses discovered in the Department of the Saone-

et-IiOire. {Ln part.) [(1) Ephemerium stellatum.'] Rev. BriioL, VI., pp. 62-4.

Rehmann, Dr. A. — Musci Austro- African! exsicc. (Nos. 200-260.) Regens-

burg, 1879.

Sommers, J., M.D. — A Contribution towards the Study of Nova Scotian
Mosses. Proc. 4- Trans. Nov. Scot. List., IV., pp. 362-9.

Ventvri, Dr. G. — Bryinese ex regione Italica Tirolis, Tridentina dicta.

Rev. Bryol., VI., pp. 49-62.
Waldner, M. — The Origin of the Tubes in the Nostoc-Colonies in Blasia.
(1 plate.) SB. Akad. Wiss., LXXVIII., pp. 294-300.

Zi'KAi,, H. — The Cnminensalism of Moss and Lichen.

On^terr. Bot. Zcitsch:, XXIX.. pp. 189-91.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

Characeae.

641

Allen, T. F., A.M., M.D.— Chaiacea) Americanse, Part II. (1 plate, 1 p., and
1 fig.) \_Cham crinita Wallr. var. Americana.'] 4to. New York [1879].
Vines, S. H., B.A. — Note ou the Morphology of the Cbaraceaj.

Journ. Bot., VIII., pp. 17G-7.

Fungi.

Bainiee, M. — Note on two Vaiieties of Aschotriclia.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., pp. 245-6.

Bechamp, a. — Facts bearing on the History of Beer Yeast and Alcoholic

Fermentation. Physical and Physiological Action of certain Saline and other

Substances on Normal Yeast. Comptes Bendus, LXXXYIII., pp. 866-8.

Bert, P. — Experiments on the Blood of Anthrax.

CE. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 19-20.

„ On the Virus of Anthrax. „ „ „ p. 24.

On the Nature of Anthrax. „ „ „ pp. 317-20.

BvTLiN, H. T., F.R.C.S.— On the Nature of the Fur on the Tongue. (4 plates.)

Proc. Roij. Soc, XXVIII., pp. 484-9.
Cakuel, T., and A. Mori. — On the Black-spot Disease of the Oranges.

Nuoi: Giorn. Bot. ItaL, XI., pp. 214-15.
Cooke, M. C, M.A., &c. — British SiDecies of Uromyces. [27.]

Grevillea, IV., pp. 133-9.
„ „ New British Fungi (^continued).

\_A,]aricus, 45 ; Hiotula, 1 ; Bolbitius, 1.] Grevillea, VII., pp. 127-33.

CoRNU, M. — Note on some Fungi of the Flora of France.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., pp. 210-13.
„ Notes and Remarks on the Uredinei — Roestelia observed out of the

ordinary Season. Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., pp. 221-4.

„ Anatomy of the Lesions of the Vine caused by Anthracnose.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., pp. 227-30.
„ Note on Rhizopogon luteolus and Lenzites scepiaria.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., pp. 242-5.
Crie, L. — On the peculiar Amyloid Matter in the Asci of some Pyrenomycetes.
Comptes PeruJits, LXXXVIIl., pp. 985-6.
Engel, M. — On the Production of Conidia by a Bacillus.

Comptes Rendas, LXXXVIIl., pp. 976-7.
Feltz, V. — Rectification of his Communication of 17th March. [On a Lepto-
thrix found in the Blood of a Woman with Puerperal Fever.]

Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIIL, pp. 1214-16.

Fourcade, Ch. — The Fungi of the Subterranean GalLries of the Baths of

Bagneres-de-Luchon (and addition of the Editor). Rev. MycoL, I., pp. 63-8.

Frank, Prof. B. — On the Parasites in the Tuberous Swellings on the Koots of

the Papiliouaceaj. {In part.) (1 plate.) i>'o!!. ZeiY., XXXVIL, pp. 377-88.

Fungi Gallici Essiccati. Cent. I.-V. Index and Notes.

Rev. MycoL, I., pp. 54-8, 102-4.
GiBELLi, G. — The Disease of the Chestnut-tree ; Observations and Experiments.
45 pp. 8vo. Modena, 1879.

GiLLET, C. C. — bungi of France. The Hymenomycetes. Supplementary
plates. 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Series. (75 plates.) 8vo. Alengon, 1879.

GiLLOT, Dr. X. — Note on A<jaricus [Pholiota) unicolor Fries, and its Habitat.

Rev. MycoL, I., pp. 71-3.
HowsE, T., F.L.S. — The Cryptogamic Flora of Kent. F^^ngi {continued).

Jou. n. Bot., VIIL, pp. 178-83, 207-11.
Karsten, p. a. — Mycologia Fennica, Part 4. pp. 142. (Latin.) 8vo. Hel-
singfors, 1879.

Kobnicke, Fr. — Neovossia Kcke.

[Instead of Vossia already used for a genus of Graminese.]

Oestcrr. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., pp. 217-18.
Leilaive. — On the Virus of Anthrax. CR. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., p. 20.

642 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Lewis, T. R., M.B., &c. — The Microphytes which havo been found in the
Blood, and their relation to Disease. (1 plate and 18 woodcuts.)

Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., XIX., pp. 356-404.
LivoN, Prof. Dr. — Injections of Bacteria into the Blood without any Phenomena
of Poisoning. CB. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 355-6.

Macchiati, L. — On some Parasitic Fungi of Sardinian Phanerogams. [In
' Giornale del Laboratorio crittogamico ed entomologico per lo studio dei parassiti
vegetali ed animali delle piante fanerogame della Sardegna.'] pp. 36-40 Sas-
sari, 1879.

Jihvinns, P.— The Uromycea of Euphorbia. {Transl. from 'Hedwigia' for
May, 1877.) Grevilka, IV., pp. 147-50.

'Nageli, C. v.— Theory of Fermfntation.

Abh. Baij. Akad. Munchen, XIII., Part 2, pp. 75-205.
Pastbuk, L.— Observations on M. Feltz's paper.

Comptcs Reiidus, LXXXVIII.. pp. 1216-17.
Phillips, W., F.L.S.— A new British Peziza. [P. Asterostoma Broome, Shrop-
shire.] Grevillea, IV., p. 140.
QuELET, Dr. L.— The Tribe of the N'udci (Pyrenomycetes of Fries).

Jiev. MycoL, I., pp. 68-71.

Reinke, J., and G. Berthold. — The Destruction of the Potato by Fungi.

(9 plates.) Untcrstich. Bot. Lab. Univ. Giitt., I., pp. 1-100.

RouMEGCERE, C. —On the Cultivation of Edible Fungi in France, England,

Belgium, and Italy. Bev. Mycol, I., pp. 73-80.

RouTiER and Regnard. — A Case of Anthrax observed at the HGtel-Dieu —

Analysis of the Products of Respiration— Examination of the Blood — Death.

CR. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 442-5, 465-6.

Saint-Gal, M.—The Sclerolium of the Jerusalem Artichoke. (From ' Ann. Soc.

Acad. Nantes.') Bev. MycoL, I., pp. 122-3.

ScHULZER, S.— Mycological Notes. Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., pp. 191-2.

Seynes, M. de. — On the Amyloid Appearance of Cellulose in Fungi.

Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIII., pp. 1043-4.
THiJMEN, F. de. — Hyphomycetes nonnuUi novi Americani. [13 nov. sp.]

Eei\ Mycol., I., pp. 58-61.
Veeder, M. A. — The Propagation of Cluster-cups. Am. Nat.,^ XIII., p. 467.
VizE, Rev. J. E., M.A. — An Introduction to the Study of Fungi.

Midi. Nat., II., pp. 145-50.
Liichenes.

Cooke, M. C, M.A., &c. — The Dual Lichen Hypothesis (concluded).

Grevillea, VII., pp. 117-26.
Ckombie, Rev. J. M., F.L.S. — Additions to the British Bamalinei [11], with
Note on Lecidea farinaria and on Bacidia Anwldiana. Grevillea, IV., pp. 141-3.

„ „ Observations on Microgonidia.

Grevillea, IV., pp. 143 5.
DuTAiLLY, G.— Observations on the Nature of Lichens.

Rev. Mycol, L, pp. 119-21.
Egeling, G. — List of the Licliens hitherto observed in Brandenburg.

Verh. Bot. Yer. Brandenburg, XX., pp. 17-50.
Joshua's (W.) Preparations of Lichens for the Microscope.

Grevillea, IV., pp. 145-6.
Larbalestier's (C.) Lichens of Ireland. Grevillea, IV., p. 146.

MtJLLER, Prof. Dr. J. — Lichenological Contributions, IX. (continued).

Flora, LXIL, pp. 289-98.
„ „ Note on the Nature of Lichens.

Arch. Sci. Phys. ct Nat., I., pp. 49-56.
Nylander, W. — Circa Lichenes vitricolas Nt)tulii. Flora, LXIL, pp. 303-4.
Reess, Prof. M.— On the Nature of Lichens. (10 figs.) pp. 47. 8vo. Berlin,
1879.

Rolmeguere, C. — Researches of Dr. Miiller on the Nature of Lichens.

Rev. Mycol., I., pp. 61-3.
Stein, B.— Cryptogamic Flora of Silesia. 2nd vol. 2nd half. Lichens. 400 pp.
8vo. Breslau, 1879.

Zvkal, H.— See Muscineae.

INVERTEBRATA, C'RYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. G43

Algae.

BoBNET, E.-On some Marine Algse. (Review of Dr. E. P. Wright's papers
in ' Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy.') Nature, XX., pp. 155-6.

Cox, J. D. — Surirella Craticula, an abnormal form of Navicula cuspidata.
(2 figs.) Am. Jou.-n. Micr., IV., pp 97-100.

Dickie, G., M.D., F.L.S.— Notes on Algse from Lake Nyassa, E. Africa.
(1 %.) Jouni. Linn. Soc. ^ Dot.), XVII., pp. 281-3.

Eyferth, B.— Schizophyta and Fiagellata. Supplement to his Systematic
Natural History of the Microscopic Inhabitants of Fresh Water. (2 plates.)
22 pp. 4to. Brunswicli, 1879.

Falkenberg, p.— The Fecundation and Alternation of Generation in Cutlena.
(1 plate.) MM/wU. Zool. Stat. Neapel, I., Part 3, pp. 420-47.

Farlow, W. G., C. L. Anderson, and D. C. Eaton. - Algso exsiccatse Americse
Borealis.— List of Species in Fasc. HI. [31]. Grevillea, IV., pp. 139-40.

Lanzi, Dr. M.— Tile Thallus of the Diatomacea3. (1 plate.)

Mem. Soc. Be'g. Micr., IV., pp. 1-15.

Manoury, C— The Diatomacese of the Mouth of the Seine.

£ev. Internat. Sci., III., pp. 532-9.

Macpas, E.— Ou the Systematic Position of the Volvocinese, and on the
Limits of the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms.

Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIIL, pp. 1274-7.

Reinsch, p. F. — A new Genus of Ciiroolepideae. (Plate to follow.)

But. Zeit., XXXVII., pp. 361-6.

Richteu, p. — New Bacillariacese. \HomodOcladia gernumica ; H. conferta.']

Hehohjia, XVII., pp. 65-7.

Smith, H. L., Hon. F.R.M.S.— A few Notes on Part HI., Diatoms edited by
Cleve and MoUer, Nos. 109-68. Am. Journ. Micr., pp. 100-2.

TiEGHEM, P. Van. — On the " Gum " of Sugar Works, Leuconostoc mesenteroides.
(1 plate.) {Continued.) Ann. Sci. Nat. {Bot.), VII., pp. 185-203.

WiTTROCK, v., & O. NoBDSTEDT.— Algae aquse dulcis exsiccatse prsecipue
Scandinavicse, &c. Fasc. 5 & 6. Nos. 201-300. Upsaliaj, 1879.

Wittrock, v., & 0. Nordstedt. — Review of preceding.

Bot. Notiser, 1879, pp. 20-7.

MICROSCOPY, &o.

Broeck, E. Vanden— Instructions for the Collection of Living Foraminifera.

Journ. de Micr., III., pp. 237-42,
Brosicke, Dr. (?.— Another Method of Staining Microscopical Specimens.
lAb^tr.'] [Osmic and Oxalic Acids.] _ /Scj.-Gossj//, No. 175, p. 160.

Certes, a. — On a Method of Preserving Infusoria.

Journ. de Micr., III., pp. 242-5.

Dymond, C. H. — On Mounting Seeds. Sci.-Gossip, No. 174, pp. 131-2.

Exner, Prof. 6".— Guide to the Microscopic Examination of Animal Tissues.

{Transl. into "French from the second German edition by Dr. F. Schiffers.)

(,7 figs.) 100 pp. 8vo. Paris and Liege, 1879.

Fell, G. E., C.E. -Practical Hints on the Preparation of Opaque Objects for
Microscopical Examinaiion. [Read before the Buifalo Micro.scopical Club.]

Am. Journ. Micr., IV., pp. 106-11.
Hart, J. N. de. — The Microscope in its Relation to Medicine and Cerebral
Pathology. 12 pp. (^Reprinted from ' Chicago Med. Journ. and Exam.') Svo.
Chicago, 1879.

Renaut, J. — Ou Haematoxylic Eosin and its Emplovment in Histology.

Comptes Rendus, LXXXVIIL, pp. 1039-42.

Robertson, D., /'.(J.^.— Information as to the Mode of Collecting Marine

Microzoa. ( Transl. from ' Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow,' in ' Ann. Soc. Acad. Nantes.')

Bull. Soc. Belj. Micr., V., pp. 199-207.
ScHAFER, Dr. H.— On Injection Methods. Zeitschr. Mir., II., pp. 10-16.

Smith, Prof. H. L., Hon." F.K.M.S.— Some Remarkson Microscopical Manipu-
lation. (4 figs.) Am. Journ, Micr., IV., pp. 102-6.

644 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAM I A, ETC.

Undebhill, H. M. J. — Preparation of Insects for Microscopical Examination
(concluded). Sci.-Gossip, No. 174, pp. 121-2.

Wackernagel, p. — Preparation of the Diatomacete. (2 figs.)

Zeitschr. Mikr., II., pp. 57-68.
VViCHMANN, Dr. A. — A Microscopical Study of some Huronian Clay Slates.

Quart. Jo'irn. Geol. Soc, XXXV., pp. 156-G4.

Apparatus for Cutting Thin Covering Glass. (1 fig.)

Zeits'-hr. Mikr., 11., pp. 77-9.

Broeck, E. Vanden. — Description of a New Kind of Slide for Mounting Dry

Preparations, and specially applicable to Collections of Foraminifera, Entomo-

stracaj, &c. (1 plate.) Mem. Soc. Belg. Micr., IV., p. 111-18.

D'Arsonval. — Remarks on the Microscope.

CR. Soc. Biol. Paris, XXIX., pp. 124-5.
GuNDLACH, E. — New Quadruple Objective for Astronomical Telescopes.
(4 woodcuts.) Proc. Am. Assoc, 1877 (1878). pp. 127-34.

Kaiser, Dr. E.— Microscopy at the Berlin Technical Exhibition in 1879. I.

Zeitschr. Mikr., II., pp. 69-73.
LococK, W.— " Centerer " for Slides. (1 fig.) Sci.-Gossip, No. 175, p. 160.

M. Dr. — Microscopic Cleanliness. [" Patent Chequered Pumice Tablet," for
Removing Stains of Balsam, Pigments, Varnishes, &c.]

Sci.-Gossip, No. 175, pp. 159-60.
Micrometry, National Committee on. Am. Journ. Micr., iV., p. 114.

Pelletan, Dr. J. — The Oil Question at the Royal Microscopical Society of
London. Joum. de Micr., III., pp. 234-7.

Veeder, M. a.— Lead Cells. Am. Nat., XIII., p. 409.

Ward, R. H. — A Modification of Wenham's Reflex Illuminator.

Proc. Am. Assoc, 1877 (1878), pp. 205-6.
Zeiss's Travelling Microscope. (1 fig.) Zeitschr. Mikr., II., pp. 16-19.

( 645 )

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting of 11th June, 1879, at King's College, Strand, W.C.
The President (Dr. Beale, F.R.S.) in the Chair.

The President having called upon the Secretary to read the minutes
of the preceding meeting,

Dr. Millar asked leave to make an amendment to one portion of
the report — that which related to the thanks of the Society having
been voted to the library committee for their services in arranging
the new room. He thought that special reference should have been
made in that vote to Mr. Crisp and to his donation of the three
handsome chairs for the President and Secretaries now before them,
and he begged to move that the thanks of the Society be given
accordingly.

Mr. Glaisher said that Mr. Crisp seemed determined to lay the
Society under as much obligation as possible, for in addition to his
other services, and to his great share in the production of a Journal
which they might justly be proud of, he had made them this present.
He had much pleasure in seconding the vote of thanks.

The motion having been put and carried unanimously, the minutes
of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

The President said that before proceeding to the business of the
meeting, he had a sad duty to perform in announcing the loss of one
of their most valued Fellows, Mr. Charles Brooke, F.E.S., who was
well known amongst them from his past services as member of the
Council and twice President.

Mr. Glaisher said that the loss which they had experienced was
indeed a serious one. Having known Mr. Brooke for many years, he
could speak to the deep interest which he took in the welfare of their
Society, and his readiness at all times to do his best to advance micro-
scopical science. He had therefore risen to move that a letter of con-
dolence should be forwarded to Mr. Brooke's relatives on behalf of
the Society, expressing their sense of the great loss which the Society
had sustained, and their appreciation of the benefits which it had
derived from IVIi". Brooke's association with them.

Dr. Millar having seconded the motion, it was carried unanimously.

The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges) received since
the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given to
the donors ; special reference being made by the President to the
handsome volume presented by Mr. Glaisher.

From
Certes, A. — Sur une Me'thode de Conservation des Infusoii-es.

(Extracted from ' Comptes Eendiis.') 1 plate The Author.

Hyatt, J. D.— The Sting of the Honey-Bee. (Extracted from

the ' Am. Quart. Micr. Journ.') 9 pp., 2 plates . . . . Ditto.
Report upon United States Geographical Surveys West of the

One Huudredtli Meridian. Vol. iv. Palaontology. 4to.

Washington, 1877. 219 and 370 pp., 83 plates .. .. Mr. Glcmhcr.

646 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

From

Slack, H. J., F.G.S., &c.— Marvels of Pond Life. 3rd edition.

158 pp., 7 plates and 50 woodcuts. 8vo. London, 1878. Mr. CrinjJ.

Van Heurck, H. — Le IMicroscope: sa Construction, son Manie-
ment, et son Apjilication a 1' Anatomic ve'ge'tale et aux
Diatomees. 3rd edition. 346 pp., 12 plates and 170 wood-
cuts. 8vo. Bruxelles, 1879 The Author.

Woodward's Prism. (Described in ' Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc,"

i. (1878) p. 246.) Mr. Crisp.

Young's Campliine Lamp Cotton, for distribution among the

Fellows Mr.W.T.Suffol':.

Zittel, K. A. — Beitrage zur Systematik der fossileu Spongien.

132 pp., 10 plates. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1879 Mr. Crisp.

The President said he had much pleasure in announcing that they
were favoured that evening by the presence of a distinguished Honorary
Fellow of the Society — Professor Abbe, of Jena — who would read a
paper " On a New Method of Correcting Spherical Aberration."

Professor Abbe on rising was very warmly received by the meeting,
and proceeded to explain the method which he had adopted for cor-
recting spherical aberration, illustrating his remarks by diagrams on
the black-board as he proceeded. He also exhibited an objective in its
complete form made upon the new principle.

The President, in moving a vote of thanks to Professor Abbe for
his communication, felt sure that the meeting must have been highly
gratified by his very clear explanation of a difiScult subject.

Mr. Wenham said it appeared to him that Professor Abbe had
mooted a very important question in reference to the difference between
the magnifying power of the centre and the margin of the field, which
had not yet been properly investigated. He wished to ask Professor
Abbe whether he found that this distortion bore any regular ratio to
the angle of aperture ?

Professor Abbe said that the difference of amplification was not the
same as distortion. It was a difference of amplification which might
arise in the centre of the field of view from difference of conjugate
points. It was quite distinct from the distortion due to different
amplification in different parts of the field.

Mr. Palmer inquired what particular form of front lens was
employed.

Professor Abbe said he had brought one with him to show the
construction. It was a lens about 5^ greater than a hemisphere, and
was mounted on a very thin plane plate of glass, of somewhat greater
diameter than the plane face of the lens, the projecting zone serving
for the mounting in the metal cell. This the Professor exhibited,
also giving a diagram showing the posterior lenses in the combination,
and explaining wherein the new arrangement differed from previous
combinations. Very great difiiculty had been met with in producing
accurate figure to the edge of this new front lens ; he could, however,
vouch for the fact that excellent figure had been obtained up to 5° or
10'^ beyond the hemisphere.

Mr. Beck thought they must all feel very much indebted to
Professor Abbe for bringing this subject before them, but he wished
to inquire whether the plan which he had suggested for doubling up

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 647

(so to say) the red and blue rays at the margin of the object-glass was
not somewhat similar to the effect i^roduced in the eye-piece of the
telescope by making the red and blue rays cross over.

Professor Abbe said that there was a certain similarity, but there
was also a considerable difference. He then further explained by means
of drawings the course taken by rays departing from different points
and passing through the object-glass.

Mr. lugpen hoped that in passing a cordial vote of thanks to
Professor Abbe, they would not omit to compliment him upon having
taken a course so very rarely pursued by those who worked at the
theory and practice of ojitics; he had not only made a most valuable
improvement in objectives, but had at once explained its principles
and method of construction.

Mr. Crisp said that they had to signalize the presence amongst
them that evening of an Ex-officio Fellow, elected under the amended
Bye-laws — Dr. H. E. Fripp, the President of the Bristol Naturalists'
Society — who was, he believed, the first Ex-officio Fellow (not being
also an Ordinary Fellow) whom they had yet had the opportunity of
w^elcoming. Dr. Fripp had (as he expressed it, — by way of recognition
for the compliment paid to his Society) sent tliem a most valuable
paper " On the Theory of Illuminating Apparatus employed with
the Microscope." The paper was a long one, and at that late hour
they could not do justice to it in full, but he would earnestly recom-
mend all working microscopists to study the paper when it appeared
in the Journal.

Portions of the paper were then read (see p. 503).

The President having invited Dr. Fripp to make some remarks,

Dr. Fripp said that he rose, not to speak about his paper, but to
allude to the circumstance of his being present with them on that
occasion, no longer as a visitor, but by the courtesy of the Society as
one of its Fellows. For this courtesy he desired to show himself
grateful in the directest manner which common sense dictated, namely,
by accepting the good things which came in his way, and evincing his
appreciation by hearty enjoyment of them. But he wished also,
as one of the first of the Ex-officio Fellows under the new rule, to
add that he thought the step taken by the Society in holding out a
hand of fellowshij) and helj) to those at a distance who were working
with less advantages to the same end rightly accorded with the true
instincts of science and the enlarged spirit of the age. He therefore
felt that those who were thus favoured were called upon to make
whatever humble return they might be able.

Mr. Beck much regretted that an opportunity had not been
afforded of having a discussion on the subject of Dr. Fripp's paper, as
it had a very important bearing on the practical working of the Micro-
scope. Just lately a person described to him some very remarkable
appearances which he had observed, and he was enabled to show that
ttiey were entirely due to a defect in his illuminating apparatus. He
thought that it would be well to have a full discussion on the subject.

The President said that from pressure of time, as they had other

648 PROCEEDINGS OP THE SOCIETY.

papers before them, it would be necessary to postpone the discussion —
a postponement which was the less to be regretted, inasmuch as Dr.
Fripp had been kind enough to jironiise them a second paper on the
subject at an early date, when the discussion could take place with
the advantage of their having then had an opportunity of reading the
present paper in print.

Er. W. M. Ord then stated the chief points in his paper, " On
some Causes of Brownian Movements."

Mr. Wenham said that Dr. Ord appeared to have experimented on
substances which were liable to change, and inquired whether he
attributed the movements to decomposition, and whether they were
found eventually to cease.

Dr. Ord said that the movements he had described went on as
long as they could be observed. Decomposition no doubt liad much to
do with the movement in question, but not jjutrofaction ; and chemical
metamorphoses appeared to jjlay a very important part in it.

Mr. Wenham remembered about twenty years ago experimenting
with a mixture of oil and albumen, and in one case he obtained a very
curious effect : having confined some of the substance in a small
space so as to get a narrow channel full of molecules, he found that
when they could not move laterally, they kept up a continuous move-
ment along the channel in a manner which very closely resembled
cyclosis in plants.

Dr. Ord mentioned another interesting experiment. If a small
quantity of white of egg was diluted with one-third its volume of
water, and to this was added one-tenth the quantity of liquor
potassse, and then some oil were mixed with it (by preference
neat's-foot oil), and this mixture were left for a fortnight or three
weeks, they would find in the first place a number of molecules
covered with laminae of coagulated albumen. In a certain number
of these they would find an interior globule with a pellicle of its own,
and sometimes they would also find these filled with a number of the
most minute molecules all engaged in the quickest possible Brownian
movements.

Mr. Wenham said he had in his possession a slide of quartz con-
taining a small bubble of liquid — supposed to be carbonic acid — which
had a continuous motion, and this had been going on many years.

Professor Kellicott's letter to Mr. Crisp as to Anuriea lonijispina,
described at p. 157, was read, in which he said, " It is a jjoor traveller,
and is at present known only in the water supplies of cities along
the Great Lakes, and obtained by filtering the water through muslin,
by which process a sediment of dirt and living forms is obtained,
with which the rotifer soon gets entangled, and then dies. When
they are plentiful, usually during the autumn, clean gatherings are
to be had. I have made many trials at capturing them since receiving
your letter asking me to send some, but thus far without success. I
will keep a look-out for them, and will send a good sample as soon as
they can be had."

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 649

The following five Papers were taken as read in consequence of
want of time : —

Mr. H. J. Carter, F.R.S. : On a New Species of Excavating Sponge
(^Alectona Millari) ; and on a New Species of Rliapliidotheca (M.
affinis). (See p. 493.)

Mr. H. J. Carter, F.R.S. : On a New Genus of Foraminifera (Aphro-
sina informis) ; and Spiculation of an unknown Sponge. (See p. 500.)

Colonel J. J. Woodward, Hon. F.R.M.S. : Observations suggested
by the Study of Amph'pleitra pellucida, mounted in Canada Balsam, by
Lamplight and Sunlight, with various Objectives.*

Colonel J. J. Woodward, Hon. F.R.M.S. : Note on Abbe's Experi-
ments on Pleurosigma angulatum.

Herr A. Grunow, Hon. F.R.M.S. : New Species and Varieties of
Diatomacefe from the Caspian Sea ; Translated, with additional Notes,
by F. Kitton, Hon. F.R.M.S.

Mr. Crisp said that, in accordance with the views expressed in the
last report of the Council, he had from time to time prei)ared notes
of recent observations, illustrated with diagrams, but at none of the
meetings had there been any time for him to deal with them, owing
to the other business. As the session was now closing, it would be
useless to hold them over longer, and he proposed to print one of
them in the next number of the Journal, viz. Professor Balbiani's
" Observations on Notommata Werneckii, and its Parasitism in the
Tubes of Vaucheria " (see p. 530), and later, if space allowed, Professor
Malassez's " Correction of the Distortions produced by the Camera
Lucida of Milne-Edwards and of Nachet," and " Note on the Measure-
ment of Microscopic Amplifications."

The President in wishing the Fellows a pleasant vacation said
that they might all congratulate themselves upon the present position
of the Society. Many improvements had recently been carried out ;
their finances were in an exceptionally favourable state, the capital
account having been increased, and the revenue for the present year
being no less than 2001. in excess of that of last year ; they had
acquired the use of the excellent room in which they were assembled,
and they had had nearly fifty applications for Ordinary Fellowship,
which Mr. Crisp told him was an unprecedented increase in so short a
time, there being still three more meetings to complete the year. He
hoped that they would continue to prosper, and that the Fellows would
not be idle during the recess, so that they might have a good number of
interesting subjects for consideration when the meetings were resumed.

The following Objects, Apparatus, &c., were exhibited:—

Professor Abbe : — Objectives and combinations of lenses illus-
trating his paper.

Mr. A. de Souza Guimaraens : — Diorite (Napoleonite) ; Diorite
(quartz) ; Hauyne ; Lava (Vesuvius) ; Liparite (Sj)ha3rulitic). (Pre-
pared by Dr. Eduard Kaiser, of Berlin.)

* The photographs did not arrive in time for the meeting, but will be exhibited
at the October meeting;.

650 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Mr. Loy : — Larva of Odonestis potatoria (the Driuker Moth).

Mr. F. M. Eogers :— Electrical mounting table, described at
p. 469.

Mr. Crisp: — (1) Professor A. de Lasaulx's apparatus for deter-
mining the angle of the optic axes of crystals with the Microscope,
described at i>. 191. (2) Fresh-water i(i)/s/s from Butfalo, referred to at
p. 52, with some undetermined Ehizopods adhering to it (sent by Pro-
fessor D. S. Kellicott, of Buifalo). (3) tlroglena volvox (from Mr. Bolton).

New Fellows : — The following were elected Ordinary Felloios : —
Messrs. H. S. Carpenter, F.C.S., A. C. Cole, J. A. Douglas, Eomyn
Hitchcock, G. L. Nichols, J. Stubbins, and T. E. Watson.

The Presidents for the time being of the following Societies were
elected Ex-officio Felloios: —

Germany. — K. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin. (Dresden) K. Leopoldinisch-Caroliuische Deutsche Akademie
der Naturforscher. (Miinchen) K. Bayerische Akademie der Wissen-
schaften.

Austria - Hungary. — (Wien) E. Akademie der Wissenschaften
(Prag) K. Bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. (Budapest)
Hungarian Academy.

Holland. — (Amsterdam) K. Akademie van Wetenschappen.

Denmark. — (Kjobenhavn) K. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.

Sweden. — (Stockholm) K. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademien.

Switzerland. — (Ziirich) Allgemeine Schweizerische Gesellschaft
fiir die Gesammten Natur wissenschaften (Societe Helvetique des
Sciences Naturelles).

France. — (Paris) Academic des Sciences.

Belgium. — (Bruxelles) Academic Eoyale des Sciences, des Lettres
et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique.

Italy. — (Eoma) E. Accademia dei Lincei.

Portugal. — Academia E. das Sciencias de Lisboa.

Eussia. — Academic Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg.

The Ordinary Wednesday Evening Meeting in the Library,
on the 18th June, was very numerously attended, to hear Professor
Abbe give a demonstration of his "Theory of the Microscope and
nature of Microscopic Vision," by the aid of the special apparatus
belonging to the University of Jena, devised by him for the purpose.

The apparatus consists of an objective of about 1 foot focal length,
with a condenser of the same power, the illuminating beam from the
lamp being in the focal point of the latter, so that parallel rays fall
on the objects exhibited, which consist of gratings of various forms
ruled on plates of glass coated with a very fine film of lampblack.
The instrument, in fact, forms a Microscope of unusually low power,
and consequent large scale. The sub-stage was designed some years
ago, and was the same in principle as that of Mr. Zentmayer of
Philadelphia. Some of the most curious of the experiments were
produced by the illuminating beam being made to fall with oblique
incidence on the gratings by means of the swinging sub-stage.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 651

The Professor explained and illustrated by diagrams on the black-
board the essential points of the views he put forward in 1874, as to the
manner in which the microscopic image is formed, and the causes of the
appearance presented by certain details in the image, which he showed
to be due to the influence of the internal structural constitution of tlie
object upon the rays of light transmitted through it, the microscopic
image of an object with very fine details being in fact composed of two
images, an " absorption image " and a " diffraction image," and the
ordinary theory that explained the formation of the image by the
geometrical method, and attributed the action of wirl<^-angled glasses
to shadow effects, being altogether fallacious. He showed the produc-
tion of spurious lines, hexagons, &c., in the same object, when different
diajihragms were used, and gave other interesting demonstrations of
his theory, with a perfection (by means of the new apparatus) that
could not be attained with the ordinary Microscope.

The Professor's views have already been published in extenso,* but
he added a new demonstration, of which he has promised to write a
short explanation for the October number of the Journal.

Scientific Evening.
The second Scientific Evening of the Session was held in the
Libraries of King's College, on the evening of Wednesday the 21st
May, 1879.

The following were the objects, &c., exhibited : —
Dr. E. W. Alabone :

Dissection of drone-fly, showing sucking stomach, chyle stomach,
tracheal vessels, nervous system, &c.
Mr. P. W. Andrews :

Crystals from the surface of an ancient terra-cotta Etruscan vase,
and from a glazed terra-cotta Spanish mosaic of the fifteenth
century.
Mr. Charles Baker :

Model binocular and model histological Microscopes.
Mr. W. A. Bevington :

Stephenson's erecting Microscope,
Lung of frog.
Mr. Arthur Cole :

A series of 24 slides of aromatic salts for the polariscope, prepared
by Dr. Otto N. Witt.
Mr. Frank Crisp :

Melicerta tubicolaria.
Trachelius ovum.

* See ' Arch. Mikr. Anat.' (Max Schulze), ix. (1874). " Contributioa to
the Theory of the Microscope," translated by Dr. H. E. Fripp in the 'Proceedings
of the Bristol Naturalists' Society,' n. s., i. (1875) p. 200, and extracted in part
in 'M. M. J.,' xiv. (1875) pp. 191 and 245. See also Mr. J. W. Stephenson's
paper, " Observations on Prof. Abbe's Experiments illustrating his Theory of
Microscopic Vision," in ' M. M. J.,' xvii. (1877) p. 82 (1 plate), and Mr. Crisp's
"On the Influence of Diffraction in Microscopic Vision," ' Journ. Quek. Micr.
Club.,' V. (1878) p. 79 (1 plate).

652 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Mr. Charles Dunning :

Limnoria terebrans, and Chelma terebrans.
Mr. Frederick Fitch :

Q^]sophagus of blow-fly, showing constrictions.
Mr. Edward George :

Spores and elaters of Targionia Michelii, Fossombronia pusilla,
Aneura piyiguis, and other Hepaticae.
Mr. A. de Souza Giiimaraens :

Tooth of Dendrodus.

Arborescent crystals in glass.
Mr. Henry F. Hailes :

Foraminifera from Port Adelaide.
Messrs. How :

Trachyte, Hypersthenite from Penig in Saxony, and Chert from
the Middle Drift near Wood Green.
Mr. W. T. Loy :

Series of dissections illustrating the anatomy of Meloe cicatricosus
and larva of Bombijx mori with dorsal vessels injected.
Mr. J. Mayall, jun. :

Abbe's apertometer, with Powell and Lealand's and Zeiss's oil-im-
mersion ol)jectives.
Mr. A. D. Michael :

Notlirus theleprodus, one of the Oribatidge, and the newly dis-
covered nymph of Tegeocranus latus.
Dr. J. Millar :

An undescribed boring sponge.
Mr. E. T. Newton :

Sections of brain of Blatta.

Model of insect's brain.
Messrs. Powell and Lealand :

1 oil-immersion objective.
Mr. B. W. Priest:

Marine alga — Wrangelia multifida.
Mr. Henry J. Roper :

Fungi — Peridermium pini and Aecidium aviculare.
Mr. Walter W. Reeves :

Fresh-water Algae — Bulbochcete setigera and B. pygmcea.
Mr. Charles Stewart :

Section, stained, of bud of Fraxinus excelsior and the growing-
point of Char a.
Mr, J. W. Stephenson :

A Salpa — prepared with i per cent, of osmic acid.
Mr. Amos Topping :

Mouth of tadpole.

Tongue of garden spider.
Mr. F. H. Ward :

New micro-spectroscope.

Series of sections of plant-stems stained,

Walter W. Reeves,

Assist.-Secretary.

I5- In consequence of the enlargement Of the Journal, the price to Non-
Fellows will be 4s. per Number after the present year.

^^•rr 1 -r-r ii-r a»t r^ ^m^-«-.-r-i-r% t es^fx TTo Non-FellOWS, 'i-N

I Vol. II. No. 6.] OCTOBER, 1879. [ Price 3s.

Journal

OF THE

Royal
Microscopical Society;

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

AND A RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA,
MICROSCOPY, &o.,

INCLUDING EMBRYOLOGY AND HISTOLOGY GENERALLY.

li

Edited, under the direction of the Publication Committee^ by
FRANK CRISP, LL.B., B.A., F.L.S.,

ONE OF THE SECRETARIES OF THE SOCIETY.

WILLIAMS & NORGATE,

LONDON AND EDINBURGH. ^(

r

^

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS,] [STAMFORD STREET AND CHARIKG CROSS.

JOUENAL

OP THE

EOYAL MICEOSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

VOL. II. No. 6.

CONTENTS.

Tbansactions of the Society — pagb

XXX. OnaNewSpeoiesopCothubnia. By John Davis, F.K.M.S.

(Plate XX.) 653

XXXI. On some Causes of Beownian Movements. By William

M. Ord, M.D. Lond., r.E.M.S., &c 656

XXXn. Observations suggested by the Study of Amphipleura

PBLLUCIDA, mounted IN CanADA BaLSAM, BY LaMPLIGHT

AND Sunlight, with various Objectives. By J. J.
Woodward, Surgeon and Brevet Lieutenant- Colonel
U.S. Army, Hon. F.R.M.S 663

XXXIII. Note on Abbe's Experiment on Pleueosigma angulatum.

By J. J. Woodward, Surgeon and Brevet Lieutenant-
Colonel, U.S. Army, Hon. F.E.M.S 675

XXXIV. New Species and Varieties op Diatomace^ from the

Caspian Sea. By A. Grunow, Hon. F.E.M.S. Trans-
lated with additional Notes by F. Kitton, Hon. F.E.M.S.
(Plate XXL) 677

Eeoord of Current Eesearches relating to Invbetbbeata,

Cryptogamia, Microscopy, &c. ., .. .. .. .. 692

Zoology.

Cell-division in Animals 692

Development of the Ribs and the Transverse Processes 693

Connective Tissue 694

Sexual Organs of Teleostei 694

Evolution of the Embryo in Eggs put to incubate in warm water 696

Mechanical Genesis of Tooth Forms 696

Befractive Potoers of Animal Tissues 697

Innervation of the Bespiratory Organs 697

Ovary and the Corpus Luteum 698

Natural Science Prizes, Danish Academy 699

Klein and Smith's Atlas of Histology 700

Fauna of Kerguelen's Land 700

Kecobd of Cureent KE8BAR0HE8, &c. — Continued. pack

Deep-water Fauna of the Lake of Geneva 700

" Liver " of the Lnvertehrata 701

Chromatophores of the Cephalopoda 701

Shells of the Cephalopoda in relation to the Body of their Constructor . . 703

Eye of the Cephalopoda 705

Action of Strychnine on Gasteropodous Molluscs 705

Animal of Voluta musica 706

Neomenia (Solenopus) 706

Two Collections of Pteropoda 706

Bespiratory Apparatus of Ampullaria 706

New Genus of Polyzoa 707

Embryology of Tendra zostericola 707

Metamorphoses of the Blister Beetle (Lytta vesicatoria Fab.) 708

New Genus of Cochineals of the Elm .. ,. 709

Notes on the Phryganida 710

Anatomy and Physiology of the Digestive Organs of the Myriapoda ., .. 710

New Scolopendra 712

Pentastoma txnioides in the Ear of a Dog 712

Genera of Acari 712

The Nebaliad Crustacea as Types of a New Order 713

Physiology of the Nervous System of the Crayfish 713

Influence of Heat on the Nervous Centres of the Crayfish 714

Blood of the Lobster 715

Observations on the Amphipoda 715

Contributions to the Natural History of the Caprellidx 715

Caprellidie of the Mediterranean 716

Organization of the Phronimida 717

Glands found in the Appendages of the Phronimida 719

^^ House" of the Phronimida 719

Some young Stages of Penmus Caramote 720

Hermaphroditism of the Isopoda 720

AseUus cavaticus , .. 721

New Peliidia 722

New Species of Tmnia 722

Notes on the Turbellaria 723

Studies on the Nemertinea 723

Histology of Convoluta Schulzii 725

Planaria Limidi 727

Classification of the Monogenetic Trematoda 728

Entoparasitic Marine Trematodes .. . . 728

Helminthological Studies 729

Ascaris parasitic in the Lion 729

Ascaris of the Orang-Outang 729

Filaria Otarirn 729

Muscle-cells of the Nematoids 729

Further Studies on the Oligochasta 729

Spermatophores of the Earth-worm 730

Body-cavity of the Sedentary Annelids and their Segmental Organs .. .. 731

Segmental Organs of the Capitellidse 733

Lateral and other Goblet-shaped Organs of the Capitellidai 734

Anatomy of the Ophiurida 737

Aspidura 738

Comatulx of the ^ Cliallenger ' Expedition 739

New Genera and Species of Corals 741

Ctenophora of the Gulf of Naples 742

Eozoon Canadense 744

Peridinium and Gymnodinium 745

Ebooed op Curbbnt Resbabohes, &o. — continued.

Botany. page

Division of tlie Pollen-grain in Angiosperms 746

Anatomical and Physiological Study of Nectaries 748

Causes of the Change in Form of Etiolated Plants 749

Effects of Submersion on Aerial Leaves, and of Water cm Floating Leaves . . 750

Absorption of Water by the Lamina of Leaves 750

Movements of Growing Leaves and Petals 751

Disengagement of Heat which accompanies the Expansion of the Male

Inflorescence of Dioon edule 752

Spiral Cells in the Boot of Nuphar advenum 752

Structure of the Fruit of Conium maculatum 752

Modifications which Starch undergoes from a Physical Point of View .. 752

Bain of Sap 753

Prothallium of Salvinia natans 753

Contribution to the Germ Theory 754

Nature of the Fur on the Tongue 756

Supposed Amylaceous Substance in Fungi 757

Cellules en boucle 758

Anthracnose of the Vine 758

Aschotricha 758

Development of Schrotia 758

New Genus of Sphxriacese 759

Specific Differences among the Uredinese 759

Neovossia, a New Genus of TJstilaginese 760

Injection of Bacteria into the Blood without any Toxic Effects 760

Anthrax and its Cause 760

Lichenological Beview 761

Power of Algx to resist Cold 761

Marine Algx of the Gulf of Naples 762

New Diatoms 762

Terrestrial Diatoms 762

Microscopy, &c.

Method of preserving Infusoria, &c , 763

Ecematoxylic Eosin and its employment in Histology 763

Brosiche 8 Staining Method 764

Method of examining Living Cells of Larva of Newt 765

Undescribed Microscopes 765

Novel Method for Focussing 767

Boy Microtome 768

Woodward's Oblique Illuminator 769

Improvements in Microphotography 772

Modern Applications of the Microscope to Geology 773

Adams' Measuring Polariscope 774

Homogeneous Immersion 774

Hamilton Smith' s ^'' Universal Apertometer '^ 775

Meamring Aperture 781

Woodward's Apertometer 781

Microscopical Besearches in High-power Definition 784

Bibliography .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 787

JOTJR.B-.MIC.SOCVOL II.PI.XX;.

CotL-LirnifcL coi^i-"U.cia.ti

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

OCTOBEE, 1879.

TEANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

XXX. — On a Neiv Sj^ecies of Cothurnia. By John Davis, F.K.M.S.

(^Bead Uf.h May, 1879.)

Plate XX.

On recently examining some sea-water, I discovered a colony of
Infusoria, which for brilHancy of colour and ■ peculiarity of form,
differ, I think, from any species hitherto described.

The water was taken from the " sea-horse " tank in the vestibule
of the Brighton Aquarium (by the kind permission of Mr. Lawler,
the tank manager). The animals were attached to Conferva which
had been growing on the rocks for about three years, and some
small twigs placed there for the Hippocampi were completely
covered with them. They undoubtedly belong to the genus
Cothurnia.

The lorica is generally indistinctly divided into three or four
transverse segments, or rings, and is attached by a pedicle to the
Confervas. It is apparently horny, and is of a bright orange
colour, but with a condensed, side, light inclines to a yellowish
brown, similar to the colour observed on the tube of Melicerta
ringens. This colour is deeper at the lower end of the tube, and
becomes gradually fainter towards the distal extremity, where
scarcely any trace of colour is seen.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XX.

Fig. L — Animal protruded, a a, forked sette. 6, operculum, c, outer wreath
of cilia, (^t/, contructile vesicks. e, unknown organ. /, clear space. .</, posterior
processes, h, strengthening band, j, prolongations of footstalk, k, central wreath
of cilia.

Fig. 2. — Animal contracted, a, operculum, h h, contractile vesicles, c, unknown
organ. </, muscular bands beneath the operculum.

Fig. 3. — Individual with young attached, a, unknown organ. 6, free end.
c, contractile vesicle, d, egg-like bodies, ef, contractile vesicles, g, ui'known
organ.

Fig. 4. — Young animal, a, wreath of cilia, b, end of lorica.

Fig. 5. — Young animal. a, rudimentary operculum, b body of adult,
c, eud of lorica, d, unknown organ.

VOL. II. * 2 X

654 Transactions of the Society.

In some individuals the segmentation can be distinctly seen, but
in others it appears merely as a slight corrugation. The lowest
segment is much larger and broader than the others.

By means of carmine, I was able to impart a brilliant hue, not
only to the tube, but to the pedicle, and I then saw for the first
time small Infusoria attached to the surface of the lorica and
pedicle.

The free extremity of the animal, when it is extended, is of an
oval form, hardly as long or as broad as the aperture of the lorica.
At one end is placed an operculum, so that when the body is
contracted it closes the narrow part of the neck of the lorica (see
Fig. 2). In the centre there is a round protuberance, which
appears to be of the same substance as the lorica.

This extremity much resembles that described by Mr. F. W.
Hutton.* Its flat surface is placed transversely to the mouth of
the lorica, and it is furnished with two strong cilia, or setae, which
are forked at about half their length. Besides these there are a
number of much finer cilia arranged round the margin, and in the
centre is a wreath of very minute cilia in constant motion.

The forked appendages and long marginal cilia move with a
spasmodic jerk, and are very irregular in their action ; they do not
cause a vortex in the water like the central cilia.

In the anterior part of the animal are two contractile vesicles.
No eye-spots were apparent.

The body, when extended, is spindle-shaped ; containing
granules of various shades from a pale yellow to a dark green,
amongst which are a number of vacuoles. Towards the posterior
extremity the body is of a dark sepia tint, but contains a light-
coloured and rather large spot.

When the animal is extended it is much smaller than the lorica,
but when contracted it fills the lower portion of it, as shown in
Fig. 2. At the lower extremity of the tube the horny substance
doubles on itself and forms a band running round the margin of the
body ; from which project two processes growing parallel with
the pedicle. They show no signs of structure.

The footstalk is 1| times the length of the lorica in the adult.
It is composed of a much more horny substance, as I find it always
bent abruptly, forming an angle. The proximal end of the stalk
is shghtly expanded, and throws out a number of prolongations
of various lengths, some going half round the Confervae. I did
not observe the animal at any time contract its stalk, or in fact
exhibit any movement in this part.

The animals appear to possess a great amount of sensitiveness
to external influences. Sometimes by darkening the stage or by
the slighte.-t movement they will instantly contract, and will not
* Tliis Journal, i. (1878) p. 49.

0)1 a Neiv Species of Cothurnia. Bij John Davis. 655

fully protrude for some time, which makes them very difficult to
examine. They are all solitary and very sluggish. I have never
been able to cause them to imbibe coloured matter.

Size, about aao of an inch, including the footstalk, when full
grown.

Fig. 3 shows a young animal growing on the lorica of an adult ;
no trace of an operculum could be seen in this individual. Fig. 5
shows the first apj)earance of an operculum in a rudimentary form,
seven hours afterwards. The young are always colourless and
transparent, and show no signs of corrugation of their loricae.

Fig. 4 is the appearance of the distal end of the young animal
eight hours after that in Fig. 3, showing a wreath of cilia.

If this species is new, I propose calling it Cothurnia corrugata.

2x2

€56 Transactions of the Society.

XXXI. — On some Causes of Brownian Movements.
By William M. Ord, M.D. Lond., F.KM.S., &c.

{Read llth June, 1879.)

The following communication embodies the results of experimental
observations on those movements of minute particles in fluids
which are commonly called " Brownian." I prefer retaining this
name for them in spite of the existence of the old term, " mole-
cular," and of such terms as " titubation " and " pedesis," since,
while no hypothesis is asserted, everyone at once knows what is
meant when Brownian movements are spoken of, and, what is of no
little importance, the term is extensively used on the Continent.

The first experiments to be noticed were made with emulsions
of oil and albumen, and were suggested by phenomena observed
during the repetition of Ascherson's experiments. Ascherson, as
is well known to physiologists, demonstrated * that, when oil and
albuminous fluid are brought into contact with each other, a
tough, elastic film, the " haptogen membrane," is formed between
them ; and that when the oil and albumen are shaken together
so as to form an emulsion, every globule of oil is instantly sur-
rounded with a delicate pellicle, which he called a " cell-membrane."
The experiment is of course easily repeated. And then it is always
seen that the oil-drops are surrounded each by a thin coat of
albuminous matter, which prevents them from fusing with each
other, as oil-drops fuse after oil has been shaken with water or
with alkaline solutions. We see the condition which exists in
yolk of eggs and in milk. Under high powers of the Microscope
the albumen-invested oil-drops are found to be in constant movement.

Experiment : — Some egg-albumen is well shaken with thirty
parts of distilled water, and the solution is cleared by filtration.
Being now mixed with an equal bulk of olive oil, it is shaken till a
persistent emulsion is obtained. This, under magnifying powers
of 400 to 700, is found to be composed of tiny globules of oil sus-
pended in the albuminous fluid. The globules vibrate ceaselessly,
bodies approaching in their diameter the red blood-corpuscles of man
setting to one another in a vague and irregular dance with as much
activity as if they were the finest molecules of Indian ink or gam-
boge suspended in water. After a time the movements slacken as
the globules float to the surface, and apply themselves to the
covering glass ; and when at length they stick to it they lie still,
just as Dr. Bastian has shown that particles of heavy matter, such
as baric sulphate, sink to the bottom of the fluid and lose their
molecular motion. The point of interest in the observation is that
the movements are here manifested in masses of measurable size.
It may be that their shape allows more readily of free mobility ;
* MuUer'a ' Archiv ' 1S40.

On Brownian Movements. By Wm. M. Ord. 657

but there is a further possible explanation in the fact that chemical
activities are at work. The instantaneous formation of the
membrane indicates the existence of a decided chemical inter-
action between the oil and the albuminous solution, and to the
persistence of this interaction as producing effects of surface tension
I am inclined to attribute the agitation of such comparatively
large granules. The method of observation here employed allows
of the introduction of new and varied conditions by which the
induction may be tested. And by employing such tests I am
able to show that the movements are more active and more per-
sistent in proportion as conditions prevail, which favour the
activity of chemical changes in the fluid, or of reactions between
the fluid and the oil ; and, conversely, that the movements are
diminished or altogether stayed by the introduction of conditions
which hinder such chemical reactions. I may state what I have
obtained in three lines of research, namely, —

(1) As to the influence of concentration and dilution of the
albuminous suspending fluid ;

(2) as to the influence of alkalies ;

(3) as to the influence of acids.

1. In emulsions made with equal bulks of oil and of albuminous
fluid of various dilution I have found great differences of activity
of movement. With undiluted fresh white of egg the emulsion
is very perfect, but the movements are sluggish or almost imper-
ceptible. On dilution of the albumen the movements increase in
vivacity until thirty or forty parts of water are added, beyond
which dilution leads to enfeeblement of movement.

2. When a little liquor potassse or carbonate of potash is
added to the albuminous liquid before mixture of the latter with
the oil, an emulsion of great fineness may be obtained by a single
shake of the containing vessel. After a good shaking the fluid is
found loaded with molecules of the smallest size mixed with a
smaller number of granules and globules of all diameters up to that
of half a blood-corpuscle. The movements of these molecules are
remarkable as respects both range and quickness. If some of the
emulsion produced by a single shake be compared with the above,
the proportion of the smallest molecules is much less, and the
globules are larger, but even here globules as large as a blood-
corpuscle are seen moving with great freedom. When the smaller
molecules are in great excess, as in the first case, the movements of
the larger might possibly be produced by the blows of their innu-
merable sateUites, but where the larger are in excess their move-
ments must, I think, be considered as belonging to themselves.

3. If, while an emulsion of oil and albuminous fluid with or
without alkali is under the Microscope, a drop of strong acetic or
of hydrochloric acid be allowed to run under the covering glass a

658 Transactions of the Society.

momentary precipitation of albuminate is followed by solution in
excess of acid. Then the small molecules disappear to a large
extent. But the larger remain, and are motionless.

If, again, a solution of acid-albumen be prepared in any way
(as by warming fresh albumen with dilute hydrochloric acid, or
by digesting dried albumen or dried alkali -albumen with dilute
hydrochloric acid) and be well shaken with an equal bulk of oil, an
emulsion is formed, but with difficulty, and with no approach to the
completeness of the alkaline emulsion.

The particles of this emulsion manifest tolerably active and
persistent movement. But the addition of strong hydrochloric acid,
which is in this case not attended with any precipitation of albumen,
almost entirely stays all movement, in many cases arrests it com-
pletely. In this respect my experience is the same as that of Professor
Jevons, who finds that molecular movement is hindered by acids.

Such emulsions left in test-tubes for some time show very
interesting microscopical phenomena. An alkaUne emulsion, made
with neat's-foot oil, examined at the end of sixteen days, had a
thick, white cream on the surface, the fluid beneath remaining of a
pale, thin sky-blue.

The cream consisted of a mixture of minute and most vivacious
molecules with larger spherules — as much as xuVt7 or ^^^ inch in
diameter. They had thick walls, often sharply laminated, and
contained either clear fluid, or one or more oil-globules floating in
clear fluid, or a dense cloud of vibrating molecules of the smallest
size, or, lastly, smaller vesicles enclosing globules or molecules piU-
box-fashion. The conditions here at work were, apparently, 1st,
an expansion of the haptogen membrane of spherical globules by
osmose ; 2nd, a continuous addition to the surface of the membrane ;
3rd, a repetition of the original membrane-forming action, following
the contact of ingoing soluble alkali-albumen with the contained oil,
or solution of the oil by the alkali. In the acid-albumen (syntonin)
emulsion the smallest molecules had mostly disappeared by the end
of sixteen days ; the general movements were sluggish and shght.
Laminated vesicles of large size abounded (see Figs. 1 and 2).

Comparing these emulsion experiments with those observations
in which particles of gamboge, Indian ink, or china-clay, are sus-
pended in a chemically indifferent fluid, such as pure water, the
introduction of at least two new sources of movement may be con-
tended for. 1st, the chemical surface tension already noticed ;
2nd, vibrations or intestinal disturbances in the colloid suspend-
ing fluid, such as attend its decomposition, or its metamorphosis,
or its resolution into a crystalloid.

As regards the first, the formation of an emulsion is most per-
fect, and the movements of molecules are most active, when the
chemical action between the oil and the albuminous solution is
most active. The acid-albumen, the simple egg-albumen, and the

On Broivnian Movements. Bij Wm. M. Orel.

659

alkali-albumen manifest three well-marked degrees of combining
affinity for the oil, with which as many well-marked degrees of
emulgence and molecular vibration correspond. The movements
are produced or hindered by the same class of relations which

Fig,

Fig. 2.

a, Simple vesicle, containing clear, not oily contents.

h. Cell with laminated walls containing oil-globule floating in aqueous fluid.

c, (/, c. Vesicles containing emulsions of various fineness.

/, Vesicle containing a smaller vesicle with emulsion.

cause a piece of paper soaked in alcohol to move with violent
jerks and in all directions when thrown upon a surface of water,
or allow a piece of paper soaked
in paraffin to float quietly with a
simple linear movement to the
margin determined by the attrac-
tion of the containing vessel.

As regards the second, the che-
mical stability or indisposition to
decomposition, of the suspending
fluid shows well-marked grades in
the several experiments.

a. We find that egg-albumen is
unfavourable to active movement in
proportion to its viscosity. What
may be the exact meaning of vis-
cosity cannot be discussed here,
but albumen in the viscous state
is not prone to rapid decomposition,
tending, indeed, when exposed in open vessels not too deep, to
dry up without putrefying. This influence of viscosity is well
illustrated in condensed milk.

h. Albumen being mixed with water putrefies with a readiness
proportioned to its dilution ; and it is seen to favour movements in
proportion.

c. xllkaline solutions of albumen putrefy more readily than
simple solutions. With alkali the movements are quickened.

d. On the other hand, acid-albumens do not putrefy readily.
Solutions of syntonin in acid can be kept for a long time, and the
durability of peptones is notorious. With acids the movements
are hindered in some proportion to the strength or excess of acid.

e. But peptones being neutrahzed by alkali fall at once into
putrefactive changes.

a, Laminated cell, thin on one side
as most are, containing oil-globule
floating iu aqueous fluid.

&, An irregular mass of fut, in-
vested by a membrane, the folds of
which are very plainly marked, and
containing a vesicle.

660 Transactions of the Society.

Generally speaking, in all chemistry, acids hinder decomposi-
tion, tending to hold water and other matter in a state of tension.
Thus we use acids for pickling, in the same way as we use strong
neutral saline solutions ; that is to say, mixtures of water with
substances having a strong attraction for it. In the experiments
recorded acids come to check movements by neutralizing alkali,
just as Professor Jevons has shown that they arrest Brownian
movement when chemically indifierent matters are suspended in
pure water. I may say that before the publication of Dr. Jevons'
observations I had made many experiments to test the influence of
acids, and that my conclusions entirely agree with his. In stating
this, I have no intention of derogating from the originahty of
Professor Jevons, but simply of adding my testimony to his on a
matter of some importance. Free alkalies, on the other hand, are
everywhere provocative of decompositions and unrest. Beyond
what we have noticed, as in peptones, we see alkahes used by the
chemist to induce breakings up, oxidations, and the formation of
new matters, usually of smaller out of larger molecules. They
tend, in fact, to determine the formation of new matters with which
they may combine, and so help to favour a tendency which seems
to belong to all matter, that of coming to rest.

From these various considerations I venture to draw the inference
that minute intestine vibrations of the colloid suspending fluid have a
power of intensifying molecular movements in suspended particles.

This is, I submit, greatly favoured by the concomitant varia-
tions set forth, showing that the movement of particles is more or
less active according to the presence in the surrounding fluid of
conditions favouring or hindering chemical changes in the colloid.

I may cite an experiment in which the method of difierence
gives results in the same direction. One of the best mixtures for
demonstrating molecular movement is that of iudian-ink with dis-
tilled water. The solid ink is rubbed gently with water until a
mixture of suitable thickness is obtained. This consists of jjarticles
of solid black matter suspended in water now dissolving whatever
viscous matter had been used to bind the particles into a cake.
What this viscous matter may be I know not exactly, but from all
appearance it is some kind of gum — in other words, a colloid.

Now, if a large quantity of indian-ink be rubbed down with
water, and the mixture be left in a tall vessel to allow of subsi-
dence of particles, the viscous matter may be in process of time to a
large extent washed away, leaving a mixture of particles with nearly
pure water. This mixture shows an infinitely less active and per-
sistent movement, though with particles of the same size and number.

The influence of solutions of soap upon Brownian movements,
as set forth by Professor Jevons, appears to me to support my con-
tention in the way of agreement. He shows that the introduction

On Broivnian Movements. By Wm. M. Ord. 661

of soap into the suspending fluid quickens and makes more per-
sistent the movements of the suspended particles. Soap in the
eyes of Professor Jevons acts conservatively by retaining or not
conducting electricity. In my eyes it is a colloid, keeping up
movements by revolutionary perturbations. Indeed, soap is a very
typical colloid in its tendency to physical change without obvious
decomposition. A solution of soap, at first clear and transparent,
becomes usually within a few hours thicker to the eye ; and as
days proceed it becomes thicker and thicker, until it has almost
a granular look, though even then nothing is separable by filtration.
Curiously enough, the formation of soap is involved in all our
emulsion experiments. And I venture to argue that the most
interesting applications made by Professor Jevons in relation to
the detergent powers of soap illustrate the influence of the colloid in
causing rearrangement of particles brought within its sphere of
action. It is interesting to remember that, while soap is probably
our best detergent, boiled oatmeal is one of its best substitutes.
What this may be as a conductor of electricity I do not know, but
it certainly is a colloid mixture or solution. ^Yith Professor
Jevons's idea that the detergent value of soap depends upon its
power of causing minute molecular disturbance rather than upon its
chemical action, we may compare in support Mr. Eaiuey's remark-
able demonstration of the erosion of the surface of glass slides by
spheres of carbonate of hme deposited on the shdes in solutions of
gum. Here, again, no chemical action is involved, the erosion
being a result of attraction exercised upon the molecules of the
glass by the molecules of the carbonate sphere, the disturbing
influence of the colloid allowing of rearrangement, or, indeed,
favouring it by disturbing pre-existing relations of molecules.

In relation to the general subject of my paper, I would argue
that the increased movements here visible as a result of the pre-
sence of colloids in the suspending fluid, are but larger forms of the
movements demonstrated by Mr. Eainey as occurring in crystalloid
matters deposited in colloid solutions.

He has shown that colloids interfere with the molecular
arrangement of crystals, and compel them to take a spheroidal
form — this he calls " molecular coalescence."

He has again shown that spheres formed by molecular coales-
cence may be broken up on being introduced into colloid solutions
of the same nature as that in which they were originally deposited,
but of diflerent density. This he calls "molecular disi^tegration,"
and this again bears on the detergent value of soap.

Again, the susceptibihty of different crystalloids to this sphere-
forming power of colloids not being equal, I have shown at various
times that the power of colloids to master the polarity of any
crystalloid is intensified by whatever tends to increase vibration in

662 Transactions of the Society.

the colloid, e. g. decomposition or heat ; or by the existence in one
colloid of a higher molecular composition than in another — albumen,
for instance, having a greater power, even when coagulated, than
gelatin or gum. Conversely, dilution, coagulation, condensation,
cold, magnetism, all hinderers of vibration, hinder sphere-formation.

Quite recently I have been able to illustrate these influences by
experiments, which show the movements of molecules translated
into large movements visible under the Microscope, and in one case
visible to the naked eye. These experiments are before another
Society and I am not in a position to quote them at present.*

To sum up, therefore, while I admit that heat, electricity,
capillary attraction, chemical and other forces may each or all
play a part in producing Brownian movements ; while I admit
the agency of surface-tension; while I do not altogether reject
Mr. Eainey's theory of persistent movements in fluids,! I claim the
intestine vibration of colloids as in many cases an agent in the pro-
cess, and more especially in the fluid and semi-fluid parts of animal
and vegetable organisms.

Indeed I am disposed to go further, and to regard this as in
one aspect a manifestation of a tendency, already glanced at, in all
molecules to come to rest — to rest of a physical or chemical kind ;
and of all molecules of one kind to find rest in association with
their kind, as in the crystal. Slow movements of this kind have
been at work in the yet piilpy chalk separating the flints from it.
Slow movements of the kind are abundantly illustrated in the
metamorphoses of minerals. Quicker movements are seen in the
mixture of the kaolin and distilled water ; quicker still in kaolin
with soap. As I see crystalloids struggling in the grasp of colloids,
and gradually extricating themselves from their grasp to revert to
the crystalline from the spherical form, with constant accompani-
ment of molecular movements, I see the existence of a chain of
force leadiug from the activity of movement which builds up the
sphere to the rest which is possible only to the inorganic crystal,
and compare this chain with the chain seen in the vaporization of
water by the sun, the lifting of the vapour to the upper regions
of the atmosphere, its condensation to cloud, and its subsequent
descent in rain or in rivers to rest in the sea. As the one chain
produces a series of actions and expenditure of power in the outer
world, so in the economy of living organisms some such chain as
I have compared with it may well play its part in development, in
organization, in motion.

* See a paper since read before the Royal Society (June 19th, 1879), entitled
" A-ii account of Experiments on the Influence of Colloids upon Crystalline Form,
and on INIovemcnts observed in Mixtures of Colloids with Crystalloids."

t See St. Thomas's Hospital Reports, vol. ii. 1871, " On Continued Move-
ments iu Fluids."

( 663 )

XXXII. — Observations suggested hy the Study of AmjyJiijileiira
peUucida, mounted in Canada Balsam, hy Lamplight and
Sunlight, with various Objectives. By J. J. Woodward,
Surgeon and Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel U.S. Army, Hon.
F.R.M.S.

iEead lltJi June, 1879.)

In the latter part of October, 1878, I received from Carl Zeiss, of
Jena, two objectives, a | and a yV, both " oil-immersion," or as
they are now called by their maker, " objectives for homogeneous
immersion." To test their performance, I made with them some
photographs of Amjyhijyleura pellucida mounted in Canada balsam,
and, for comparison, photographs of the same frustule, with several
other objectives. On January 20, 1879, 1 wrote to Zeiss a brief
account of these experiments, and sent him a set of the photo-
graphs, together with a duplicate set for Professor E. Abbe, of
Jena. I learn from the Journal * that Professor Abbe promptly
sent one set of these photographs, together with my letter, to
Mr. J. W. Stephenson, who exhibited the photographs and read
parts of the letter at the meeting of the Koyal Microscopical
Society, February 12, 1879. t This circumstance, which was
fully in accordance with permission granted in my letter to make
public use both of it and the photographs, would render it un-
necessary for me to do more at present than to send duplicates of
the photographs for the cabinet of the Society, but that, since
writing to Zeiss, I have made photographs of the same test with
several other notable objectives, especially a i glycerine-immersion
by Spencer, and a ^^ oil-immersion by Tolles, and that the results
induced me to make a new series of comparative photographs with
the best objectives at my disposal, iucludiog, of course, those of
Zeiss. This new series I now send to the Society instead of the
original one.

Several matters of interest were first noticed or strikingly
illustrated during the progress of the work, and to these it is the
object of this paper to draw attention.

I. The first point was brought out during the original series of
experiments, and was detailed in my letter to Zeiss, but does not
appear to have been read to the Society, viz, the best mode of pro-
jecting images upon the screen for photographic purposes with
such objectives as those of Zeiss. These objectives, it will be
remembered, have no screw-collar adjustment, and their aberrations
are completely corrected only when the focal adjustment is such
that the image is formed at a fixed distance, which, in the case
of the two objectives sent me, is 10 inches. Now, to obtain the

* Vol. ii. (April, 1879) p. 2U. t Op. cit., p. 140.

664 Transactions of the Society.

magnifying power I desired for the photographs, from ten to
fifteen times this distance is required, and it would at first sight
appear necessary for this purpose to bring the objective so much
closer to the object than the position for which alone it is corrected,
that the resulting aberrations would quite destroy the definition of
the image. This difficulty appears to have occurred to Zeiss him-
self before he sent me his objectives, for he voluntarily furnished
with them two concave lenses said to be of 25 and 30 centimetres
focal length, which he directed me to screw immediately into the
posterior part of the brass mounting of the objectives when I used
them for photography, and by which he supposed the aberrations
introduced by distance would be corrected. One of these con-
caves was intended to correct the aberrations when the image
was projected to 1*5 or 2 metres distance ; the other was
expected to answer the same purpose at the distance of 3 metres
or upwards.

If Zeiss consulted his distinguished adviser, Professor Abbe, as
to the formulae for these concaves, I do not doubt that he was
correctly instructed ; but if so, the lenses as actually sent do not
correspond very precisely with the mathematical requirements.
I tried them faithfully, and wrote to Zeiss as the result of my
examination, that when I came to study the images produced with
these concaves at the distances directed for each, " I became pain-
fully aware that a curvature of field had been introduced which did
not belong to the image as viewed with the 10-inch tube, while
great loss of definition indicated the presence of considerable
spherical aberration in the new combination." Photographs taken
under these circumstances were exceedingly unsatisfactory, and had
no other means of projecting images with these objectives been
available, I should not have succeeded in presenting a photographic
demonstration of their excellent qualities.

But long before I received them I had theoretically devised a
method for making these projections, which on trial fully answered
my expectations, and gave, at any distance I chose to select,
images quite equal in flatness, definition, and brilhancy to the best
I could obtain with the 10-inch tube. This method consists in
placing a suitable achromatic negative lens at the end of the draw-
tube of the Microscope body, and slipping it by trial to the proper
position to bring the image to a sharp focus on the screen at the
distance selected, while the objective remains in precisely the same
focal position that was found to give the best image with the
lO-inch tube. The course of the rays through the objective under
these circumstances remains the same whether the image is pro-
jected to 1 or 4 metres, or any intermediate distance, and, provided
the concave has the requisite qualities, the sharpness of the image
is unimpaired.

OhservaUo7is on Amphipleura pellueida. By J. J. Woodward. 665

For this purpose I had selected an " amplifier " made for the
Museum more than ten years ago hy Mr. Tolles, of Boston. It
was originally intended to be used at the end of the draw-tube in
ordinary microscopic work for the purpose of obtaining increased
magnifying power. This " amplifier " was a negative achromatic
meniscus of about 6 • 5 inches virtual focus and • 7 of an inch in
diameter. I had in the Museum collection a number of other
" amplifiers " specially constructed for the projection of microscopic
images, but knew by previous experience that none of them
equalled the Tolles amplifier in flatness of field or freedom from
spherical aberration. After failure with the Zeiss amplifier, there-
fore, I tried this Tolles amplifier in the manner I had originally
intended, and after some little experiment to ascertain its proper
position in the Microscope body for the distances at which I de-
signed to form the images, I obtained the results at which I aimed.

It will readily be understood that the best position of the
amplifier with the Zeiss I or -J^ for the projection of the image to
say 10 feet distance from the object, will also be the best position
for all other objectives, provided their corrections are best neutralized
when they are focussed on the object with the 10-inch tube, and
therefore the positions of the draw-tube corresponding to the best
images at a series of selected distances having been found by careful
experiment with any selected objective, may be used successfully
with any other objective corrected for the 10-inch tube. Indeed
this method may be advantageously resorted to in the case of
objectives provided with a screw collar, in place of the usual method
in which the screw collar is used to correct the aberrations intro-
duced by distance. The positions of the amplifier, as indicated by
the scale on the draw-tube, having been found for the distances at
which the pictures are to be taken, it is only necessary in sub-
sequent work with the same amplifier, to set it, by means of the
draw-tube, at the position known to be best for the distance
selected, and then to focus with the fine adjustment in the usual
way.

It was in this manner that the images were projected for the
photographs I sent to Zeiss, and for those which accompany this
paper. I am pleased to observe by his printed circular, dated
March, 1879, that since he received my letter in which this method
was explained, and the photographs sent with it, Zeiss has been
influenced by them to construct and advertise for sale a concave
lens of 10 or 12 centimetres focus, to be placed at the end of the
draw-tube (in das Auszugsrohr des Tubus eingesetzt), for the
purpose of projecting images with his objectives, instead of the
unsatisfactory device he ofiered me last fall. I regret to find,
however, that I have unintentionally misled Zeiss as to the focal
length of the amplifier I used. Copying by accident from my

666 Transactions of the Society.

note-book a memorandum referring to another amplifier, I wrote
him that it had a virtual focus of about 12-5 centimetres, whereas
its focus is really somewhat more than 16.

I do not, however, doubt in the least that excellent results may
be obtained with a properly constructed amplifier of the focal length
he has adopted, and can express no opinion as to how far he has
succeeded in this direction, because I have not yet seen one of those
he is making. But I must point out that it is not enough to have
a properly constructed amplifier, and to screw it at the end of the
draw-tube ; it is also of prime importance that the proper position
of the amplifier should be found for the distance selected. If this
is neglected, very unsatisfactory results may be obtained with
excellent instruments.

I must add, that the plan of using a negative lens behind the
objective, for the purpose of increasing the size and flatness of the
image formed by a solar or gas Microscope on the screen, is quite
an old device, as is also the plan of using a negative lens between
the eye-piece and objective (preferably at the end of the draw-tube)
for the purpose of increasing the magnifying power of the Micro-
scope. I was, however, the first to point out the advantages of
employing a suitable achromatic concave in place of the eye-piece
of the Microscope for the purposes of photo-micrography. I had
already published a preliminary notice of this method in 1865,*
and described it in more detail in 1866.t Since then I have
repeatedly, in published articles, in private letters, and by word of
mouth insisted upon this point, until it has become so familiar that
some of my correspondents imagine it to be their own contrivance.
I have not hitherto, however, nor has any other microscopist, to my
knowledge, commented upon the important application of the achro-
matic concave described above, in which, by giving it suitable focal
length and position, it is used to project the image upon the screen
while the object-glass is in precisely the position with regard to the
object that it would occupy in ordinary work, and the course of
the rays through it quite the same.

II. The second point to whicli I wish to call attention relates
to the obliquity of the illuminating pencil necessary to resolve
difiicult lined test objects, such as Ampliij^leura pellucida mounted
in Canada balsam, by objectives of adequate aperture. Until a
comparatively recent period many respectable microscopists still
clung with affection to the singular theoretical error that the angle
of aperture of immersion objectives, as measured in a medium
(such as Canada balsam) of about the index of refraction of crown

* Circular No. 6, War Department, Surgeon-General's Office, Washington,
1865, p. 149.

t 'American Journal of Science and Arts,' vol. xlii. (1866) p. 189; also
' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' vol. vi. (1866) p. 166.

Ohservations on Amphiiyleura pellucida. By J. J. Woodiuard. 667

glass (it has been the fashion to call it the balsam angle), could
by no means exceed double the angle of total reflexion from glass
to air, which theory indicated as the hmit for dry objectives. It
is now universally admitted by the physicists and mathematicians
whose attention has been directed to the subject, that this limit,
inflexible as it necessarily is for dry objectives, has nothing what-
ever to do with the question of the aperture of immersion objectives,
which indeed, from this point of view, would be limited only by
double the angle of total reflexion from glass to the immersion
fluid. The adherence of any individual microscopist to the old
error is therefore no longer of importance, and the practical opti-
cians, acting in strict accordance with correct theory, have succeeded
in constructing water, glycerine, and oil-immersion objectives, not
merely exceeding 82°, but attaining 100^, 115°, and even, in the
case of one well-known maker, over 120^ balsam angle for an oil-
immersion objective. The limit of improvement in this direction
is not yet attained.

Professor Abbe has recently announced his expectation * that it
wiU be possible in the near future to construct objectives having an
aperture of 1'28° in a medium of 1 "50 index of refraction. That
this expectation will be realized, and with resulting improvement
in defining power, I do not doubt in the least, but cannot believe
that the limit will be found even here.

But while the correct views with regard to the aperture question
are now generally accepted, and a number of practical opticians
are making use of this knowledge in the construction of improved
objectives, we hear it continually asserted of late, that no advantage
can possibly be derived from the excess of angle in immersion objec-
tives beyond the much-talked-of 82°, unless immersion illuminators
are used to throw the illuminating pencil upon the object with an
increased obhquity corresponding to the increased angle of the
objective.

This statement, which is an exceedingly exaggerated one, has
been so loudly reiterated, and has been accepted, without special
investigation, in such high quarters, that I have thought it worth
while to take this opportunity of drawing attention to the actual
facts. It is quite true that when a feeble source of illumination,
such as a coal-oil lamp, is employed, it is necessary to use an immer-
sion illuminator by which the light can be thrown upon the object
more obhquely than would otherwise be possible, whenever we
desire to obtain the best possible resolution of difficult lined test
objects with objectives whose balsam angle exceeds 82°. It is also
true that the performance of these objectives on histological and

* ' Ueber Stephenson's System der homogenen Immersion bei Mikroskop-
Objectiven,' " Sitzungsberichte der Jenaischen Gesellschaft fiir Medicin uad
Naturwissenschaft," Jan. 10, 1879.

668 Transactions of the Society.

other preparations, when the illumination is effected by means of a
central pencil of light from a coal-oil lamp, is much improved if an
immersion condenser of apei-ture equal to that of the objective
be substituted for the ordinary dry achromatic condenser.

But notwithstanding these notable and practically important
facts, it is nevertheless equally true that without these valuable
accessories the new immersion objectives greatly excel any dry
objectives in defining power, both by oblique and central light,
provided only that the objects examined are mounted in Canada
balsam, or if dry, are adherent to the under surface of the glass
cover. Under the same circumstances also, immersion objectives
whose balsam angle exceeds 100^, excel in definition immersion
objectives of smaller angle. Thus, several of the immersion objec-
tives in the Museum collection which have an aperture greater than
100° balsam, will resolve the 19th band of the Nobert's plate by
lampHght thrown obliquely upon the under surface of the slide by
an ordinary small bull's-eye condenser, a feat which no immersion
objective of smaller angle, and no dry objective, can be made to
perform ; and the superiority of the definition of these wide-angled
objectives, when used to examine histological preparations, bacteria,
and the like, illuminated with central light, by the ordinary dry
achromatic condenser, is readily recognizable by the practised eye.

These easily verified observations are quite in accordance with
the accepted theory of microscopical vision. It has long been prac-
tically known, in the case of dry objectives, that those of great
aperture exhibit to a marked degree the superior defining power
thence resulting, even when the object is illuminated with perfectly
central light ; and the well-known theoretical explanation of this
phenomenon is equally applicable to the case of immersion objec-
tives so long as no film of air intervenes between the object and the
front of the objective.

But the superior defining power of wide-angled immersion
objectives, when illuminated by central or moderately oblique light,
is still more manifest when monochromatic sunhght is employed ;
and this fact is strikingly illustrated by the photographs which
accompany the present paper. A converging pencil of monochro-
matic sunlight, obtained by a 3-inch objective of about 12° aperture,
with its optical axis inchned at an angle of but 45" to the optical
axis of the Microscope, will be found quite oblique enough to give
magnificent resolution of Amiohifleura pellucida mounted in Canada
balsam, without the use of any immersion illuminator, although in
this case it is evident that in consequence of refraction at the under
surface of the glass slide, the axis of the illuminating pencil
actually impinges upon the frustule at an angle of little more than
27° to the optical axis of the Microscope. If, now, with the
illuminating pencil rigidly limited to tliis angle, a selected frustule

Observations on Ampliii^leura pellucida. By J. J. Woodward. 669

of Amphipleura pellucida in balsam be examined successively by a
series of immersion objectives, the superior definition of those of
greater angle will be readily observed by the eye, and if photographs
are taken, will be equally manifest in them.

In the series of photographs of Amphijyhura jpellucida that
accompany this paper, those numbered from 1 to 1 1 were all taken
with the angle of the illuminating pencil just mentioned, and will
serve to illustrate the accuracy of the statement made. The ex-
planation is quite obvious, for with sunhght the diffraction pencils
that radiate from the transparent spaces in the frustule are of suf-
ficient brilUancy to form a very conspicuous part of the image,
if brought to a focus by the objective ; and just what part of these
pencils shall actually be brought to a focus as part of the image,
depends in each case upon the aperture of the objective and not
upon the obliquity of the illuminating pencil. On the other hand,
by lamplight these difi'raction pencils are so much less brilliant that
they are inadequate to secure resolution, and it is necessary for this
purpose to use much more oblique illumination than will answer
the purpose by sunlight.

In view of the foregomg considerations, it is not surprising that,
in the case of monochromatic sunlight, an increase of the obliquity
of the illuminating pencil produces no such marked improvement
in the performance of the objective as occurs under the same circum-
stances by lamphght. To illustrate this fact I have added the
photographs numbered 12 and 13, representing the same frustule,
as seen by means of an immersion illuminator, with the most oblique
light that could be used with each objective without distorting the
image. A comparison of these pictures with those taken by the
same objectives with the smaller angle of illumination, shows that
the improvement resulting from the increased obliquity is very
trifling indeed. These pictures will serve to illustrate the general
statement that with illumination by monochromatic sunlight, and
consequently for the purposes of photo-micrography, the superior
definition of objectives of greater balsam angle than 82'' is inde-
pendent of any excessive obliquity in the illuminating pencil, and
of the use of immersion illuminators. Indeed, as I shall take
occasion to illustrate hereafter by photographs, it is almost quite as
manifest with histological preparations and central light as with
lined test objects and oblique hght.

III. Of the photographs which accompany this paper, Nos. 1
to 13 inclusive are representations of a frustule of Amphi'pleura
pellueida from a slide mounted in the Hull Botanical Gardens
in 1859. This slide was given to Mr. Wm. A. SuUivant, of
Columbus, Ohio, and by him presented to me in May, 1867. As it
came into my possession it was a dry mount with the frustules
adherent to the cover ; but for the purposes of these experiments I

VOL. II. 2 Y

670 Transactions of the Society.

have remounted it in Canada balsam. Of course the difficulty of
resolving so delicate an object as AmphipJeura pellucida is some-
what increased by mounting it in Canada balsam. In January,
1 852, Professor Bailey, of West Point, writing to Matthew Marshall,
Esq., of the surprising performance of the wide-angled dry lenses
just constructed for him by Charles Spencer, declared, " In all
these cases (and, in fact, whenever I allude to a test object) I mean
the balsam - mounted specimens. The dry shells I never use as
tests." It is amusing at the present day to note how " extraordinary "
this assertion then appeared to one of the most distinguished
English microscopists, who contrived then, as he has more than
once subsequently done, to misunderstand completely the reasoning
of the " American opticians," and who boldly wrote, " I have
invariably found that when very difficult tests are mounted in
balsam I cannot discover the markings." *

At the present day the value of difficult test objects mounted in
Canada balsam is more correctly appreciated ; and among these one
of the most convenient and useful is Amjyhijyleura pellucida. It is
not many years since this diatom, even when mounted dry, was
regarded as oue of the most difficult tests. Messrs, Harrison and
Sollitt indeed appear to have glimpsed the striae on the dry mount
as early as 1854; but can only have glimpsed them, for they
estimated the number at 120 to 130 in the tuVo of a^i mch., an
estimate to which Mr. Sollitt stoutly adhered as late as 1860.t
Most other microscopists were unable to verify these observations.
Messrs. Sullivant and Wormley :j: declared that they had " not been
able to ' glimpse ' the striae on this diatom." And when Mr.
Sullivant sent me the Hull slide he had still been unable to resolve
it, as indeed was true of almost all microscopists at that date.

So far as I have been able to learn, Messrs. Powell and Lealand
were the first who succeeded in resolving the dry frustules with
sufficient distinctness to get correct notions of the fineness of the
markings. We learn by a note from Mr. Lobb, dated January 12,
1870, § that those gentlemen had at that time succeeded in resolving
Amphij^Uura pelhicida with their immersion |, ^l^ and iV, and es-
timated them at 100 to the roVcr of an inch. I myself first succeeded
in resolving and photographing this diatom in January, 1871, and
it was a Powell and Lealand immersion yV that did the work. In a
memorandum published by the Surgeon-General's Office, February 1,
1871 (and republished in the 'American Journal of Science and
Arts,' vol. I, (1871) p. 345), I stated that I found the striae on
medium-sized frustules counted from 90 to 93 to the xoVij of an

* See ' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' vol. ii. (1854) p. 214.
t Ibid., vol. viii. (1860) p. 48.

j " On the Measurement of the Strinc of Diatoms," the ' American Journal
of Science and Arts,' vol. xxvii. (1859) p. 250.

§ 'Monthly Microscopical Journal,' vol. iii. (1870) p. 104.

Observations on Amijhipleura ijellucida. By J. J. Woodward. 671

inch. I found no example in which the number of striae exceeded
100 to the T(jVo of an inch. Since then I have examined a con-
siderable number of Ampliiijleura slides, and only occasionally
found one still finer. The finest I have ever counted had 107 strife
to the T^V(T of a,n inch. Ever since January, 1871, Amphipleura
jyelhicida has been one of my favourite test objects for immersion
objectives. In June, 1871, 1 succeeded in resolving it by an
immersion ^ of Tolles,* and in March, 1872, in connection with
its resolution by certain objectives made by E. and J. Beck, and by
William Wale, I wrote : — " This diatom is a useful and valuable
test for immersion objectives of |- inch focal length or less. Lower
powers can only hope to resolve it if possessed of excessive angular
aperture." f

Meanwhile, although I constantly wrote and spoke of the dry
frustule, because it gave more brilliant images as I then handled
the test, I had already, in January, 1871, resolved with the
immersion y^ of Powell and Lealand, several balsam-mounted slides
of the same diatom, which Mr. Sullivant had kindly sent me. In
February, 1871, Count Castracane wrote from Eome to the Eoyal
Microscopical Society, t that the year before he had succeeded in
obtaining a jDhotograph of Amjjhijyleura ])ellucida on a Moller's
test-plate, balsam mounted, first with a Hartnack immersion No. 10,
and afterwards with an objective of the same number by Nachet.
The degree of success attained by this distinguished microsopist
may be inferred from his own frank acknowledgment : — " Un-
fortunately my negative was blurred and rather faintish, so that it
could not give good positive images. Nevertheless, the stri^ are
there so finely and so distinctly drawn out, that they may be
perceived clearly enough, though the magnifying power of the
Microscope was not higher than 640 diameters." § I myself in
March, 1872, wrote in a general way of the resolution of the
balsam-mounts : — " I may add that any of these objectives, in-
cluding the Beck's tV) will resolve Amphiple^ira ])ellucida in
balsam, as in fact was done by Count Castracane, with objectives by
Hartnack and Nachet." ||

But all this was by monochromatic sunlight, and it was not
until I began to use immersion illuminators with objectives of more
than 82^ balsam angle, that I succeeded in obtaining satisfactory
resolution of the balsam-mounted frustules illuminated with an
ordinary coal-oil lamp. Even then it was by no means with every
immersion objective of sufficient aperture that satisfactory resolution
could be obtained; but during the last six years the number of

* See 'Monthly Microscopical Journal,' vol. vi. (1S71) p. 150.
t Same Journal, vol. vii. (1872) p. 166.

% Same Journal, vol. v. (1871) p. 176. § Loc. cit.

0 Same Journal, vol. vii. (1872) p. 233.

2 Y 2

672 Transactions of the Socieitj.

objectives capable of resolving this test has been constantly in-
creasing, and the sharpness of the images produced by the very
best objectives has continually improved, until at the present day
I have no hesitation in making the assertion that any first-rate
immersion objective, even those of as low power as the i, ought to
be able to give distinct resolution of the most finely marked
frustules of Am])liifleura ijellucida mounted in Canada balsam.
Those incapable of this performance must be classed among second-
rate objectives, and will not willingly be employed in serious in-
vestigations by instructed microscopists. As for the appearance of
balsam-mounted frustules of this diatom by sunlight, under the best
modern immersion objectives, it not only rivals in vigour and
contrast the finest views of the dry frustules, but greatly excels the
best that can be done with these in simultaneous exhibition of the
details of outline and midrib.

The frustule on the Hull slide selected for photographic repre-
sentation in connection with this paper is '0037 of an inch long,
and has 102 striae to the thousandth of an inch. At the distance
of •0011 of an inch from it, and nearly parallel to it, on the slide
is a second rather more coarsely marked frustule, the appearance of
■which in the pictures will aid in forming a judgment of the flatness
of field in each case. Near one extremity of the selected frustule
appears the end of another that may be used for the same purpose,
while near its other extremity the end of yet another frustule is
seen, at right angles to it, which, from its position in relation
to the light, is not resolved, although longitudinal diifraction lines
appear upon its surface in all the pictures.

All the immersion objectives belonging to the collection of the
Museum will show the striae on the selected frustule by monochro-
matic sunlight ; but some of them, from curvature of field and
feebleness of definition, would have given but sorry pictures. I
have only thought it worth while to make photographs with a few
of the very best of the water-immersion objectives at my disposal,
and with certain glycerine and oil-immersion objectives. The
following is a list of the photographs, to which I have added a
memorandum of the aperture of each objective, as measured with
an instrument I have devised, a modification of the apertometer of
Abbe, which I will describe fully in a separate paper. The angles
are all computed for an ideal medium of 1 • 5 index of refraction.

(a) Photographs of Amphipleura PELLUCIDA, illuminated by monochromatic sun-
light. Condenser a 3-inch objective of 12° air aperture inclined at an angle of 45°
to the optical axis of the Microscope.

No. 1. Oil-immersion -^\, aperture 114°, by Zeiss, vignetted print. 2830
diameters.

No. 2. By the sunie olijcctive; print not vignetted. 2760 diameters.
No. 3. Oil-immerbion J, apeiture 115°, by Zeiss. 2700 diameters.
No. 4. Oil-immer.sion ^, aperture 122°, by Tolles. 2700 diameters.

Observations on Amjihijjleura pellucida. By J. J. Woodivard. 673

No. 5. Glycerine-immersion ^, aperture 105°, by Spencer. 2830 diameters.

No. (j. Glycerine-immersion i, aperture 106°, by Spencer. 1900 diameters.

No. 7. Enlarged from the last negative fo 27(J0 diameters.

No. 8. Water-immersion yL., aperture 91°, by ToUes. 27G0 diameters.

No. 9. Water-immersion i, aperture 105°, by Powell and Lealand. 2700
diameters.

No. 10. Water-immersion ^'g-, aperture 103°, by Powell and Lealand. 2700
diameters.

No. 11. Water-immersion Jg-, aperture 91°, by Powell aud Lealand. 2900
diameters.

(6) Photographs of Amphipleuea pellucida, illuminated by monochromatic sun-
light, with an immersion illuminator and the utmost obliquity each objective would admit
without distortion.

No. 12. Zeiss' oil-immersion —^ (same as No. 1). 2830 diameters.
No. 13. Tolles' oil-immersion J^j (same as No. 4). 2760 diameters.

From my examination of these objectives, I am constrained to
give the Zeiss yV the preference, both by lamplight and sunlight,
over all the others named, and, indeed, I may add, over all the
objectives I have ever yet examined.

Next comes a group embracing the oil-immersion ^ by Tolles,
the glycerine-immersion ^ and ^^ by Spencer, and the oil-immersion ^
by Zeiss. All these objectives perform very well indeed. When
I wrote to Zeiss last January, I expressed the opinion that the per-
formance of his ^ fully equalled that "of the best of the large
collection of immersion objectives belonging to the ^luseum." But
subsequent trial convinced me that my first photographic work with
the Spencer's ^V ^^^ ^o^ A.onQ it justice, and I afterwards received
the ^ from the same maker and the oil-immersion ^^ by Tolles.
After protracted trials, I now regard these three objectives as supe-
rior in defining power to the Zeiss ^. How they compare with it,
and with each other, may be fairly judged from the photographs.
Of the water-immersion objectives, the Tolles ^V stands first in my
estimation ; the Powell and Lealand objectives next.

Among other points suggested by a study of these photographs
is the fact that the superiority of the glycerine and oil-immersion
objectives is not a mere consequence of their great aperture. The
aperture of the ^ of Spencer exceeds but little, and the ^l not
at all, that of the ^ of Powell and Lealand, yet their perform-
ance is much better. The aperture of the Zeiss J^ is actually
less than that of the Tolles y^, which, however, it excels in per-
formance, and a similar comparison may be made between the
Tolles xV and the Powell and Lealand objectives. And yet I do
not doubt in the least that each additional degree of interior angle
above 82^ is a material advantage, provided always that the aber-
rations of the objective are accurately corrected ; but inferiority in
the formula employed or in the skill and care exercised in construc-
tion may more than neutralize the advantages that ought to be
derived from this source. Nor do I doubt in the least the

074 Transactions of the Society.

superiority in a general way of glycerine as the immersion fluid
over water, or of oil of cedarwood and other liquids closely approxi-
mating crown glass in refraction and dispersion over glycerine.
But this superiority does not occur merely because increased angle
is thus rendered possible. In fact, as the angle of total reflexion from
crown glass to water is rather more than 60°, it is by no means
theoretically impossible to construct water-immersion objectives
with angle as great as the oil-immersion objectives of Zeiss, or the
glycerine-immersion objectives of Spencer. The difficulty in this
case is to correct the aberrations which are inevitably produced by
refraction at the upper surface of the thin glass cover and the flat
surface of the objective front, l^hese aberrations are entirely absent
when the immersion fluid has the same refraction and dispersion as
the glass on each side of it ; are comparatively slight in the case of
glycerine ; much more considerable with water, and greatest in the
case of the dry objectives. Professor Abbe, in the paper already
cited, has drawn attention to this circumstance, which appears to me
even more important than the fact that with homogeneous immer-
sion there is no loss of light by reflexion at the front surface of the
objective, and with glycerine immersion very little ; but this also
must have its influence.

Taking all the circumstances into consideration, I am disposed
to expect further improvement in objectives in the direction of homo-
geneous immersion rather than glycerine immersion. In the case of
homogeneous immersion, too, we have the great advantage of being
able to dispense with the screw collar for cover correction, and all
the deplorable loss of time entailed by the use of that contrivance,
which is absolutely required in the case of glycerine and water-
immersion objectives.

For this reason, in my ordinary work I give my Zeiss ^ the
preference over the objectives I have named as somewhat sur-
passing it in defining power ; because it gives instantly results that
are not far inferior to the best I can obtain from the others with
much pains and loss of time.

Finally, to illustrate the superb performance of the Zeiss xV on
dry Am]ylii])Jeura, I have added to the series a photograph (No. 14)
of a very delicate frustule on a slide of Ampliipleura pellucida
from the Bridge of Allan, Scotland, mounted by my friend Pro-
fessor Hamilton L. Smith, of Geneva, New York. This frustule is
only 29 ten-thousandths of an inch long, and has 105 striae to the
thousandth of an inch. It is magnified 3400 diameters.

( 075 )

XXXIII. — Note on Abies Experiment on Pleurosigma angulatum.

By J. J. Woodward, Surgeon and Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel,
U.S. Army, Hon. F.K.M.S.

{Read llth June, 1879.)

I SEND herewith two photographs of Pleurosigma angulatum taken
by the Zeiss oil-immersion | and a ToUes amplifier. The magni-
fying power is 1850 diameters. The one exhibits the markings as
ordinarily seen and described ; the other, taken with oblique light
and a stop, furnished for the purpose by Zeiss, behind the back
lens, exhibits the fine difiraction lines parallel to the midrib,
described by Professor Abbe, of Jena.

The notable point about this second picture is that the difi'rac-
tion lines, instead of being limited to the part of the frustule which
is adherent to the glass cover, as is the case when Abbe's experi-
ment is performed by lamplight, appear by monochromatic sunHght,
and of course in the photographs, on all parts of the frustule. Pro-
fessor Abbe, who originally fell into the error of supposing the
absence of the diffraction lines on the non-adherent parts to be the
necessary result of the optical conditions, has pointed out with
commendable frankness * that his mistake arose from not having
before accurately measured the true distance of these difiraction
lines apart ; and has willingly admitted that under the actual con-
ditions it is " a matter of intensity of illumination only, whether
they will be visible or non- visible through a film of air." I
call special attention to his lucid explanation,t because in my
opinion the greater share taken by the diffraction pencils in the
formation of the microscopical image in wide-angled objectives,
when illuminated by monochromatic sunlight, has a great deal to
do with the superiority of this mode of illumination over lamplight
for the purposes of high-power definition, as well as of photo-
micrography. By lamplight these diffraction pencils are so much
feebler in intensity, that their share in the formation of the image
is considerably less. I have in a previous paper (p. 663) pre-
sented other striking illustrations of this important point, and
the views there expressed are corroborated by the phenomenon
observed when Abbe's experiment is performed by monochromatic
sunlight.

The pair of photographs herewith presented to the Society are
not from the negatives of which I sent last January to Professor
Abbe the prints exhibited at the meeting of February 12th by Mr.
Stephenson. Those were accidentally taken with slighfly different
distances, and were hence magnified differently. The present
* TLis Journal, vol. ii. (April, 1879), p. Ul. f Loc. cit.

676 Transactions of the Socieiij.

pictures are both taken at precisely the same distance from object
to screen, and would be of precisely equal magnifying power, but
that the diffraction lines are best seen in a focal position of the
objective slightly different from that required to show the hexagons,
and this produces unavoidably a trifling variation, which, however,
I think cannot exceed one per cent, of the power, if indeed it is so
great. I have added to the pair a third photograph, exhibiting
the whole of the frustule used for this experiment, magnified 730
diameters by Powell and Lealand's water-immersion |.

-JOUR, R. MIC. so !-

yl est, Ae^vrmawi. Si Cc . 7*«3x,

New- s-oecies of Dia^tomsucese from tlie Caspia.TL Sea, .

( 677 )

XXXIV. — New Si:)ecies and Varieties of Biaiomacex from the
Caspian Sea. By A. G^runow, Hon. F.Pi.M.S. Translated
with additional Notes by F. Kitton, Hon. F.R.M.S.

{Bead 11th June, 1879.)
Plate XXI.

Ampliora (angusta Greg. var. ?) ohlongella Grunow. — A. minuta,
a latere primario angusta, oblonga, polls rotundatis, valvis cymbi-
formis obtusiusculis, ventre piano, linea media subrecta margine
inferiori approximata, striis dorsalibus subradiantibus 14-16 in
•01 mm., ventralibus brevissimis. Longit. '032- •036 mm.; latit.
•008- •0010.

Harbour of Baku, common.

Its relationship to the very imperfectly figured A. angusta
Greg, is very doubtful. The striae on the ventral portion appear
to bo much longer — Gregory gives 17 in the •Ql mm. ("about 44
in -001" ") ; still slighter is its resemblance to A. nana Greg., with
19 striae in '01 mm. The ventral striae also appear to be shorter.
The relationship of these forms is therefore scarcely probable.

A. lineata Greg. var. suhconstrida Grun. — Frustulis in media
parte levissime constrictis, striis punctatis dorsahbus 15 in •Ol mm.,
ventralibus tenuissimis. Longit. •035-^045 mm. ; latit. •Oil.

Harbour of Baku, common.

I have frequently met with a more strongly constricted Am-
phora in diatom gatherings from Tahita (Tonga and Samoa Islands),
which I Hkewise consider to be a form of A. lineata and have

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE.
Fig. 1. — Coscinodiscus nohilis Grun., from Java, ^42.
„ 2. — a, Podosira maxbna Kg., from Peru, a^a.

{Cydotella maxima, authentic specimen.)
6 c, Structure of inner and marginal portions of valve.
d. Two frustules of P. maxima, with the connecting membrane, showin'
the granular endochrome, -5^°. '

„ 3. — P. stoUulifera Grun., Monterey deposit, aofl_
,, 4. — a, Podosira ambigua Grun., St. Paul, s.op_^

b c, Structure of the inner portion and the margin of the valve, '"".
„ 5. — a b, Hyalodiscusscoticjis (Kg.) Giun., S-OQ^ ^

(Cyclotella scotica Kg., authentic specimen.)
(Fig. a, dried specimen with endochrome.)
c. Structure of valve, 1^12.
„ 6. — a, P. A]-gus Grun., California, a|£.

6 c, Structure of inner portion and margin of valve, '- i°.
„ 7. — a, P. hormoides, Montague, Lima, ^e^.

b, Structure of valve, ^-^.
„ 8. — Small fragment of outer portion of Coscinodiscus Gazelkc, i^a.

078 Transactions of the Society.

called it var, constricta. It is somewhat larger and more robust
than the Caspian form, but otherwise differs but little ; striae 12-14
in "01 mm.

GrOMPHONEME-E.

Gomplionema (olivaeeum var.?) stauroneiformis Grun. — Q.
valvis lauceolatis vel subclavatis, obtusis, striis subradiantibus, sub-
tilissime punctatis, area transversa central! interruptis. Longit.
•053--07 mm.; latit. valv. •01--012 mm.; strire 10-13 in
•01 mm. Stipites plerumque longissimae.

This Gomj)honema is distinguished from G. olivaeeum prin-
cipally by its greater size and more conspicuous, smooth, central
area. I have hitherto met with this form in mountain streams in
the Tyrol and Switzerland and presume that it has often been
mistaken for G. dichotomum.

The forms from the Caspian Sea are still larger ("OOS-* 15 mm.
long) and might be called var. Caspia. The upper part is fre-
quently shorter than the lower; this is often the case with the
mountain species.

Mastogloiace^.

Mastogloia Smithii Thwaites var. intermedia Grun. — Minor,
valvis late, lanceolatis parum productis, nodulo centrali vix laterali-
ter dilatato, striis tenuioribus, 18-19 in '01 mm. Longit. '032-
•087 mm.; latit. •0125 mm.

Harbour of Baku, common.

Yar. ahnormis Grun. valvis lanceolatis, obtusiusculis, loculis ab
marginis remotis, lineae mediae approximatis, striis subradiantibus,
tenuissime punctatis, 18 in '01 mm.

Baku Harbour, rare.

A peculiar form, in which the loculi are apparently placed
between the margin and median line. I have observed something
similar in a Mastogloia from Seychelles, which I have named
M. Seyshellensis. It differs from the Caspian form by its greater
length and more lanceolate valves with occasionally capitate pro-
duced apices, and its delicate striae (26-29 in • 01 mm.).

M. [Smitliii var. ?) fusilla Grun. — M. minuta, valvis lanceolatis
obtusiuscuHs, loculis mediis ceteros magnitudine superantibus, striis
subradiantibus, tenuissime punctatis, 17 in '01 mm., nodulo cen-
trah rotundato. Longit. • 012- -013 mm. ; latit. '007- "0075 mm.
Not common in the Harbour of Krasnowodsk. Eesembles M.
exigua of Lewis, but the valves are more obtuse and more strongly
striate ; the loculi are numerous and marginal.

[I fail to detect any resemblance between the figure of If. exigua
and ill. imsiila ; the former has acute apices, loculi 2-5 (generally
only 3), striae obscure. In the latter the ends are obtuse, the
strice distinct, and the loculi numerous — F. K.J

Diatomaceai from the Caspian Sea. By A. Griinow. 679

Navicule^.

NavicuJa Trochus Ebr. var. hieonstrida Gran. — Valves with
three equal stout inflations, and slightly produced obtuse apices
•042 mm. long. Inflations '001 mm. (this should be "01); con-
strictions -006 broad. Striae transverse (18-20 in '01 mm.),
radiant at the centre, two large thickened sickle-shaped lines on
each side of the central area.

Eare in Baku Harbour.

Although of very difierent form it appears nevertheless to belong
to the series of which N. Trochus is the type, but which has only
one central inflation. I have, however, many forms before me in
which the ends are produced and a couple of slight depressions are
visible, evidently showing a transition to the above described ex-
treme variety. Characteristic of N. Trochus is the circular smooth
space round the central nodule, and which has the two sickle-
shaped forks on each side.

[N. Trochus of authors is not N. Trochus of Ehrenberg accord-
ing to Dr. Donkin. A careful examination of the figures of
N. Follis in the ' Mikrogeologie ' will show that what has generally
been considered N. Trochus is probably N. Follis. Dr. Lewis, in
his paper on " Extreme and exceptional Variation of Diatoms,"
also refers the so-called N. Trochus to N. Follis* (Professor
H. L. Smith concurs in this view), but considers it to be only an
extreme variety of N. serians, a view with which I am disposed to
agree. The variety described by Herr Grunow I think more
nearly resembles N. trinode of Lewis, I. c. nee Smith, and which he
says is found in large rivers and brackish water, whilst N. Follis
is only found in fresh. — F. K.]

N. Schneicleri Grun. — N. major, valvis lanceolatis obtusius-
culis, nodulo centrali oblongo, nodulis terminalibus minutis, sulcis
duobus lineae medic's approximatis longitudinalibus, striis punctatis
obliquis varie arcuatis 14 in '01 mm. longitudinalibus 13 in
'01 mm. Longit. '143- '145 mm.; latit. '042 '043 mm.

Eare on the pier of Cape Bail.

A well marked Navicula ; on each side of the median line is
a conspicuous line of coarse striae, between which and the striae
is a narrow, smooth furrow, connecting it with the subsection
Diploneis, but distinguished from it by the striae which cross the
valve in curved obhque lines resembling those on iV. ohlique-
striata A. Schmidt, Demerara Eiver. Atlas, pi. 13, figs. 41, 42.

[N. Iridis has a similar striation. — F. K.]

* The figure, in the ' Infusionsthierchen,' of N. Trochus is certainly very like
what is usually known by that name ; the probable solution is that they are both
one species.

680 Transactions of the Society.

Pleurosigma.

Tleurosigma attenuafum, var. Caspia Grunow. — Somewhat
smaller, narrower, and less sigmoid than the type species, apices
less acute. Strise the same as in P. attenuatum and P. Hippo-
campus.

Not uncommon in Baku Harbour.

Between P. attenuatum and P. Hippocampus there exists only
the unimportant distinction, a difference in the outline of the valve.
The Caspian form is distinguished from both by being narrow, less
sigmoid, and by its more obtuse apices. The structure of these
alhed forms imder higli powers appears very similar ; between the
strongly-marked hues of beads faint outlines of other beads may be
seen. Whether these delicate puncta belong to a second valve or
are an optical delusion must remain for the present undecided ;
it is certain, however, that the valves of Pleurosigma are com-
posed of two layers, which separate when acted upon by long
boiling in acids. [I have observed this in P. angulatum.']

[The faint markings here alluded to have been seen by other
observers. It is most probable that the valves of Pleurosigma have
a similar structure to many other diatoms in possessing what I call
" secondary valves," which in some genera are like, and in others
unlike, the primary valve. Schmidt calls them EegenerationshuUe,
— F. K.]

P. elongatum, var. gracile Grunow. — Narrower and less sharply
pointed than Smith's figure. Striae somewhat stronger. Obhque
striae, 17-18 in -01 mm.; transverse, 19 in '01 mm. Length,
•13-- 32 mm. ; breadth, • 024- • 025 mm.

Common in Baku Harbour.

SCHIZONEMA.

ScMzonema {minutum Kg. var.?) Caspium Grunow. — Sch.
miuutissimum, filamentis brevissimis, subsimplicibus vel parce
dichotome ramosis, inferne irregulariter transverse rugosis, superne
laevibus, hyalinis, apicem versus vix conspicuis. Frustula inclusa
irregulariter hbera disposita, valvis lanceolatis, obtusiusculis, • 035-
•052 mm. longis, •007- '008 mm. latis, nodulo centrali parvo
oblongo, striis parallelibus 12 in • 01 mm., in media parte parum
distantioribus, subradiantibus, in area minuta nodulum centralem
ambiente deficientibus.

On Cladoplwra in Baku Harbour common.

In 8. minutum, Kg. Bac, pi, 23, fig. 5, the frustules occur
in straight lines, in which it resembles 8. humile Kg. ; but in tlie
latter species they principally occur in the chief filament (Haupt-
schlauch). In the Caspian form this is never the case.

Diatomacese from the Caspian Sea. By A. Grunow. 681

NlTZSCHIEiE.

[We omit the remarks of the author on this family, as we hope
his monograph will be in the hands of the diatomist ere long.
He unites the genus Tryblionella with Nitzschia, remarking that
" long observation of this genus (Nitzschia) had convinced him that
the genus Tryblionella was not sufficiently distinct to warrant
their separation ; " he therefore relegates the following forms to
the former genus. — F. K.]

T. Hantzschiana Grun., T. gracilis W. Sm. = N. Trtjblionella
Hantzsch. T. Victoria Grun. and T. levidensis AV. Sm., he
considers to be only varieties of that species. Baku Harbour.

T. jyundata W. Sm. Baku Harbour.

T. apiculata Greg, [not W. Sm. as stated by Grunow].

T. eircumsuta Bailey = Surirella circumsuta Bailey = T.
Scutellum W. Sm. Common in Baku Harbour.

The valves of this species have a longitudinal ridge (langsfaltig),
but the transverse striee are not interrupted by it as they are in
many other species. By direct light the surface of tbe valve
appears irregularly punctate (shagreen-like) ; this is still more
conspicuous in the closely allied form Nitzschia Brightivellii
(Kitton), in which it is clearly shown that the large puncta
and the fine regular lines of striae belong to different layers of the
valve.

[The stria3 on T. circumsuta and N. Brightwellii have a certain
family resemblance, but the structure of the valve is conspicuously
different in the former species. Close to the punctate margin runs
a longitudinal V-shaped furrow, forming a ridge near the centre of
the valve, which gradually descends towards the margin ; a section
made across the centre of the valve would be something like three-
fourths of the letter W, W . This peculiarity is more or less visible
in all the Trybhonellae. Nitzschia Brightu-ellii has the surface of the
valve flat, like all the true Nitzschias. T. circumsuta is elliptic
lanceolate. N. Brightwellii is linear lanceolate. — F. K.]

Nitzschia Sigma W. Sm. var. interceclens Grun. Length,
*2 mm. ; breadth, -0065 mm. Keel puncta, 7 in -01 mm.

N. Sigma embraces a great number of forms, the extremes of
which would not with certainty be relegated to one species were it
not that so many intermediate forms exist between them. The
following are the principal : —

Var. ? maxima Grun. Length, • 9 mm. ; breadth, • 9 mm. ;
keel puncta, 3-4 in -01 mm.; transverse stria3, 15-18 in
•01 mm.
Var. valida Grun. Length, -5 mm. ; breadth, -017- '022 ;
keel puncta, 3i-5 in '01 mm. ; transverse striae, 18-21 in
•01 mm.

682 Transactions of the Society.

Yar. consimilisGrvin. Length, •4mn). ; breadth, "01 3 mm.;
keel puncta, 5-7 ; transverse striae, 23-26 in '01 mm.
This form stands midway in the transition from N. Sigma
proper.

Var. genuina Grmi. Length, •25 mm.; breadth, "Ollmm. ;

keel puncta, 7-9 ; transverse stria3, 20-24 in '01 mm.
Var. ? fasciculata Grun. Lengtli, • 095 mm. ; breadth,
•036 mm.; keel puncta, 4-6; transverse striae, 28-30 in
•01mm. It is the Homeoeladia signioidea'W. Sm., at
least what I have hitherto considered to be that species.
I cannot admit that it is a Homeoeladia. It is dis-
tinguished from N. Sir/ma proper by its distant keel
puncta as well as by its delicate striation.
Var. intercedens Grun. Length, -30 mm.; breadth,
•009 mm.; keel puncta, 6-7; transverse striae, 28-33 in
•01 mm.
Var. ? Sigmatella Gregory. Length, 32 mm. ; breadth,
•006 mm. ; keel puncta, 8-10 ; transverse striae, 25-28 in
•01 mm. Valves more or less strongly sigmoid.
[Nitzschia Sigmatella Gregory is no Nitzschia. Wm. Smith also
refers this form to the genus Nitzschia under the sp. name oicurvula.
Dr. Lewis considersit an extreme form of Surhella, and names it
;S'. intermedia. I have seen authentic specimens of N. Sigmatella
and i\'. curvula W. Sm., and am satisfied that they are identical,
and also that they are not allied to Nitzschia excepting in
outhne.— F. K.]

Var. ? rigida Grun. Length, ■ 20 mm. ; breadth, • 008 ; keel
puncta, 8-11 ; transverse strise, 28-32 in "01 mm. Ac-
cording to Dr. Arnott this is Am])liiijleura sigmoidea
W. Sm. {A. rigida Kg. ?). A small form of this is
perhaps Navicula lamprocampa Ehr. in Kg. B. Nitzschia
Jtexa Schumann appears to belong here.
Var. anguilla Schumann. Valves acute; 0^045 mm. in
length; • 003 mm. in breadth; keel puncta, 11-12;
transverse striae, 29-30 in "01 mm.
Var. ? Clausii Hantzsch. Resembles the preceding. Valves
with produced rounded apices, "015 mm. long, •004 mm.
broad; keel puncta, 10-11 in •Ol mm.; striae very
delicate.
In this series (in which the distinctions are based upon the
size of valve, and distance of keel puncta and striae) may be
included some irregular forms.

Var. ? suhrecta Grun. Valve lanceolate sigmoid, flexure very
slight, often scarcely distinguishable. Length, • 1 1 mm. ;
breadth, '008 mm. ; keel puncta, 10-11 ; transverse striae,
28-30 in -01 mm.

Biatomaeex from the Caspian Sea. By A. Grunow. 683

Var. ? abludens Grun. Valve linear lanceolate, not sigmoid.
Length, '155 mm.; breadth, "008 mm.; keel puncta,
3-4^; transverse striae, 22 in '01 mm.

To the Nitzschia Sigma group belong the following species of
Homoeocladia.

H. Kotschyi Grun. Valve, '22 mm. long, "007 mm. broad;
keel puncta, 7-7^ ; transverse strife, 24 in • 01 mm. ; connecting
zone with strong longitudinal striae. Salt Lake Atchin Ghol
(%. Kotschy), growing singly and in tufts.

H. siihcohwrens Grun. Valve, "03- "045 mm. long, '004
broad; keel puncta, 9-10; transverse striae, 33-34 in -01 mm.,
forming slight, delicate, and frequently ramifying threads, without
a definite integument. China, Bengal.

Herr Frauenfeld gathered a similar form in Leith, Scotland;
it was partly in single frustules and partly in bushy tufts.

LiCMOPHOREiE.

Licmoiohora jidbellata Ag. Kg. Bac. tab. 12, figs. 1, 2, 4 ;
W. Smith, B. D. tab. xxxii. fig. 234.

Var. ? gracillima Grun. Frustules shorter and narrower

(•101 mm, long, '009 mm. broad); in the upper part

linear, the lower cuneate. Bare.

I have never seen this form in a living state, but only in

single frustules. I have also seen no front view, and am therefore

unable to decide whether it is allied to L. Remus or L. Romulus.

COSCINODISCE^.

Cyclotella Casjpia Grun. — C. minuta, margine tenuissime striate,
centro undulato, irregulariter punctato. Diam. "18 mm.; latit.
marginis, -004 mm.; strife radiantes, 21 in -01.

Not uncommon in the Harbour of Baku.

Approaches most nearly to C. opercuJata Kg., but is dis-
tinguished by the absence of marginal puncta (spines?) and by
its delicate striae. I reckon as Cyclotella? only those forms with
sharply-defined radiating marginal striae. To distinguish the
species requires great caution. G. operculata has a strongly
striated margin (striae l(j-17 in "01 mm.).

G. antiqua W. Sm. is closely allied to G. operculata. It is
distinguished by the presence of large triangular excavations near
the centre. I have observed many transitional forms in G.
operculata var. radiosa.

To the large forms of G. operculata is allied a Cyclotella, which
Euleustein found in the Bodensee (Lake Constance) and named it
G. Bodanica, and which I also have seen in soundings from the
Traunsee (Lake of Gmunden) .

The largest were "OO mm. in diameter, with broad (-015 mm.)

684 Trayisactions of the Society.

margins ; tlie puncta (spines) submarginal ; the radiating striae on
the inner part of the margin 11 in -01 mm., on the outer part
about 13 in -01 mm. The centre is marked with (excepting a
small speck in tlie middle) deHcate radiating puncta.

To G. Bodanica Eulenstein joins a not uncommon North
American Oyclotella, which is distinguished by its smaller size
and more distant punctate lines in the centre, and which I at one
time called var. affinis.

C. Dallasiana W. Sm., a common form in brackish water
localities; it is distinguished from C. operculata by its much
greater size, stronger striation of the marginal band (9-12 in
•01 mm.), and a semicircular arch of larger puncta on the edge of
the irregularly punctate centre. [The puncta are distinct on the
specimens from Para River, but their presence is doubtful on those
from many other localities. — F, K.] To G. Dallasiana may possibly
belong Goscinodiscus striatus Kg. and Discoplea sinensis Ehr.
Dr. Arnott, in his note on the genus Cyclotella, ' Q. M. Journal,'
vol. viii. p. 247, refers G. stylorum * Brightwell, ' Q. M. J.,' vol. viii.
p. 9'), to G. Dallasiana. Brightwell's form I know well, and have
seen the original specimen from which the figure (a very indifferent
one) was made. The G. Dallasiana of Smith, of which I have
also seen authentic specimens, differs considerably from G. stylorum.
The marginal band is narrow and finely striate ; the large granulate
centre is undulate, but not the whole valve. G. stylorum also
shows this, but in a much less degree. In the latter the marginal
band is much broader, the stria3 stronger, and the valves much more
robust ; it is moreover a much commoner form. I have it from many
North American localities, the Para Ptiver mud, South America,
and in mud from the mouth of the Eokelle, Sierra Leone (where Mr.
Brightwell first observed it). I do not know of any British habitat.
C. Dallasiana, on the contrary, is much less common. • Smith
found a single specimen in a slide of a gathering from the Medway.
Mr. Roper detected it in Thames mud. It also occurs in the Para
River mud. I know of no other habitats. Those from the Para
are very fine, and the depression and elevation of the centre very
distinct. I am disposed to refer the form called by L. W. Bailey f
Gymatopleura (?) Campylodiscus, to this species. His description is
as follows : — " Large, lateral view almost circular, sometimes broadly
oval (his figure is perfectly circular ; the oval appearance might be
caused by the valve being tilted) ; marginal strife short, close, and
showing under a high power gland-like dots. Lateral valve with
one deep undulation, surface finely striated. Hab. Honeylake
VaUey, foot of Sierra Nevada."

* In the work referred to, Dr. Arnott says C 7-adiata: this is an error; in the
wipics of his paper (privately distributed) lie alters it to stylorum,
t ' Boston Journ. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. vii. p. 350, pi. 8, fig. F.

Diatomacese from the Caspian Sea. By A. Grunow. G85

He does not notice its presence in the Para mud, where it is not
very rare ; this perhaps throws suspicion on the identity of the two
species. He, however, notices another form, which he thinks is a
var. of his C. pulchella (which he says is perhaps the same as
stylorum), "and well deserves the name" (l. c. p. 348).

In the work just above quoted is a figure of what he calls G.
Kutzingiana var, and which he describes thus : " The central por-
tion is large, elevated, and irregularly punctate ; the striae are minute
and closely radiant, reaching the margin, but interruj)ted before
reaching the margin by a finely undulate circle." His figure very
much resembles that of C. Casjn'a ; the centre is, however, larger
and more finely punctate ; it is also very like the small valves of
G. stylorum.

G. compta Ehr. has a resemblance to G. Meneghiniana Kg.,
but difi'ers in its more strongly granulate centre, and that every
second, third, or fourth marginal stria is stouter than the others.

G. Meneghiniana Kg. is identical with G. rectangulata Breb., and
like G. Gasjna, has no marginal spine, but a more strongly striated
margin (7 to 9 delicately punctate stiiae in ' 0 1 mm.). G. Kutz-
ingiana W. Sm. appears to be the same species.

G. Kutzingiana (Ehr. ?) Chauvin, has, according to original
examples from Chauvin, likewise no marginal spines, but a very
delicately striate margin (llJ-ll in "Ol mm.). C. Gaspia perhaps
might be considered a very delicately striate form of this species.
In kieselguhr from Domblitten is found a very interesting form
with an oval centre and 14-15 marginal striae in -01 mm. This
I consider a var. ? of G. Schumanni.

The remaining species of Cyclotella is Discoplea grasca
(Ehr. ?) Schumann ; D. umlilicata (Ehr. ?) Schumann, and D.
hipunetata Schumann seem to be of similar structure. Most of
Ehrenberg's species are unrecognizable.

G. scotica Kiitz. appears, according to the original examples
from Constantinople (query, identical with the Scottish form?), to
be no Cyclotella, but a Podosira ; the entire valve is very delicately
and irregularly punctate, and beset with a single circlet of stout
spines.

Discoplea annuJata Schumann seems to be allied to Melosira
Westii, and D. umbilieata Ehr. to be identical with the latter.

Gydotella hella A. Schmidt. — This is perhaps a Stephanodiscus,
or may belong to the genus Coscinodiscus. The same applies to
G. punctata W. Sm., G. Astrsea and minutula Kg. (these two
appear to merge completely into each other). G. Garconensis
Eulenstein does not belong to G. Astrxa as Eulenstein con-
sidered, but is a good species, characterized by the smooth radiating
lines starting from the intramarginal spines, and which pass
through the radiant puncta. G. spinosa Schumann is identical

VOL. II. 2 z

686 Transaetions of the Society.

with Stephanodiscus Niagavfe Ehr. The latter is distinguished
from C. Carconensis by the greater number of smooth rays
separating the radiating puncta, part only of which proceed from
the marginal spines. The lines of puncta in 8. Niagara are
simple in the centre, but consist of two, or at most three, contiguous
puncta as they approach the periphery, whereas the lines of puncta
in C Carconensis occur in groups.

Dr. Arnott, in the paper previously quoted (p. 246), says:
" Smith unfortunately referred a species (0. minutula) obtained in
Lough Mourne deposit to C. antiqua, a species which does not
occur in any of the Irish deposits which I have examined." It is
somewhat difficult to imagine how Professor Smith could have
mistaken C. mimdula for G. antiqua, the difference being so well
marked. I have never been able to find the latter in the Lough
Mourne deposit or in the marl Co. Down, but in a deposit from
Strangford, Co. Down, it is not uncommon, and I think finer than
in the Peterhead deposit.

]\rELOSIRE^.

Melosira Borreri Greville. Sm. S. B. D. tab. 50, fig. 330.
Var. moniliformis = M. moniliformis Ag. Kiitzing, Bacil.

tab. 3, fig. 2.
Var. suhglobosa Grun. — Generally somewhat smaller. Frus-
tules nearly spherical or elongated, the ends slightly
flattened.
Var. odogona Grun. — Frustules nearly cylindrical, with flat
ends and broadly oblique corners, so that the frustules in
f. V. appear octagonal.
The three varieties are not uncommon in Baku Harbour.
The filaments are attached by a short stipes to other algae,
particularly Cladophora. The frustules are sometimes attached
to each other and sometimes connected by a short gelatinous
isthmus.

The interesting var. octogona, which I for a long time thought
a very different species, and which I first found on Vaucheria
javanica Kg. from Java, had such oblique corners to the cylindrical
frustules that I could not recognize its relationship to M. Borreri.
I afterwards found examples which more nearly approached M.
Borreri on algae from Upolo, Austraha, and Kamtschatka, and
which stood between it and the typical M. Bor7'eri, from the
Lagunes of Venice. The vars. octogona and suhorhicularis are
usually more finely punctate than M. Borreri; the latter has
frequently the central part of the valve smooth, whilst the former
almost always have it punctate. The puncta in all the forms of

Diaiomacem from the Caspian Sea. By A. Grunow. 687

M. Borreri are in groups and irregularly disposed, so that tlie
valves have a shagreen-like appearance.

Podostra Isevis Greg, does not appear to me to differ from
P. Moniagnei.

P. hormoides (Montague nee W. Smith) = P. nummuloides
Ehr. — According to the original examples, approaches very near to
P Montagnei, and differs principally in the valves being less con-
vex. The structure is very similar, but the puncta are more
distant (18 in -01 mm. against 21-22 in P. Montagnei), and
the larger puncta are fewer in number and more radiant.

[The arrangement adopted by Herr Grunow is that of Pfitzer,
who divides the Diatomaceae into two groups, Placochromaticae and
Coccochromaticas. See 0. Meara's Analysis of Dr. Pfitzer's System
in 'Q. M. J.,' vol. xii., n. s., and M. P. Petit's in 'M. M. J.,' vol.
xviii.— F. K.]

[Since the preceding paper was written I have received from
my friend Herr Grunow the following notes on Coscinodiscus, Hyalo-
discus, and Podosira. — F. K.]

Coscinodiscus nohilis Grun. — This is the form I refer to
C. regius Wallich in my paper on Diatoms from the Caspian Sea
(p. 27* : " Zu dieser durch ein glattes Centrum ausgezeichneten
Gruppe gehoren noch C. perforatus Ehr. und C. ajyiculatus Ehr.,
so wie C. regius Wallich "). It is not C. regius, of which, through
the kindness of Mr. Kitton, I have since seen specimens. It is
much larger (1-4 mm.) than C. nohilis whose greatest diameter is
•54 mm. C. regius has no smooth centre, but a wide space in
the middle covered with irregularly disposed puncta, and distant,
variously shaped, slightly curved spines. The valves are cylindrical
and in s. v. have radiant lines of puncta (3 in "01 mm.). On the
cylindrical part (f. v.) the puncta are parallel (5 in * 01 mm.) and
are separated from the radiant rows by a circular smooth space on
the upper edge of the valve. The slightly convex valves of C.
nohilis have a smooth centre and closer and smaller puncta (about
7 in '01 mm.) which become hexagonal as they approach the
margin, and are separated into groups by radiating lines which are
sometimes scarcely visible. I have a smaller form from the Samoa
Islands (*06-'13 mm.) with a smooth centre and more radiating
puncta (5 in '01 mm.). It resembles C. ajnculatus Ehr., and
might be named C. apiculatus var. Samoensis. A similar form
occurs in tlie Monterey deposit. C. nohilis was collected by
Krock, and communicated to me by Professor Cleve. PI. XXI.,

Fig. 1, :*-p.

* Not noticed in my vesune. — 'E. K.

2 z 2

688 Transactions of the Society.

C. Gazellse Janiscb. — Diameter of valve (as far as can be ascer-
tained from fragments), 1"8 to 1*9 mm., tbus exceeding even
C. regius in size. Centre smootb, bke C. nohilis, but bordered by
a circle of small spines similar to tliose occurring in C. regius; tbe
radiating rows of puncta are somewbat closer tban tbose in tbat
species (6-7 in •01 mm.). Upper edge of valve smootb, precisely
as in C. regius. Near tbe margin numerous sbort irregularly
curved striae (consisting of darker puncta) are visible.

' Gazelle' sounding, No. 125, 30' 53' S. lat., 177° 6' E. long. ;
deptb 4151 metres. 'Cballenger' sounding, station 265, deptb
2900 fatboms. Tbis form was named by Herr Janiscb in remem-
brance of tbe scientific expedition made by tbe German sbip,
* Gazelle,' in tbe years 1874-1876. PL XXI., Fig. 8 (*p).

I bave found fragments tbat can only belong to tbis species
in a sample of Nottingbam deposit in wbicb it was not un-
common.

C. regius was originally distributed under tbe MS. name
of Rex. It is undoubtedly tbe largest diatom, excepting C. Ga~
zellfB, bitberto discovered. C. regius was first found, in tbe Bay
of Bengal in 1857, by Dr. Wallicb. Tbe ligbter portions of one
of tbe ' Cballenger ' dredgings (station 265, deptb 2900 fatboms)
consist almost entirely of fragments of tbis species. C. nohilis
is by no means an uncommon form; I bave found it in tbe
stomacbs of Noctilucse collected at Gorleston Pier (Norfolk), asso-
ciated witb C. concinnus, for wbicb it is sometimes mistaken. I
bave also seen it in gatberings from Harwicb, Hong Kong,
Arafura Sea, and Sea of Java. It differs from G. concinnus in its
large smootb area and its more distinct puncta and radiating lines.
Tbe rows of puncta in C concinnus terminate in a small central
rosette of small cells. C. tenuis Bailey * is undoubtedly tbe same
species, f as is C. centralis of Scbulze.

In 'Casp. See Algen,'Herr Grunow says, "Allied to Podosira
hormoides is a form wbicb I provisionally call Htjalodiscus
maximus. It is witbout doubt identical witb Cyclotella maxima."
In tbe communication now received are tbe following additional
remarks.

Podosira maxima (Kiitzing) Grunow, in Cleve and Grunow's
'Arctic Diatoms.' Cyclotella maxima Kiitz. ad specm. autbent.,
Hyalodisciis maximus Grun. I. c. ex parte, Actinoptyclius inter-
punctatus Brigbtwell. — I bave adopted witb some besitation

* ' Boston Journ. of Nat. History,' vol. vii. p. .393, pi. vii. fig. 9.

t Bailey (/. c.) also says, " tliat he has seen from tlie same locality (Para
River) a similar form with three processes." (I liave seen C. radiatns with similar
processes.) This is no donbt the same species as that found in the Java Sea.
The so-called processes are not constant, and are pi obably only abnormal growths ;
see Prof. H. L. Smith, ' Amer. Jour, of Micr.,' Ang. 1877.— F. K.

Dicdoinacese from the Caspian Sea. By A. Orunow. 689

M. Petit's views in separating Podosira from Hyalodiscus on
account of the granular arrangement of the endochrome, and there-
fore remove this species from Hyalodiscus. The puncta are in
radiant and obHque hnes 13-15 in '01 mm. in the middle and
18 on the margin of the valve. The beginning of new rays of
puncta is mostly marked by a small blank space which appears
under certain focussing like a small dark spot. The centre of the
valve is more irregularly punctate, and occasionally a very small
irregularly bordered umbilicus is visible. Cahfornian specimens
reach a diameter of '24 mm. and have somewhat coarser puncta
(12-14 in "01 mm.), but it is impossible to separate them into
distinct species, and they can only be considered as a variety
" Calif orniea" of P. maxima. PL XXI., Fig. 2a {^^), authentic
specimen of Cyclotella maxima Kg. from Peru {leg. Hayne).
Fig. 2 h, structure of the inner part of the valve (^V"^)- Fig. 2 c,
structure of the margin (^-n;^'). Fig. d, two frustules cohering by
a broad connecting membrane, of rare occurrence, but which
evidently shows how nearly allied P. maxima is to P. hormoides.
The two frustules exhibit the granular arrangement of the
endochrome (^).

P. liormoides Montague {nee Smith) is nearly allied to
P. maxima, and differs only by its smaller size, more convex
valves, and somewhat closer puncta. The cell contents are
granular. As with other diatoms, we find in some gatherings
of P. hormoides and P. maxima certain specimens not varying
much in size, which lead to the conclusion that we have to do with
distinct species ; but in gatherings from other localities inter-
mediate forms appear, and I have scarcely any doubt that P.
maxima is only a large form of P. hormoides. PI. XXL, Fig. 7 a
(°-^), authentic specimen from Lima. Fig. Ih {^-^^), structure
of the valve.

P. amhigua Grun. in Cleve and Moller, 'Arctic Diatoms.'
(Hyalodiscus stelliger Grun. nee Bailey Novara ex parte.) — This
species is distinguished from P. maxima by a much larger and
more sharply defined dark umbilicus, its smaller size and somewhat
closer rows of puncta (15-17 in "01 mm. in the middle of the
valve). Common at the island of St. Paul, Cape of Good Hope,
Kerguelen's Land, &c., and is very constant in these localities,
where P. maxima does not occur. I have seen specimens of
P. maxima from other localities with a small umbilicus, and other
intermediate forms may probably be detected. The cell contents
are granular. Hyalodiscus subtilis is distinguished by its much
finer striation and coherent endochrome, which sometimes form
radiant lobes easily visible even in dried specimens. A very large
form of P. amhigua (var. Kamschatica), attaining a diameter of

690 Transactions of the Society.

•274 mm. (umbilicus "035 mm.), occurs rarely in the Sea of
Kamtscliatka. From St. Paul, Southern Ocean, PI. XXL, Fig, 4 a
(^Y^), Fig. 4 &, c (^^r^), structure of inner part and margin of
valve.

P. stellulifera Grun., ' Casp. See Algen,' p. 35. — This form is dis-
tinguished from P. hormoides and P, maxima by a circle of larger
puncta (spines ?) near the margin of the highly convex valve which
has a broad border. The stellate appearance of the blank dots
is not always so obvious as in the specimen here represented, and
I have seen a specimen where the inner part very much resembled
P. hormoides. PI. XXI., Fig. 3 (^), Monterey deposit.

[In the *Casp. See Algen,' p. 35, is the following additional
description. Diameter of valve, • OS mm. With the exception of
the irregularly punctate centre (about "01 mm. in diameter),
the valve has delicate radiating puncta (17-18 in "01 mm.).
The larger puncta are irregularly scattered, and have a peculiar
stellate appearance. The cell membrane is somewhat thick. The
large marginal puncta (spines ?), 4 in • 01 mm. This form, which
occurs in Herr Weissflog's collection, I name P. stellulifera.]

P. Argus Grun., ' Casp. See Algen,' p. 35. — Valve highly
convex; diameter, '107 mm.; cell membrane very thick. The
inner concave valve is delicately striate; striae radiant (16 in
•01 mm). On the convex side is a sharply defined circular space,
with a finely dentate margin, within which are three to four
concentric circles of large oval dots (depressions?). California,
in the collection of Herr Weissflog. PI. XXL, Fig. 6 a (^ ■]'');
6 h, c, structure of inner portions and of the broad border of the
valve.

Hyalodiscus scoticus (Kg.) Grun., in Cleve and Grunow's
'Arctic Diatoms.' {Cyclotella scotica Kg. ad specm. authent.
Podosira hormoides Wm. Sm. nee Mont. P. Franldini Grun.,
' Casp. See Algen,' p. 34.) I have, through the kindness of
Dr. Van Heurk, seen authentic specimens of C. scotica Kg. from
two Scotch localities. I am unable to say whether the G. scotica
from Constantinople, to which I alluded in the ' Casp. See Algen,'
p. 30, is identical, my preparation being mounted dry and
insufficiently cleansed, but the Scotch specimens are without doubt
the P. hormoides of W. Smith. I have never seen the granules
in the endochrome of this very common species, and there can
scarcely be any doubt of its belonging to the genus Hyalodiscus.
A stronger reason for uniting it to this genus is the absolute
impossibility of specifically distinguishing it from H. subtilis.
Anyone who doubts this has only to carefully examine the
Californian gatherings, or No. 2 of Cleve and Moller's from Finn-
mark, in which every possible intermediate form may be seen, to

Biatomaceas from the Caspian Sea. By A. Grunoiv. 691

be convinced of the correctness of this view. PI. XXI., Fig. 5 a,b
Ci°)i Cydotella scotica Kg. from Scotland ; 5c C\^), structure of
valve.

In a future paper I hope to give delineations of some forms
of H. Isevis Ehr., H. radiatus \Pyxidicula radiata O'Meara),
and H. maximus Petit.

692 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

KECOKD

OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

INVERTEBEATA, CEYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, &c.
including Embryology and Histology generally.

ZOOLOGY.

A. GENERAIi, including Embryology and Histology
of the Vertebrata.

Cell-division in Animals.* — An important researcli on this subject
is published by Professor Peremeschko, of Kiew, who has studied
the epidermis, connective-tissue corpuscles, white blood-corpuscles,
and spindle-shaped cells from which the blood capillaries are de-
veloi^ed, in the transparent larva of the newt (Triton cristatus).

Method. — For the examination of the living cells it was found
convenient, although not absolutely necessary, to curarize the larva.
One part of curare was dissolved in 100 of water, and 100 of
glycerine added : five to ten drops of this fluid were added to a watch-
glass of water, in which the larva was placed. When the movements
had become slow and feeble, the animal was removed to a slide, a
cover slip placed on the tail, the most convenient part for study, and
the rest of the body covered with moist blotting-paper. The larva
recovers from the effects of the drug after eight to ten hours, and can
therefore be used over and over again.

Immersion in 3 per cent, alcohol or ether was found useful if
the observation was not to be continued long. Sodium chloride solu-
tion (1 per cent.), iodized serum, solution of sugar, &c., were also
found of service, as rendering certain appearances more distinct.

Absolute alcohol was found to be the best hardening fluid : small
pieces of the tail were placed in it for a quarter of an hour, stained
with hfematoxylin, fuchsin, or neutral carmine solution, and mounted
in glycerine or dammar. Solutions of gold chloride and osmic acid
(i *o I- per cent.), and silver nitrate (i per cent.) were also employed.

Bcsidts. — After treatment with curare or sodium chloride solution,
the epithelial cells of the epiderm were observed to become much
better defined, and spaces to appear between them, crossed by delicate
filaments ; these were evidently pseudopodial processes, arising as a
result of the contraction of the cells induced by the action of the
reagent.

Changes in the form, size, and arrangement of the intranuclear

filaments were directly observed ; the changes, however, were so slow

that no actual movement could be seen. The changes of the dividing

nucleus described by other observers were seen, and it was further

* 'Arch. Mikr. Anat.,' xvi. (1879) p. 437.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 693

noticed that, as tlie cell itself became constricted preparatory to
division, pseudopodial filaments stretclied across the small space be-
tween it and its neighbours, these processes being sometimes so
numerous as to form a sort of fringe.

The ordinary epidermic cells showed no intracellular network, but
amongst them were found a greater or less number of cells in which
this network was remarkably well developed. These " reticulate cells "
(Netzzellen) are often twice as large as the others, and of a more
rounded form ; they have compact, oval nuclei, which, as usual, may
become broken up into filaments, all stages between the two conditions
being observed. Nuclear filaments were seen to extend between those
of the intracellular network, but no actual connection of the two
seems to have been observed.

The reticulate cells are formed from those of the usual character
by a network appearing around the nucleus, and gradually extending
to the periphery. They may return to the ordinary condition by a
reversal of the process : the filaments of the network undergoing
gradual fusion, from the periphery inwards.

The entire process of division took two hours and a half in the
ordinary, one hour and a half in the reticulate cells. In both cases
three-quarters of this time was occupied in the division of the nucleus,
one-quarter in that of the cell-body. The process is thus a slow one,
not as in plant cells, according to Strasburger, rapid.

The series of events which together constitute the division process
are as follows : — The nucleus, first of all, undergoes a considerable
increase in size ; next, there appear in it a few lumps or granules,
some larger, some smaller ; the number of these increases ; they
lengthen out, and form short, finer or coarser filaments, which are at
first scattered without any definite arrangement, and intermixed with
unaltered granules through the nucleus. The number of the granules
decreases, the filaments become longer, the contours of the nucleus
vanish, and the filaments group themselves, sometimes about a centre, in
more or less regular forms, producing the filamentous difterentiated
nucleus of authors.

Development of the Ribs and the Transverse Processes.* — Herr
Fick is of opinion that the ribs have an independent and separate
origin to the superior arches of the vertebrte ; and that, likewise, the
transverse processes are not budded off from the superior arches, but
are difi'erentiated from the tissue that lies to the sides of the cartilage
of these parts. Taking as an example the third myocomma, he shows
that towards its i^eripheral end there is a rounded tongue of cartilage,
which, decreasing in size, extends towards the chorda; at its most
central end there are distinct cartilage-cells, and the whole structure
is separated from the surrounding muscular tissue by a layer of
spindle-shaped nuclei, which seems to form the embryonic perichon-
drium ; from this the " superior arch " is in section seen to be dis-
tinctly separated.

* ' Arch. Anat. und Eutw.' (His and Braune), (1879) p. 30.

694 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Connective Tissue.* — Dr. L. Lowe gives the following resume of
the various kinds of connective tissue found in the human subject : —

A. Interparencliymatous Connective Tissue.

a. Lamellar interparenchymatous connective tissue.

b. Elastic

c. Lamellar elastic „ „ „

B. Parenchymatous Connective Tissue,
a. Mucous parenchymatous connective tissue.
h. Fibrillar „ „ „

a. Tendon.

(S. Tissue of the fasciag.

y. „ fontanelles and osseous sutures.

8. „ dura mater.

6. „ perichondrium.

^. Tissue of the periosteum.

7}. Erectile tissue. |

6. Tissue of cicatrices.

c. Elastic parenchymatous tissue.

d. Adenoid „ „

a. Diffuse. J

(3. Proper tissue of the lymph glands.

y. Tissue of the spleen.

8. Tissue of granulating wounds.

€. Foetal osseous medulla.

t,. Fcetal fatty tissue.

e. Fatty tissue.

a. The subjacent tissue of the so-called fat-organs.

fS. The fatty tissue of the osseous medulla.
/. Chondroid parenchymatous tissue.
g. Cartilage.
h. Bones.
i. Dentine.

0. Intraparenchymatous Connective Tissue.
a. Mucous intraparenchymatous connective tissue.
h. Fibrous „ „ „

c. Elastic „ „ „

d. Neuroglia.§

Sexual Organs of Teleostei. t|— In a monograph on the anatomy
and histology of the reproductive organs of bony fishes, Dr. J. Brock
describes both the coarse and the minute structure of these organs in
a large number of types. We abstract the following from the
histological portion of the paper.

Male Organs. — The minute structure of the testis, like its external

* ' Arch. Anat. und Entw.' (His and Braiine), (1879) p. 4,3.

t Tliis is well seen in the walls of the lachrymal duct of the rabbit.

X This in the mucous membrane of the digestive tract of mammals.

§ This appears to be a special form of connective tissue.

II ' Morphol. Jahrb ,' iv. (1878) p. 505.

INVERTEBRATA, CBYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

695

form, undergoes great changes during the breeding season. These
changes affect not only the quality and quantity of the secretion, but
even the form of the ultimate constituents of the gland.

However the structure of the mature testis may diifer in different
fishes, that of the unripe gland is the same in all. It is made up of
polygonal acini, containing a rounded or slit-like lumen, so that the
whole gland viewed as a transparency under the Microscope, presents
a number of regular polygonal areas.

In respect of the structure of the ripe testis, the Acanthopteri are
very sharply distinguished^ from other Teleostei. The glandular
substance is arranged in long, blind tubules arranged in a radiating
manner around a centre formed by the hilus or place of exit of the
vas deferens. In the remaining members of the group, the testis
is formed on what Brock calls the Cyprinoid type. The tubuli
form numerous anastomoses with one another, and so produce com-
municating spaces, the gland, in tyiucal specimens (Cyprinoids),
having a spongy appearance. This diiference in the structure of the
adult gland, notwithstanding the similarity of the yoimg condition in
the two types, is due to the fact that the increase in size of the organ,
during the breeding season, comes about as a result of an independent
increase of the elements of the gland in obedience to a fixed law, and
is not primarily due to a mechanical dilatation by the accumulated
sperm.

The author believes that the tubules are not separated from one
another by interstitial tissue, and that they jiossess no true tunica
propria, but that they rather represent a series of lacunae (Hohl-
raumen), the partitions between which spring, on the one hand, from
the tunica projjria of the testis, while, on the other hand, they are
immediately continued into the partitions of the vas deferens.

The epithelial cells of the gland are large and round, with finely
granular contents, a large, clear nucleus, and no demonstrable
membrane. The first stej? in the formation of the spermatozoa is the
multiplication of the nuclei, the process not taking place simul-
taneously in the whole acinus, but beginning with a few cells, or it
may be with but a single cell. By a repetition of this process the
original epithelium disappears, and in its place are found large cells,
filled with granules (Inhaltskcirperchen), which stain deeply with
carmine or logwood, and are probably the descendents of the original
nuclei. From these granules the spermatozoa are formed. After the
rij)ening of the latter it seems probable that the spermatic cells form
multinucleate masses of protoplasm, without distinct cell-boundaries,
that these divide into as many daughter-cells as there are nuclei, and
so reproduce the original epithelium.

Female Organs. — The ovary presents great differences in the
arrangement of the ovigerous surfaces ; these will be best seen from
the following table.

A. Ductless ovary.

1. Ovary consisting of a simple lamina (Anguillula).

2. Ovary consisting of numerous lamina? (Salmonidoi)

696 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

B. Ovary with duct.

1. Ovigerous surface confined to a narrow strij) of tlie wall

of tbe ovary, or forming a duplicature of the wall, with
which it is in connection by narrow stripes {Scorpcena,
&c.).

2. The greater part of the ovarian wall bears ova.

a. Ova originate in irregular processes of the wall

[Lophohrancliii, &c.).
h. Ova originate in definite lamellae or duplicatures of

the ovarian wall.

1. Lamellae parallel to long axis of ovary.

a. Whole wall of ovary beset with lamellfe :
canal central {Sargus, Scomber, &c.).

)8. Part of wall of ovary devoid of lamellge ;
canal lateral. (Not yet observed.)

2. Lamellas parallel to transverse axis of ovary.

a. With central ovarian canal {Perca, Clupea,

&c.).
yS- With lateral canal (Cyprinoids, &c.).

Beyond the secondary egg-membranes, such as the gelatinous
investment of the perch and allied structures, Brock considers that the
egg has only one egg-membrane, the zona radiata : the existence of a
true vitelline membrane he considers still an open question.

The tuft-like processes (Zottchen) are merely secondary appendages
of the zona radiata, and have nothing to do with either the follicular
epithelium or with the yolk.

The yolk presents externally a " zonoid layer," which may be
either entirely radially striated, or may be composed of an outer
striated, and an inner homogeneous layer. The germinal vesicle has,
except in the youngest eggs, a distinct, often somewhat crumpled,
membrane, to the inner side of which the germinal spots are attached
like knobs.

The paper concludes with some observations and remarks on the
development of the egg and of the follicular epithelium.

Evolution of the Embryo in Eggs put to incubate in warm
water.* — M. Dareste recalls the experiment of Reaumur, who, having
placed eggs to hatch in warm water at the incnbating temperature,
found no vestige of the embryo. He renewed these experiments, and
proved that the development had begun, but that the embryo had died
at about the thirtieth hour, and had decomposed. In one single case,
in which the embryo had not decomposed, it presented the monstrosity
called " omrplialocephalic " : the heart, which was perfectly recog-
nizable, was seen above the head, evidently ai-rested in its formation.
In the vascular area there were no traces of vessels or blood.

Mechanical Genesis of Tooth Forms.t— In his articles on this
subject Mr. J. A. Ryder has made a valuable contribution to tho

* ' Comptes Kendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 11.S8.

t 'Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.' (1878) p. 45; (1879) p. 47. 'Am. Nat.,'
xiii. (1879) p. 446.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 697

doctrine of evolution. He adopts the classification of teeth pro-
posed by Cope, and endeavours to explain by mechanical laws the
jihylogeuy of the various existing dental types pointed out by the
same author. The ai>plication of mechanical theory to this question
is ingenious, and results in some very probable hypotheses. First
among these is the supposed effect of lateral pressure in flattening
conical cones or cusps, so that their section becomes semicircular or
crescentic. Another is the probable crowding of tubercles on each
other by impact transverse to their directions, producing plicate
structure.

A summary of his views is stated by the author as follows : —

1. The earliest and simplest type of mammalian jaw-movement was
that in which the mouth was simply opened and closed, without
mandibular excursion, and co-existent with the simple haplodont or
binodont molar.

2. The development of the various kinds of excursion mandibular
movement has apparently been progressive.

3. As the excursive movements have increased in complexity,
there has been an apparent increase in the complexity of the enamel
foldings, ridges, and crests.

4. From the fact that the foldings, &c,, have apparently been
modified in conformity to the ways in which the force used in
mastication was exerted, it is concluded that the various modes of
crest and tubercular modification are related as effects to the diverse
modes of mandibular movement.

5. It is apparent from the facts presented throughout the context
that the mandibular articulations, and correlatively the skull, have
probably been modified in shape by the movements made by the jaws
and the forces exerted in executing them.

6. From the fact that the incisor teeth are partially or entirely
absent, or relegated to another function, in forms which have long
prehensile tongues, mobile, prehensile lips or proboscides, it is held to
to be probable that such disappearance of the incisive dental elements
is due to the assumption of their function by the prehensile organs
indicated.

Refractive Powers of Animal Tissues.* — We can only draw
attention to the very valuable results attained by Professor Valentin,
in which the ordinary blood, the menstrual blood, and the blood of the
umbilical vein of man are examined, as well as those of a large
number of animals ; with these are connected a series of observations
on the blood-corpuscles, on the influence of coagulation, and on the
characters of the serum. The bile is also examined, as is the urine
and the sperm ; milk and other fluids, as well as albumen, are tested,
while the brain itself, the lens, and muscular fibre did not escape
examination.

Innervation of the Respiratory Organs. — The fourth number
of the 47th volume (1879) of the ' Bull, de I'Acad. Eoy. de Belgique'
contains a memoir by Dr. Fredericq on this subject, together with a re-
* Pfliiger's ' Archiv,' xix. (1870) p. 78.

698 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

port on tlie paper by M. van Bnmboke. Dealing with the action of the
perii^heral nervous system on the centres of respiration, M. Fredericq
points out the remarkable influence of the linoumogastric nerve ;
after describing his methods, a description of which would be out of
place here, the author states that he has repeated the ancient experi-
ment of Traube, in which it was found that in artificial respiration the
original rhythm of the respiratory movements is adapted to the rhythm
of the inspirations ; but that when the imcumogastric nerves are cut
this relation is lost. To complete this observation it was necessary to
repeat the observations of Breuer, which in the words of M. van Bam-
beke " n'ont pas encore passe dans le domaine classique de la physio-
logic." These experiments tend to prove that there are in the pneu-
mogastric nerve centripetal fibres, which arrest respiration in the stage
of active expiration, and which are stimulated by the mechanical dis-
tension of the lung. M. Fredericq has been able to convince himself
of the arrest of respiration in the expiratory stage ; and the final
conclusion is arrived at that there are centripetal fibres in the pneu-
mogastric passing some to an inspiratory as well as some to an expi-
ratory centre. Anatomy oifers no aid in distinguishing these two
sets of fibres, but it is found that chloral hydrate diminishes the
action of the inspiratory fibres (or, rather, depresses the centre to
which they go) ; when veritably poisoned by this drug every excita-
tion, mechanical, chemical, or electric, arrests respiration in the
expiratory stage, and it appears that this drug has, in large doses,
the eftbct of slowing the respiratory movements till they disappear.

Ovary and the Corpus Luteum.* — The investigations of G. K.
Wagoner were chiefly made on the ovary of the bitch, though human
subjects, moles, rodents, and other animals were also examined ; the
ovaries were, when possible, taken warm from the animal, and were,
after division, placed in Miiller's fluid, from which they were, after
three days, removed to strong alcohol. On other occasions ovaries
were examined, in the fresh state, in iodized serum.

The Epithelmm. — This is placed over the whole of the free surface
of the ovary, and is directly applied to the fibrous cortical layer ; in
its cells there may be observed rods which are set perpendicularly to
the surface of the ovary. The nucleus, which is rounded, and presents
a double contour, is very commonly of one size. There is, however,
no epithelium over the point at which ova are escaping, or have
escaped, and it is also absent in aged specimens. In the simple
striated form there are a few larger cells, to which Waldeyer has
applied the name of primitive ova ; as to the stomata of the same
author, it is said that they are mere spaces due to the incompleteness
of the fusion of the cells

Cortical Latjer. — The author points out that the arteries in this
region are not of a large size, as some have supposed, and that their
muscular layer can only be said to be strongly developed in pro-
portion to the calibre of the vessels. As to the vexed question of the
muscular character of the spindle-cells which so largely compose it,

* 'Arch. Aiiiit. iind Entw.' (Ilis and Braune). (ISTO) p. 175.

INVETITEBKATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 699

the author states that he has observed a faint striation, and the regular
arrangement of isotropic and anisotropic substances.

With regard to the ovarian follicle, we shall only observe that the
abortion of the ovum is connected with the following phenomena : — •
The germinal spot disappears, and its place is taken by a small
collection of angular and glistening waste products, or by a radially
striated sphere formed of crystalline carbonates ; the same fate awaits
the gei-minal vesicle, and the whole of the yolk, but the zona jjellucida
may remain.

Corpus lateum. — The author, in examining a bitch, twenty-four
hours after impregnation, found three large follicles in one ovary ;
from these, when opened, there escaped a small sphere of gelatinous
matter, in which two ova were found. The walls of the f(jllicle were
seen to be very richly provided with vessels, and were thick ; fourteen
days after impregnation the vessels were found to be greatly increased
in number and in size, and after twenty-one days the corpus luteum
was found to be com2)]etely developed, and a number of " giant cells "
were found in close proximity to the vessels ; these accompany the
vessels and gradually surround the cells of the corpus luteum, giving
rise in time to fibrillaB, which convert the body into a corpus albicans
or nigricans ; they are, in fact, the rudiments of the fibrillaa of the
connective tissue, and as they increase the cells of the yellow body
undergo atropliy. Changes now occur in the contents of the blood-
vessels which give rise to rusty brown aggregations, and the blood-
vessels themselves die down. The surrounding tissues also suffer,
and the wall of the follicle ceases to be apparent, while a whitish spot
is at last all that is left to tell the tale of the changes that have taken
place.

Natural Science Prizes, Banish Academy.— -{Before 31st October,
1880. English allowed.) — (1) A series of comparative researches
on the formation and development of the embryo sac and of the
cells which it encloses before fecundation, made on a sufficiently
large number of ditFerent angiosperms, so as to really increase the
extent of our knowledge, bearing either on the law of development
itself or on the general systematic importance of the differences
which are presented, and to enable us at the same time to establish
on a more solid basis than formerly the morphological value of the
parts of the ovule.* (Gold medal of the Academy, value 320 crowns.)

2. Recent researches seeming to make it doubtful whether the salts
of soda, so widely spread in the soil and in vegetable ashes, are really
as necessary to the normal development of plants as the salts of potash,
lime, magnesia, and iron, a research is required, which shall solve
this question in regard to any wild and cultivated plants of Denmark."]"
(Thott prize, value 400 crowns.)

3. Original researches and experiments, which shall contribute to
the elucidation of the development of the Disioma of the sheep, and
that of their migrations until they arrive at the liver, as well as the

* Cf. ' Over&igt Danske Videnak. Sclsk. Forhand.' (1879) p. 2S. ('Resume du
Bulletin,' p. 5.) t IWtl-, p. «•

700 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

circumstances which may favour or hinder the introduction of the
parasite into the sheep.* (Classen prize, value 600 crowns.)

Klein and Smith's Atlas of Histology.— This work (in 4to) is
intended to be a pictorial and literal representation of the structure of
the tissues of man and other Vertebrates ; its chief aim being to teach,
not so much the history of histology as histology itself in its modern
aspect.

The plates are the work of Mr. Noble Smith and the text is by
Dr. Klein. Both are excellent — the plates accurate and effective, the
text clear and judiciously concise, and comprising besides the expla-
nations of the illustrations a good deal of other matter.

The subject-matter will be treated in this order ; first, the elemen-
tary tissues^ — blood, epithelium and endothelium, connective tissues,
muscular tissue, the nervous, vascular and lymphatic systems ; then
a short chapter on " cells in general," after which the compound
tissues will be considered seriatim ; the alimentary canal and its
glands, the respiratory organs, the urinary and genital organs, the
skin and special sense organs. The concluding chapter will treat of
organs, the nature of which is not sufficiently well known, as the
suprarenal capsule, the thyroid and coccygeal gland.

B. INVERTEBRATA.

Fauna of Kerguelen's Land.f — The following are the chief con-
clusions to which Studer is led by his elaborate study of the fauna
of Kerguelen's Land.

The fauna is similar to that of the other antarctic regions ; it has
numerous analogies with the arctic region ; its most striking pecu-
liarities belong to the terrestrial fauna, for of the marine genera only
four are peculiar to it, while the other genera are found in New
Zealand and Tierra del Fuego. It seems, indeed, that the southern
point of America, the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, Prince
Edward's Island, the Crozets, and Kerguelen must have been con-
nected in earlier geological periods, and the great age of Kerguelen is
spoken to by the characters of its geological formation.

Deep-water Fauna of the Lake of Geneva. + — The fifth series of
these interesting observations by Professor du Plessis commences with
a note on the chemical characters of the mud of the lake, which,
taken from three different stations, present some slight differences, but
not such as to give any importance to the variations. As to the
water, it is shown that there is no sensible difference in the amount
of the solid matters dissolved in it at different levels ; as to the gases,
there is no great difference in their absolute amount, but, just as in
the waters of the ocean, oxygen is greatly deficient and carbonic acid
greatly in excess at great depths.

Professor du Plessis describes four Tiirbellaria, all of which are
new to the fauna, and one of which is the representative of a new
species — Vortex intermedius. Turning to the Infusoria heterotricha,

* Cf. loc. cit., p. 30 (p. 6.) t ' Aicli. Natui-cr.,' xlv. (1879) p. 140.

X ' Bull. Sop. Vanrl.,' xvi. (1879) p. 149.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 701

the author draws attention to the scarcity of deep-water Ciliata. To
get an exact idea of the Eeterotriclia found at great depths it is neces-
sary to see how far they are represented in the fauna of the canton.
The group of Heieroiricha, which is characterized by the possession,
in addition to short and regularly arranged cilia, of a spiral peris-
tomial circlet of larger and stronger, setiform, cilia, may be divided
into three groups— Spirostomida, Stentorida, and Bursarida. Of the
first family, all the species have been found in the canton, with the
exception of the marine genus Condylostomum ; of the second, one
genus, Freia, is marine, but the other, Sf enter, is rej)resented by all
its species ; while of the third group only two genera are free-living,
and of these one only has been observed, and that in the person of
its solo good species, Bursaria trancatella. The author states that
of all these forms only five have been found on the shores of the
lake, all of which, with the exception of B. truncatella, pass, without
modifications, to the bottom of the lake, where therefore Spirostomum
amhiguum, Stenior cceruleiis, S. poli/morplms, and S. BdselUi have now
been found. Of the Bhizojwda, for a long time not a single example
was found. A dredging off Ouchy in the winter of 1877-78 revealed
the presence of Amoeba princeps, A. terricola, covered with its chitinous
envelope, and Difflugia proteiformis, which by the production of gas in
its interior is enabled also to live on the surface.

It is of interest to observe that specimens taken from the depths
of the lake were found to be more transparent than those from the
pools on the shore.

This instalment of the results of the explorations concludes with
a list of the parasites and intestinal worms found in the fishes of the
Lake of Geneva, prepared by M. Lunel.

" Liver" of the Invertebrata.* — M. Cadiat regards the Malpi-
ghian tubes of insects as belonging to the hepatic series, and points out
that the large cells of which their walls are made up are separated
from one another by spaces very similar to those which limit the
cells of the hepatic lobule in the Mammalia; the green colouring
matter which they contain exhibits with nitric acid the characteristic
reactions of biliverdin. The liver of the Gasteropoda is stated to
be broken up into lobules, which present an irregular central cavity
connected with intracellular passages ; the blood-vessels pass from
the periphery to the hepatic lobule, and the biliary ducts take their
origin from the central cavities of the lobules ; the secretion is deco-
lorized and dissolved by nitric acid and is regarded as a derivate of
hsematoidin in a different stage.

Mollusca.
Chromatophores of the Cephalopoda.! — The play of colour in the
Cephalopoda was observed in the embryo, as well as in the adult, by
Aristotle ; later observers, such as Carus, delle Chiaje, and Wagner,
have shown that this phaenomenon is dependent on the possession and
on the movements of the so-called chromatophores or pigment spots,

* ' CR. Soc. Biol.' for 1877 (1879), p. 217.
t ' SB. Akad. Wien,' Ixxviii. (1879) p. 7.
VOL. II. 3 A

702 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

wliich are scattered throtigli tlie integument. It is to Kollikcr, liow-
ever, that we owe our first instalment of definite knowledge as to the
structure of these bodies, inasmuch as it was he who directed attention
to the presence of the radial contractile fibres, by the contraction of
which the pigment spots are extended. A number of other observers
have held similar views, and of these we need only refer to Briicke who
pointed out the curious diiference which obtains in the Cei^halopod as
compared with the chameleon ; in the former the active state of the
pigment spots finds its optical expression in their darker, while in the
reptile it is in the brighter coloration. Other observers, such as
Harting and Waldeyer, regard the play of colour as due to the proto-
jDlasmic substance of the chromatophore, and to that only. The
question is now treated by Dr. Klemensiewicz, whose essay may be
divided into two portions : —

Structure of the Chromato'pliore. — In this body we may make out
the following parts : (1) A central pigment spot ; (2) Its cellular
envelope ; (3) Radial fibres, set in a plane parallel to the surface of
the integument and attached by their broadened conical ends to the
pigment body ; (4) The cavity of the chromatophore, which is separated
from the dermal tissue by a thick layer of connective tissue. The
examination of fresh specimens and of embryonic stages, together with
specimens prepared by the aid of alcohol and gold chloride, has led
the author to agree ^-ith Kolliker in regarding the pigment body as
being a naked cell, for on no occasion has he been able to observe the
structureless membrane described by Boll. As already stated, there
is, however, a covering to the cell, which is partly formed by the
cellular envelope described by Boll, and partly by the insertions of
the radial fibres; in the contracted state this investment forms a
hollow sphere with outwardly projecting processes ; it consists of
several layers of cells, between the elements of which there pass the
insertions of the radial fibres. No very definite results were attained
to with regard to the disposition of the nerve-fibres, as the author was
not able to make out any direct connection between them and the
pigment body or the radial fibres ; the question is however one of very
great diificulty from a histological point of view, but we shall see
directly how great is the connection which can be made out by the
physiological method of investigation. As to the coloration of the
chromatojjhore it is now known that this does not only difi'er in difterent
species, but even at difi"erent stages in development ; thus in Loligo
vulgaris it is reddish in the embryo, but violet in the adult. Of
course, also, it differs in different stages of contraction, and thus while
it is violet when expanded, it is dark brown or black when con-
tracted ; the form too is different, for the thin plate seen in the ex-
panded stage is brought into a more or less rounded form in the con-
tracted condition of the chromatophore. The radial fibres similarly
differ in form, being thin and lamellar when the chromato2:»hore is
contracted, but broader when it is expanded ; they are enclosed in a
fine structureless membrane. The cavity (4) is chiefly filled with
fluid. The histological differentiation of the body may be shortly
summed up in saying that the pigment-spot is formed of a single cell,

mVEKTEBRATA, CRYPTOQAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 703

and that the protoplasmic mass in which it is imbedded goes to form
the cellular investment and the radial fibres.

Physiological Experiments.- — These leave no doubt as to the in-
fluence of the nervous system on the chroniatophores, and are of great
interest. Using chiefly Eledone mcschata, the author shows that there
are fibres in the nerves of the arms, mouth, and funnel, which, when
stimulated, bring about a darkening of the integument ; these nerves
are connected with the pedal and visceral ganglia and with the median
portion of the lower half ring, which is known to be in connection
with the optic ganglion, and there is in this region, it is believed, a
special centre for the stimulation of the chromatophores ; the results
of section of the optic nerve and observation on the changes which
obtain when the animal is in the presence of difterent colours, leads to
the view that the chromatojihores may be stimidated, after a reflex
mode, by the influence of light on the eye. It is also probable that
changes may occur at the will of the animal, and support is aff'orded
to this view by the statements of Colosanti with regard to the
" nervous axis " of the arms of the cephalopod, which appears to have
the structure of a central organ ; finally, changes occur when the integu-
ment is stimulated, whether mechanically, chemically, or electrically.

The author concludes with some remarks on the " mechanics "
of the movements of the chromatophores : here the cardinal point is
that when active the structures in question are expanded, and when
passive are contracted. The opposite condition in the chameleon and
certain fishes is to be correlated with the absence, in them, of the
system of radial fibres ; but this is not the whole difference, for in the
Vertebrates just mentioned the changes in coloui* may take even hours
to be effected, while in the fresh cephalopod they occur with extra-
ordinary rapidity. A further proof of the value of the radial fibres is
afforded by the fact that in the embryonic condition of the chromato-
phore the separate fibres may be seen to move ; and it may well be
concluded that the extension of the chromatophore is due to the con-
traction of all the radial fibres, which moreover always move in straigJd
lines and never exhibit the looped arrangement which they necessarily
would, if they were as some have supposed, nerve-fibres passing to the
contained protoplasmic mass. The subsequent contraction of the
chromatophore appears to be principally, though not altogether, due
to the elasticity of the cellular investment, and the rapidity with which
it is effected is well explained by the supposition that we have to do
with what is practically a weighted muscular fibre ; fixed at one end
to the skin, there is attached to its other end the movable mass of the
chromatophore, where the elastic force of the investment and the con-
tractility of the pigment body represents the weight. The author
expresses his belief that nerves pass to the separate radial fibres,
although the presence of these has not yet been demonstrated.

There is an account of a few experiments with poisons ; no effect
was observed with cui-are.

Shells of the Cephalopoda in relation to the Body of their Con-
structor.*— Professor Owen returns with new arguments and fresh
* ' Proc. Zool. Soc. London ' (1878) p. 955.

3 A 2

704 RECORD OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

vigour to the defonco of tlio position which he took up a number of
years ago, as to the difference in the characters of the coil of the shell
in Spirula on the one hand, and Nautilus, with the Ammonites, on the
other ; the latter are regarded as revolutely spiral or coiled over the
back of the animal, whereas those of Spinda are involute.

It has long and well been known that the " fossil shells of Cephalo-
pods exhibit a progressive uncoiling from Nautilus to Ort]ioceras,fiiid. from
Ammonites to Baculites" but, as Professor Owen well remarks, anato-
mical evidence was required to demonstrate that there had been coiling
in the reverse direction ; that has been suj)plied by his dissections of
Spirula and of Nautilus, and the author now demonstrates that it is
not always necessary to have seen an animal before we are able, with
proper insight, to tell a very great deal about its organization. Apply-
ing this to the Ammonite, we find evidence in suj)port of Owen's
long-held view as to the shells of these animals having been external ;
while specimens in which injury and repair have been effected j)oint
to the mantle of these forms having had just the same structure as in
the living Nautilus, and as having been ajjplied to the shell, and not
to have been " muscular and inapplicable to the last chamber as in
Spirula." Another point of similarity between the first two of these
forms is that the shell is porcellano-nacreous in structure, and not
simply nacreous as in Spirula. Between Spirula and Ammonites there
is, however, a very remarkable similarity ; in both, the siphons in the
shell are ventral, or ventro-marginal, but in relation to the curves of
the shell, the siphon of Spirula is " internal " or " ento-marginal,"
whereas in the Ammonitidfe it is " external " or " ecto-marginal." To
turn to the Nautilidfe, where the siphon is central or subcentral in
most cases ; in others (rare) it is ecto-marginal, and still more rarely
it is ento-marginal. It is here of interest to observe that it may
change its position as it passes through the different chambers of the
shell, so that the position, which is a sign of immaturity in the
existing Nautilus, was longer retained in the old Tertiary species.

Professor Owen deals also with the history of those curious
structures, which under the names of Trigonellites, or Aptyclius, have
been referi'ed to the Cirripeds, or have been regarded as j^arts of the
Ammonite's gizzard, or as protective plates of the nidamental glands
in the female ; a careful discussion of the question leads the author
to accept and support the view held by Van der Hoeven, that the
shells in question formed two shelly supports for the hood of Am-
monites.

Turning to the chambers of the shell. Professor Owen next describes
what obtains in Vermetus gigas and in Spondylus varius, as well as
what is seen in Spirula and Nautilus. As to the " final cause " or
function of the chambers, the author holds to his original opinion that
they enable the Nautilus to rise, and the Spinda to sink. As to the
modes by which the shell may become complicated, it will be of
interest to note that the septa may be (1) simple and distinct, attached
only by their circumference, or (2) attached subcentrally to each other
as well as by their circumference to the shell-wall ; or (3) attached
marginally to the shell-wall and having an organized vascular mem-

INVEKTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 705

branous canal contained in a testaceous tube wbicb unites tbe parti-
tions ; or (4) the tube may be replaced by a number of superimposed
funnel-shaped tubes ; or, lastly, the tube may be interrupted and the
septa and chambers be traversed by a lime-coated membranous canal.
With regard to the last arrangement, which is that which is found in
the Nautdus, it is to be noted that the " calcareous incrustation is apt
to be dissolved by the acetous change of the alcohol," and it is this
which gives especial value to the observation of Professor Vrolik,
inasmuch as it had been previously supposed by some that the siphon
of the Nautilus might have a dilating and contracting action. The
paper concludes with some remarks on the vascular supply of the
siphon, and with some suggestions to the student who shall be
fortunate enough to be able to examine these foi-ms in their living
state.

Eye of the Cephalopoda.* — Dr. Schobl, in an article on this sub-
ject, deals more especially with the vascular supply, in addition to
which he gives an account of what has been done by earlier authors ;
as will be gathered from the few words we can say, the arrange-
ments are difficult to make out in their completeness. Aroimd the
cornea there is a pair of greatly coiled arteries, and of veins ; outside
these there is a fringe, in which are small veins and arteries, and
outside this is the circulus arteriosus iriclis ; this last is bounded by a
fairly broad corona ciliaris, made up of about 160 closely aj) plied
ciliary processes. Then there is a ring of well-developed vessels
formed by a median artery with a vein on either side ; then the
ciliary plexus, and the well-developed posterior ciliary vein and
artery. External to the circular vessels we find the zona ciliaris, in
which are a number of venulce and of " recurrent arteries."

Action of Strychnine on Gasteropodous Molluscs, f — Mr. E.
Heckel has presented to the Academy of Sciences an account of the
action of the salts of strychnine upon these Molluscs.

Noting the fact that the alkaloids occur more frequently, and
possess a more powerful physiological activity, the higher we ascend
in the scale of vegetable life, he asks whether theii- special task may
not be to defend the plant against animal enemies, especially as the
more important an organ the more generally it is possessed of
poisonous properties. He therefore finds it important to ascertain
the action of the best-known alkaloids upon certain selected terms
in the animal series. For this purpose he has experimented with
strychnine sulphate and oxalate upon Helix pomatia and aspersa, and
Zonitcs algirus. He observed that whilst Helix aspersa of the mean
weight of 6 to 6-70 grms. succumbed to a dose of strychnine sulphate
of -025 grm., Zonites alcjirus of 8 grms. and Helix pomatia of 9-70
grms. perfectly resisted doses of • 045 grm. He concludes that the
Gasteropods enjoy a remarkable immunity from the eftects of strych-
nine ; that with them, as in the case of the Vertebrata, the degree of

* ' Arcb. Mikr. Anat.,' xv. (1878) p. 215.

t ' Comptes Rendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 018; 'M. .Journ. Sci,' 1. (1879) p. 514.

706 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

liurtfulness of the poison is inversely as tlie weight of the animal, and
that upon them, as in higher animals, strychnine is tetanizing.

Animal of Voluta musica.* — M. P. Fischer, having examined a
specimen from Guadeloupe, preserved (imj^crfectly) in alcohol, finds
that it differs from all the other species of this great genus, by its
operculum much more elongated than that of Lyria and by its multi-
cuspid lingual plate, and considers that it would be better to abandon
the name of Voluta and substitute Musica. It approaches Vespertilio,
Amoria, &c. (of the Volutidfe without operculum) by the greater part
of its exterior characters, Lyria by the existence of an operculum, and
Marginella by its lingual plate. It constitutes therefore a well-
defined group, which should remain with the Volutidie, of which it is
one of the most aberrant forms.

Neomenia (Solenopus). f — The Kev. A. M. Norman says that the
type species has long been known to him as an inhabitant of the
British Seas (Shetland). The genus and species must he thinks in
justice bear the name (Neomenia) bestowed by Tullberg, who published
an accurate description, with two plates of figures of the animal and its
anatomy, in 1875, at a time when M. Sars had only given the MS.
name.

Two Collections of Pteropoda.| — Dr. G. Pfeffer contributes an
account of the Pteropoda collected by the German corvette ' Gazelle,'
and by Herr Jagor in the Philippines ; one new genus, four new
species, and a well marked variety are here described for the first
time. More attention is paid in the descriptions to the characters of
the shell and of the larval shell, as seen by a hand-glass, than was
given to the subject by Eang and Souleyet. The paper, which is
purely technical and quite beyond any abstract, is illustrated by one
plate.

Respiratory Apparatus of Ampullaria.§— M.' Jourdain describes
the results of his examination of four of these interesting Mollusca
from Mexico. The respiratory apparatus, which is placed as usual in
the pallial chamber, has the gill on one (the left) side largely
atrophied. Between it and the normally developed gill there is the
pulmonary pouch, which is formed, apparently, by a fold of the
mantle, and is separated by a groove from the right gill ; on the
floor of the chamber there are developed two sijihon-like folds, one of
which is large and connected with the pulmonary sac, and the other
small and related to the well-developed gill. The renal gland is
placed behind this latter structure. In describing the relations of
the vessels the author points out that a large number of veins ramify
in the walls of the pulmonary pouch, while the blood from the
atrophied gill returns to the pallial vessels, to pass to the proper
respiratory apparatus.

* ' Joum. de Conchy.,' xix. (1879) p. 97.
t 'Aun. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' iv. (1879) p. 164.
t ' MB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss.' (1879) p. 230.
§ 'Comptes Rendus,' Ixxxvlii. (1879)p. 981.

INVERTEBKATA, CRYPTOaAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 707

MoUuscoida.

New Genus of Polyzoa.* — The Eev. J. E. Tenison- Woods de-
scribes Euldimcnaria dncalis (evKTi/jicvos, well-built) as a very interest-
ing and curious genus dredged at a depth of 10 or 20 fathoms on
coral mud oft' Darnley Island. Itdifi"ers so comi)lutely from any of
the described families of the Cheilostomata that its afiinities and
relations must remain problematical until others are discovered. The
nearest family is the Selenariadte which have the polyzoary more or
less orbicular, convex on one side. Its singular beauty both as regards
design and ornament renders it a remarkable addition to an order
where beauty and variety are the rule.

The genus is characterized thus : — Polyzoary free, upper surface
convex covered with cells, lower surface divided into five portions,
each containing large pores ; in the centre of the base a vermiculate
quiuque-partite body.

The species is convex with pentagonal outline ; the edge circum-
scribed by a raised margin of five arches, whence it descends to a
broad pentagonal pedicel by five arched concave surfaces, which are
horizontally divided in the centre by a straight raised double ridge,
above and below the centre of which there is a large conspicuous
pore ; the pore above is semicircular, that below is perfectly round ;
both seem deep. The margin of each of the arched spaces curves
round into a loop at each side below the lower pore, and is curved
again in a contrary direction at each side so as to form another small
loop in which there is another small pore. Beneath the lower of the
two large central pores there are one or two conspicuous grooves to
the base. Ui^per convex surface covered with concave cells, with a
distinct raised margin ; mouth in the centre, semicircular, with a
raised margin. Shape of cells from oval to circular, a few almost
pentagonal ; the centre of the convex surface seems covered with cells
but they are worn almost smooth on both the specimens. The base
is vermiculate, but with a radiate tendency, and forming a quinque-
j)artite pattern. Between the margin of the five sides there are
ujiper and lower angular spaces, giving great elegance to the design.

Dimensions : alt. 6, diam. of summit 8, of base 4^, lat. of five lateral
spaces 4J, alt. 3^ mm.

The author is unable to suggest any explanation of the pores on
the sides or the organs which form the margins, transverse bands, &c.
It is quite evident that there must be some individuality in these
zoothomes apart from what we call the animal which dwells in the
cells, or the symmetrical arrangements of the species could not be
explained.

Embryology of Tendra zostericola. f — In continuation of his
researches into the history of this form Herr Eepiachofi" now gives
some few details as to the stages subsequent to the blastula ; in which
there is to be observed a slight thickening of the ectoderm, on the
ventral surface ; this becomes gradually more marked and is evidently

* 'Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S.W.,' iii. (1S78) p. 126.
t ' Zool. AnzL'iger,' ii. (1S79) p. 67.

708 RECOED OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the rudiment of the sucker, the ca\nty in which is formed by a process
of invagination ; the apparatus is pu'-ely ectodermal in origin.

The upper part of the body, or that which, in the larva, contains
the oral groove is, at first, relatively very small ; increasing in length
later on, it becomes connected with the endoderm and comes into
contact with the fore-gut ; still later the portion of the endoderm
which lies superiorly to the fore-gut separates from the rest of the
endoderm, and becomes fused with the gut, and now forms a collection
of cells which becomes closely applied to the oral grove. The author
refrains from entering at present into a full discussion of theoretical
considerations.

Arthropoda.

Metamorphoses of the Blister Beetle {Lytta veslcatoria Fab.).*
— M. J. Lichtenstein has succeeded at last in following the complete
development of the blister-beetle from the egg to the perfect insect,
which had already been done for Meloe, f Sitaris, | and Epicanta,%
but had never been accomplished with the blister-beetles. The
author reserving to himself the publication of his entire memoir in
the special entomological journals, communicates a resume of his work
to the French Academy.

He placed females which had coj)ulated towards the end of May
and the beginning of June, under a bell-glass with some earth, iu
which the female laid its rather elongated, whitish, and trail spax*ent
eggs. In a fortnight the larva long known imder the name of
Triungulinus, issued from the eggs. It was scaly, and dark brown,
with the meso- and metathorax and the first abdominal segment white.
It had very acute jaws, black j)rominent eyes, and two long caudal
seta3.

The author, after several fruitless trials, fed the larva on the
stomachs of honey bees, and then on the eggs and young larvse of
bees — Osmia and Ceratina chalcites. Honey must be added to the
eggs or young larvae, as animal food is only fitted for this first larval
form, and the little TriimguUnus has an instinctive knowledge that it
must not touch the eggs or larvae unless there is enough honey to feed
the form which is to follow it.

On the fifth to the sixth day it changed its skin, lost its caudal
setae and brown colour, and became a small white hexapod worm ; its
sharp jaws became obtuse, its eyes less brilliant, and it left the eggs
and young larvas and ate honey. Five days later it again changed its
skin, it jaws became still broader, and its eyes fui-ther obliterated.

Five days later there was a fresh moult. The eyes now dis-
appeared entirely, the feet and jaws became brown and horny at the
extremity, the insect presenting the aj^pearance of a small larva of a
Scarahceus, and it is seen that it is destined to burrow in the earth.

* ' Comptes Eendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 1089.

t Newport, "On the Natural History of the Oil Beetle (Meloe)," in 'Trans.
Linn. Soc. Lond ,' 1861.

X Fabre, "On Sitaris humeralis," in 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 1857; Valery-Mayet,
" On Sitaris collatis" in 'Ann. Soc. Entom.,' 1875.

§ Riley, in ' Trans. Ac. Sci. St. Louis,' 1877.

INVEETEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 709

So far the author had reared them in small glass thimble-shaped
tubes, corked and placed upside down, the observations being fol-
lowed on the surface of the cork. In order to supply the necessary
earth in a sufficiently damp state for the larva), he now used a glass
tube '10 m. in length by "025 in diameter, stopped at the bottom
by a piece of sponge, and filled with earth, on which he placed the
" scarabseoid " larva (this word has already been used by Eiley for
Epicanta). It immediately buried itself, and formed, a little above
the sponge, a small chamber or cavity against the wall of the tube,
which enabled even its subterranean movements to be followed. In
five days more there was a fresh moult ; but this time it was no
longer a larva that appeared, but a pupa, like that of a Muscide,
having foiu* small mamillse at the apex, and three pairs of small
ones in the place where the legs were. It was horny-white in
colour, and motionless, having the appearance of a chrysalis. This
condition lasted all the winter, and one would have thought life was
quite extinct, if from time to time it had not squeezed out of its jjores
small drops of a transparent hyaline fluid, which remained for several
days on the surface of its body.

On 15th April this pupa burst its envelope, and gave issue to a
white grub very similar to the scarabceoid, but without the strong claws
and jaws ; only showing rudimentary feet, each comj)osed of three
short, thick pieces. This grub moved slowly in its cell ; it did not
quit it and did not eat. On 30th April there was a fresh moult,
giving at last a nympha, returning to the regular coleopterous type,
with all its limbs quite visible. This nympha, at first white, soon
became coloured. On 17th May it was already of a dark hue, and on
19th the beetle was seen in the tube with its brilliant covering.

The complete evolution of the insect thus lasts for about a year.

The author strongly suspects that those bees which make nests in
the earth, like Halictus and Andrena, are the usual prey of these
insects, but has not yet made exact observations on the subject.

New Genus of Cochineals of the Elm.* — M. Lichtenstein has
also discovered a new and very strongly-marked genus of cochineal
living on the elm, forming the transition between the Coccidaa and
Phylloxerians, which he has named Bitsemia, after M. C. Ritsema,
the Curator of the Leyden Museum.

The animals, first observed in August, were red, • 4.5 mm. long, of
an elongate-oval form, with six-jointed antennfe. Attaching them-
selves in the crevices of the bark of Ulmus campestris, they lost their
aphis-like form and took that of a small, flattened, reniform gall or
vesicle, as in many Coccidae. At this period they approached the
genera Nidularia and Gossyixiria as they exuded a cottony mass under-
neath, in which they deposited ovoid bodies of different sizes, which
are not true ova, but analogous to what the author has called j^wpce in
the Phylloxerians. In March these bodies acquired traces of segmenta-
tion, and in April the males issued from the cottony mass. Their
antennae, moniliform and of nine joints, resemble those of the Coccidie,

* ' Comptes Eendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 870.

710 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

but in other respects tlie form is not that of the male Coccidas, but of
the Phylloxeriaus. The head, thorax, and abdomen are united and
not separated, as in the former. They are • 4 mm. long, completely
apterous, without a rostrum, and with a projecting penis.

A few days after the appearance of the males the pupae remaining
in the cottony mass developed and furnished the female, "45 mm.
long, very similar to the form that appears in August, except that it
has eight joints in the antennae instead of six, and is therefore a
diifcrent phase. Copulation takes place at the time.

M. Lichtenstein has not yet been able to follow what takes place
between May and August, and calls attention to the fact that while
these insects exist " in millions " on every elm, the problem of the
complete cycle of their life-history, which was set by Eeaumur, is
Btill unsolved.

The specific name of pupifera is given to call to mind the mode
of reproduction (Anthogcnesis) in which there intervenes a form fur-
nishing male and female pupte from which the sexual individuals
issue and immediately copulate.

Notes on the Phryganida.* — Fritz Miiller draws attention to the
fact that the pupte of the Helicopsyclie, which are found in the brooks
around him (Blumenau, Brazil) have the first four appendages long
and more or less richly ciliated ; in those, however, which are found
by the waterfalls, and live on damp stones, the hairs are absent. These
examples appear to be of importance as they show in a very striking
way the fact that the reduction of parts which have become useless
must not be looked upon as being in all cases the simple and direct
result of disuse. These swimming hairs are connected with the
membrane of the pupa, which covers in the mature insect, so that
their being or not being used seems to be a point which would have
but slio'ht, if any, efi"ect on the descendants of the insect ; why, then,
do they disappear so suddenly when the animal changes its locality
to one in which it does not swim, and yet why are such useless parts
as the incisors in the upper jaw of the ruminant, which are never cut,
continued on generation after generation ? The answer seems to lie
in the diflcrence of time that these separate structures have been in
the possession of the animal ; where they have been lately acquired,
they are, on disuse, easily lost ; but where, as in the case of the
ruminant's upper incisors, transmission has been acting for long ages,
disuse does not so easily or so rapidly effect complete loss of the now
useless structures.

Anatomy and Physiology of the Digestive Organs of the
Myriapoda.t — M. Felix Plateau, in continuation of his researches
into the digestive apparatus of the Insecta, now presents a memoir on
the Myriapoda, concerning which group the remark of Newport, made
more than thirty years ago, " The Myriapoda have been more
nerflected by naturalists than almost any other division of the Articu-
lata," still remains true.

* 'Zool. Anzciger,' ii. (1879) p. ISO.

t ' Mem. Acad. Roy. Sci. Belg.," xlii. (1878), Art. ii.

INVERTEBKATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 711

The digestive tube in this group is more like that of the Insecta
(Hexapotla), thau to that of any other Arthropod ; it consists of a
buccal, a median, and a terminal portion, and is provided with a
pair of salivary glands, and with one or two pairs of Malpighian
tubes ; the buccal intestine may be short and broad (^Jidiis), or very
long and capacious (Cryptops), or very long and excessively narrow
(Geophilus) ; the epithelium maybe absent from its walls, and the
chitinous cuticle is in a few cases (Litliohius) provided with short
chitinous j^rojections which are directed backwards ; in Cryi)tops there
is a false gizzard intercalated between the fore and the median intes-
tine, which is very muscular, and is provided with a number of setee
or chitinous spinules. The terminal portion of the intestinal tract is
ordinarily short, but is elongated in the Chilognatha (herbivorous
forms), and is longest in Glomeris ; the following table will indicate
the variations in its disposition, concerning which it was stated by
the late and lamented Gervais, that it was only coiled iu Glomeris and
its allies : —

ri „ ii . -1 1 f Coils occupyius: a large I o/ncn?.
Greatlj coiLd | of the cavity °. fph'-°^\f- .

r...^^ •!„ i / Coils occupying a small J ^yP*<^P'- .
Crreatiy coiled < extent 1 ^^"^'ntanum.

^ " j Geophilus.

Simple terminal curvature Julus.

No convolution or cui'vature Lithobius.

This terminal portion is always richly supplied by trachefe.

The salivary glands may be racemose (Lithobius, Cryptops) or
tubular (Julus, Glomeris) ; in Geophilus the excretory canal (efferent
duct) is very long, but in Julus and Glomeris it is short. The Mal-
pighian tubes, which are inserted into the point at which the median
passes into the terminal intestine, are ordinarily two in number, but
Julus has fom- ; they may be of the same diameter along their whole
length, or be dilated into reservoirs (Lithobius, Geophilus). By trans-
parent light they are seen to be of a yellow colour, and their secreting
cells are much smaller than in most insects.

Examined physiologically, we find that the Myriapoda may be
carnivorous or herbivorous ; the former, or Chilopoda, live on flies,
earthworms, spiders, larvae, and so on, which they seize between their
forcep-like foot-jaws, and poison ; the effect of the poison of Litho-
bius on the house-fly is reported to be as rapid as the bite of the sj^ider ;
the victim, so soon as it is killed, is devoured rapidly, everything
being swallowed, either in large (Lithobius) or in minuter (Geophilus)
mouthfuls. The herbivorous forms (Chilognatha), live on decom-
posing vegetables (Julus), decayed wood (Polyxenus),OT moss (^Glomeris),
which they gnaw ; and in swallowing their food they, like the Chilo-
poda, take in some, though not so much, earth or sand. In Cryptops
the gizzard already mentioned delays the food, which is, in it, sub-
jected to the action of a digesting fluid of neutral reaction. In most
cases digestion proper is efi'ccted in the median portion of the intestine,
where the food is acted upon by a yellowish or brownish liquid
secreted from its walls ; this is ordinarily neutral, but in Lithobius,

712 RECOKD OF CURBENT BESEARCHES BELATING TO

Cryptops, and others it is faintly alkaline; while the Julidae are
remarkable for having an acid secretion. After this, digestion seems
to be at an end in the carnivorous forms, as is shown not only by the
extreme shortness of the remainder of the digestive tract, but by the
fact that the excreta are enclosed in a tine membranous envelope,
which is formed in the median intestine, and which is capable of very
eftectively resisting the action of chemical agencies ; this fajcal mem-
brane is absent in the herbivorous forms, who have, as we now know,
a somewhat coiled terminal portion.

Julus and Himantar'mm are shown to resemble a number of in-
sects in resisting for a long period the effects of starvation. The
secretion of the buccal glands is colourless, and is neutral or slightly
alkaline in reaction ; it is never venomous, nor is it similar to the
true saliva of Vertebrates or Insects inasmuch as it is incapable of
converting starch into glucose. The Malpighian tubes seem to bo
exactly similar to those of the allied Insecta, and to have the same
function of depuratory urinary organs ; they produce uric acid, urates
of sodium, &c., and oxalate of calcium. This important memoir is
illustrated by three plates.

New Scolopendra.* — Professor Giebel gave an account to the
Naturw. Verein in Halle of a new Scolojiendra, discovered in
Ecuador, for which the specific name of respuhlicana is proposed ;
most nearly allied to the S. inslgnis from Columbia of Gervais it
differs in its smaller size, the coloration of the uj)per surface, which
is olive-green in the new species, and the armature and number of
spines on the legs, of which it has twenty-one pairs ; there are nine
pairs of stigmata.

Pentastoma tsenioides in the Ear of a Dog.t— Dr. Gille presented
a specimen of this organism which he had taken from the middle ear
of a dog ; he observed that the mucous membrane was greatly
thickened and inflamed ; the " worm " (Linguatulid — one of the
Arachnida, as ordinarily regarded) must have entered by the
Eustachian tube, and indeed another and smaller specimen was
observed in the nostrils. The creature is ordinarily reported as
inhabiting the nasal fossfe, the frontal and ethmoidal sinuses, and the
region now recorded is one in which it has not been hitherto found.

Genera of Acari.| — Dr. Kramer gives a careful history and critical
account of the genera Bhap>ignat]ms of Duges, Leptognathus of Hodge,
and Caligonus of Koch. B. ruber of Koch has not the slightest
resemblance to B. ruherrimus, while the genus Caligonus which this
latter author subsequently founded for the species, is too slightly
described for accurate or certain recognition. After referring to the
work of Canestrini and Fauzago, who appear to have put the forms in
question in a more natural position in the system than any they had
before occupied, the author goes on to refer to the work of Mr. Hodge
who formed the new genus Leptognathus. The author in proceeding to

* ' Zcitschr. Ges. Naturw.,' lii. (1879) p. 326.
t ' CE. Soc. Biol.' for 1877 (1879), p. 394.
t ' Archiv Naturg.,' xlv. (1879) p. 142.

INVEBTEBRATA, CRYPTOQAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 713

give an account of the genera states that he has not seen the works of
Hodge, and docs not know whether he gives any diagnosis of the
genus. The writer of this notice has made it his business to refer to
the ' Trans, of the Tyneside Nat. Field Club,' in which Mr. Hodge's
paper appeared, and finds that, after the notice of the species, the
writer says that from the " peculiar character of the rostrum, absence
of true palpi, and number of eyes, it would appear to form the type
of a new genus," without any more definite diagnosis. The paper
concludes with a short account of a new genus Cnjptognathus, and of
the species lagena ; it is illustrated by a plate of fifteen figures.

The Nebaliad Crustacea as Types of a New Order.* — The

Nehaliadce, represented by the existing genus Nehalia, have generally
been considered to form a family of Phyllopod Crustacea. Metschni-
koff, who studied the embryology of Nehalia, considered it to be a
" Phyllopodiform Decapod." Besides the resemblance to the Deca-
pods, there is also a combination of Copepod and Phyllopod character-
istics. The type is an instance of a generalized one, and is of high anti-
quity, having been ushered in during the earliest Silurian period, when
there were, when we regard the relative size of most Crustacea, and
especially of living Nehalice, gigantic forms. Such were Ditliyrocaris,
which must have been over a foot long, the carapace being seven
inches long. The modern Nehalia is small, about half an inch in
length, with the body compressed, the carapace bivalved as in Lim-
nadia, one of the genuine Phyllopods. There is a large rostrum
overhanging the head, stalked eyes, and besides two pairs of autennfe
and mouth parts, eight parts of leaf-like, short, respiratory feet,
which arc succeeded by swimming feet. There is no metamorphosis,
development being direct.

Of the fossil forms, Hymenocaris was regarded by Salter as " the
more generalized type." The genera Peltocaris and Discinocaris
characterize the lower Siliu'ian period, Ceratiocaris the uj^per, Dic-
tyocaris the ujiper Silurian and the lowest Devonian strata, Ditliy-
rocaris and Argus the Carboniferous period. Our existing north-
eastern species is Nehalia hipes (Fabricius) which occurs from Maine
to Greenland.

The Nebaliads were the forerunners of the Decapoda, and form,
we believe, the type of a distinct order of Crustacea, for which the
name Phyllocarida is proposed.

Physiology of the Nervous System of the Crayfish, t— Mr. James
Ward, M.A., gives a brief account of ex2)criments, consisting mainly
in severing (1) one or (2) both of the supra-cesophageal commissures,
(3) both the sub oesopliageal commissures, or (4) in dividing the
supra-oesophageal ganglia longitudinally.

From these experiments it may perhaps, with more or less proba-
bility, be inferred that : —

(rt) There is no decussation of the longitudinal fibres in the
nervous system of the crayfish.

* ' Am. Nat.,' vol. xiii. (1879) p. 128.
t ' Proc. Eoy. Soc.,' xxviii. (1879) p. 379.

714 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(b) On tlie presence of the supra-oesophageal ganglion depend (1)
tlie spontaneous activity of the animal as a whole, or what might be
called its volitional activity ; (2) the power to inhibit the aimless
and wasteful mechanical activity of the lower centres ; (3) the power
to maintain equilibrium ; and (4) the use of the abdomen in swim-
ming.

(c) The sub oesophageal ganglia are the centres for coordinating
(1) the locomotive, and (2) the feeding movements, and (3) for a
j)eculiar rhythmic swim of the limbs seen as soon as the supra-
oesophageal ganglia are removed (the sub oesophageal ganglion is
apparently the source of a considerable amount of motor energy).

(d) There is much less solidarity, a much less perfect consensus,
among the nervous centres in the crayiish than in animals higher in
the scale. The brainless frog, e. g., is motionless, except when stimu-
lated, and even then does nothing to suggest that its members have a
life on their own account ; whereas the limbs of a crayfish deprived
of its first two ganglia, are almost incessantly jjreening, and when
feeding movements are started, the chelate legs rob, and play at
cross-purposes with, each other as well as four distinct individuals
could do.

(e) Some stimulus from other centres is more or less necessary to
the activity of any given centre,

(/) The " natural " discharge of a ganglionic centre (not exhibit-
ing " volition ") api^ears to be of a rhythmic kind ; the rhythmic
movements becoming converted into varied movements by temporary
augmentation or inhibition.

Influence of Heat on the Nervous Centres of the Crayfish.*—
M. Richet commences by describing an experiment, by which he says
the state of the nervous centres which preside over the power of move-
ment may be well tested. If a healthy crayfish is held by the back
between two fingers, it attempts to seize objects between the two
branches of its pincers, and if the edge of the inner one be lightly
touched the two parts are immediately brought together. Regular as
this action is, it is not purely reflex, for in the water the crayfish does
not act in the same manner; instead of trying to seize its aggressor,
the animal may attempt to escape. Of the true reflex acts three are
taken as examples. When the antenufe are cut or pinched, the animal
withdraws them ; when the eyes are touched, their supporting j^edicels
are retracted. Section of one of the large pincers produces swimming
movements, to the number of five or six, of the caudal appendage.

Now in submitting a crayfish to high temperatures, the dilferent
functions of the nervous system are seen to disajjpear, one by one, as
the temperature is raised : —

1. '23°-24° : The pincer is most feebly moved ; or the voluntary
nervous system is affected.

2. 24°-26° : No movement of the pincer under the conditions of
the experiment above detailed ; or comjslete loss of voluntary nervous
activity.

* 'Comptes Roudus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 977.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 715

3. 27°-29° : Keflex action disappears, altliougli the muscles and
nerves still react on electrical excitation.

4. 32'^-34° : Motor nerves become inactive.

5. 33°-36°: Muscular tissue ceases to display its properties.

6. 37° : Muscular tissue altogether dead, in a state of contraction.
Temperatures higher than 32^ were found to be mortal. The

nerves which govern the respiratory movements lose their powers when
subjected to a heat of from 28° to 30°.

Blood of the Lobster.*— Dr. Leon Fredericq agrees with MM.
Jolyet and Eegnard in finding two colouring matters in the plasma
of the lobster's blood ; one, of a rosy hue, is with difficulty dif-
fusible, and is not coagulated by boiling or by alcohol, nor does it
contain any metallic salt. It does not change colour in vacuo, or under
the action of oxygen, nor is it invariably present. The other appears
to be identical with the blue colouring matter hfEmocyanin,| which
the author has already found in the Odojms. The blood of the lobster,
when these two constituents are present, is rosy on reduction, while
when exposed to oxygen it is blue by reflected, and brown by trans-
mitted light ; it coagulates rapidly after removal from the body. The
colour of the blood of Limulus, as lately described by Professor Ray
Lankester, seems to Dr. Fredericq to point to the presence therein of
hajmocyanin, which has been distinctly found in some Gasteropods.

Observations on the Aniphipoda,.|— Professor Wrzesniowski de-
scribes four new species of the genus Hyale from Peru, and points out
that the genus may be divided into two subgenera, AllorcJtestes, in
which the telson is simple and has a complete margin ; and Hyale
proper, in which the margin of the telson is more or less cleft.

Contributions to the Natural History of the Caprellid8e§ — Herr
Gamroth deals with this " cosmopolitan " group of the Amijhipoda ;
the specimens for his examination were obtained at Trieste, where he
found them seeking quiet in the branches of a bryozoon {Bugula
neritina) to which they adhere by their hinder thoracic aj)pendages.

That which has been least studied is the internal organization.

Their muscular system is exceedingly well-developed, and consists
of longitudinal muscles, which efi"ect the movements of the body and
of the well-developed antennfe, and of transverse muscles which move
the appendages and the digestive apparatus in its more anterior region.
As in all allied forms the muscles are transversely striated.

The nervous system consists of a cerebral ganglion and a ventral
chain connected with it by two commissures ; the lower part of the
former is continued into four conical processes, each of which gives off
a large nerve-trunk; the upper and larger portion is divided into two
rounded lobes, which are continued backwards into two broad com-
missures ; then succeed five ganglia, of which the first four are
similar in form and size ; the last ganglion is larger, and this is

* ' Bull. Acad. Eoy. Sci. Belg.,' xlvii. (1879) p. 409.

+ This Journal, ii. p. 16-4.

X 'Zool. Auzeiger,' ii. (1879) pp. 175 and 199.

§ 'Zeitsclir. wiss. Z<jul.,' xxxi. (1878) p. 101.

716 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

apparently due to the fact that it sujiplies the sixth and seventh
segments and the rudimentary abdomen. The eyes, which are without
stalks, lie at the sides of the head and have a few pear-shaped
crystalline cones imbedded in a brownish-red pigment ; the tactile
organs are represented by setae, which are especially well-developed
on tlie flagellum of the superior pair of antennae ; as in most
Ampliipoda there is no distinct auditory organ ; on the same flagella
are found delicate white bodies, which are evidently olfactory in
function. The frontal organs, which seem to be found in all other
AmpMi>oda, are here also found ; j^aii-ed and lying just behind the
root of the superior antemife, they are goblet-shaped in form, but
their function remains unknown.

The oesophagus is simple in structure, and the gastric skeleton,
though very similar to that of Garnmarus, is more simple ; an inferior
prolongation, ajiparently homologous with the appendix campaniformis
described by Sars in Garnmarus and 2Iy$is, is present ; the structures
taken by Goodsir, on account of their long cylindrical form, to be ovaries,
arc shown to be hepatic tubes ; they contain a yellowish -brown oily
fluid. The elongated tubular heart, which lies above the intestine, is
connected with the integximent by bands of connective tissue ; it opens
to the vascular system by five clefts ; a large part of the vascular
system is lacunar, and the yellowish blood-corpuscles are, though not
strikingly, spindle-shaped. So far as the author has been able to
make them out there is but one, and not as in the allied forms
described by Dohi-n, two pairs of testes ; in Caprella cequilihra each
consists of a tube, which commences in a rounded process at the
binder end of the fifth segment, and rapidly becomes excessively
narrow ; the external appendages of the male consist of two small
curved structm-es, which are placed on the ventral sui-face of the
abdomen. The ovaries are likewise tubular, and are elongated
structures, which extend as fai- forward as the second, and open in the
fifth segment. The ovum, as found in the brood-pouch, is ellipse-
shaped, and is completely filled with dark granules and fat-drops ;
cleavage seems to be complete ; the larger rounded colls of the yolk
appear to form the head and its appendages, with the anterior thoracic
segments, while the smaller elongated jmrts form the hinder segments
and the abdomen. The young form is exactly similar to the adult,
but as a rule it remains in the pouch until its muscles are well
developed, although it is quite capable, if compelled, of taking to the
water.

CaprellidEe of the Mediterranean.* — Dr. Haller describes sixteen
species, belonging to the genera Eota, Protella, Caprella, and Podalirius;
of these, eight appear to be new. He observes that the species of the
genus Caprella may be divided into two groups, in one of which the
inferior pair of antennae are provided with simple sensory hairs,
while in the other the same structures are closely beset with more
complicated setae. In C antennata, n. sp., of which only a female
was found, the anterior pair of antennae are nearly as long as the
body.

* ' Zool. Anzeigcr,' ii. (1S79) p. 230.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 717

Organization of the Phronimida.* — After some remarks on the
systematic position aud the more important characters of this some-
what abnormal group of the Ami)lupoda, together with a diagmjsis of
the new genera Plirouimoims and Parajphronima, Professor Clans
enters into the discussion of the structure and organization of the
group :—

Appendagea. — The antenn33 are particularly interesting, inasmuch
as it is ordinarily stated that Phronima is provided with only one
l)air. Starting, as an examination of the earlier stages allows us to
do, witli tlie sim2)le appendage of two joints, we find, in a very early
stage of development, that the cylindrical antenna contains in its
terminal joint an aggregation of cells, which become differentiated
into a small ganglion, and that a seta and an olfactory filament ai)pcar
at its tip; later on there appears a second filament, and, as the terminal
joint increases in length, there appear a third and fourth ; next we
see that in the young female of Phronima the terminal joint increases
considerably, and there appear, in pairs, a number of new olfactory
filaments, while in many other Hyperida there are differentiated one
or two short intermediate joints and a terminal rudimentary flagellum.
In the young male the terminal joint becomes much thicker, and the
olfactory filaments hjse their terminal position ; two joints become
intercalated, and the terminal piece commences to form an appended
fiagellum ; in the adult of all the male Phronimida there is a many-
jointed long flagellum, the anterior surface of which is provided with
a thick tuft of long hair-like olfactory filaments.

The second antenna is not altogether absent in the female, inas-
much as its basal joint is always present, although indeed it is so
closely fused with the integument as merely to form an elevation
provided with a feebly developed seta, or a more strongly developed
spine. The antennary character of the elevation is spoken to by the
presence on it of the orifice of the duct of the antennary gland, whicli
corresponds to the " green gland " of the crayfish.

The mouth organs agree generally with those found in other
Hyperida ; the mandibles and paragnathi form a distinct oral atrium,
aud groups of glands, which probably have a salivary function, arc
developed in tlie maxilke and maxillary appendages. On the thoracic
appendages the joints appeared to be reduced to the coxa, but other
pieces can be made out ; in the fifth pair the arrangement becomes
more complicated, aud an elaborate glandular system may bo seen
in the appendages.

Alimentary Canal. — The salivary glands already mentioned are
fovmd to be complexes of four glandular cells with long efferent
ducts, which are partly placed around the oesophagus, and partly in
the jaws ; they secrete ferments which act on starch and albumen.
The enteric canal contains no glandular cells ; its muscular and
complicated oesophagus leads into a stomach which is provided with
two secondary pouches ; there arc two hepatic tubes, and the narrow
intestine ends, in the sixth abdominal segment, by a short rectum.
The short tubes attached to this last portion, which have been ob-
* ' Alb. Zool. Inst. Wicn ' (Glaus), ii. (1870) art. 2.

VOL. II. 3 B

718 RECORD OF CgRRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

served in tlio Gammaridfe, and may possibly have the same function
as the Malj^ighian vessels of the Tracheata, have not yet been
observed by Clans in any of the Hyperida ; it is possible, although
we have no certain proof of it, that their function is performed by
the epithelium of the small intestine.

Circulatory System. — The heart extends from just behind the
cephalic region to as far as the middle of the sixth thoracic segment,
and is provided with three pairs of ostia ; the muscular bands of the
heart are formed from two lateral rows of cells, between which there
is a dorsal and vonti-al median suture ; there are two arteries which
arise from an elongated fissure, and have at their base two obliquely-
set ostia ; they are placed in the third and fourth segments of the
thoracic region, and there is, in addition, in some genera a third pair
of arteries in the fifth thoracic segment ; the vessels pass into the
perienteric canal system of the body-cavity, and their walls are
formed by a transparent membrane of connective tissue, in which ai'O
contained, just as in the aorta of the Copepoda, oval nuclei. The just
mentioned perienteric canal system is thus formed : there is attached
to the ventral wall of the heart a septum, formed of large cells, which
extends transversely across the body-cavity ; a second septum holds a
similar relation to the enteron, and the body-cavity is thus divided
into three haemal canals, which are separated by connective tissue,
and communicate with one another by definite orifices. These
primary canals extend into the cephalic region, and are supplemented
by a number of peripheral secondary canals along which the blood
courses in a very regular manner ; as in all Arthropoda, the fluid
starts from the heart in two directions, going forwards by the cephalic
aorta and gastric artery, and backwards by the aorta abdominalis and
the hinder gastric vessels.

Nervous Systcvi. — Exclusive of the sub-oesophageal ganglionic
mass, the ventral coi'd consists of five thoracic and four abdominal
ganglia ; the last of these is formed by the concrescence of three
ganglia, which are separate in the embryo, and supplies the fourth,
fifth, and sixth abdominal segments. The sub-cesophageal mass
corresponds to six ganglia, or, with the ganglionic centre for the
antennae, which is placed in the commissures, to seven. The peri-
pheral nerves do not take their origin from the " dotted substance,"
but from the ganglionic cells of their own ganglion, from the pre-
ceding ganglion, and from the cerebroid mass. This last contains a
well-developed system of commissures, part of which extends into the
large optic ganglia. Turning to the eye itself, we find that this is
surrounded by an investing sheath of considerable strength, which is
formed by a continuation of the outer nervous covering of the brain ;
the cornea is formed by a special investment of the hypodermis, while
the eye continues to grow with the body, by the continuous formation
of new peripheral elements ; this organ is, as is well known, remark-
able in the Hyperida for its division into two completely sej^arated
optic areas ; in corresj)ondencc with this the optic fibres are found to
be arranged in two bundles, which arise from difiereut portions of the
ganglion.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 719

Generative Organs. — Unlike what obtains in the Gammarida, the
ovaries of Phronima and its allies are placed very far forwards in the
body ; flattened in form, and pointed at either end, they are provided
with a thick structureless wall, supporting a well-nucleated epithe-
lium. The ova form a single layer. The bent terminal portion of
the oviduct widens out into a seminal pouch. In the young males the
sperm-producing gland, and the duct which contains the spermato-
phores, are not distinctly seiiarated, but this is the case also in the
adult, between which and the young the chief difference is that the
seminal duct of the former is longer, and contains two mature sperma-
tophores. The paper is illustrated by eight plates, containing
seventy figures.

Glands found in the Appendages of the Phronimida.*— Paul

Mayer, in dealing with these glands, of which, so far as he knows,
Professor Claus has alone made mention, points out that the sixth
and seventh pairs of thoracic appendages are distinguished by their
form and size from those in front of them ; this is due to the presence,
in their basal joints, of large glandular masses, which, if present in
the more anterior legs, are but feebly developed. Placed in the wall
of partition formed by the membrane which separates the arterial
from the venous stream of blood, the glands aj)pear to be formed by
the predominant growth of some of the cells in this region, and to
form groups of three or five. As to their function, it is impossible to
offer anything more than supposition ; at first the author supposed
that they might be phosphorescent, but further observation did not
confirm this view ; their relation to the blood-stream suggests that
they are excretory in function ; or, again, tliey may be poison-glands.
It is pointed out that in the Hyperida these glands are better de-
veloped than in the Phronimida, but they are not so regularly
arranged.

"House" of the Phronimida.t — In his next " Carcinological
Study " Mayer confirms the view of Claus that Phronima very gene-
rally makes a home for itself in Pyrosoma. On November 27th, 1877,
the author took a fairly well-developed female from a house, which,
on account of its thin, soft walls and i)eculiar ai:)pendage, he can only
regard as being one of the Salpidaj. On the 25th of December he
took a breeding female from its Pyrosoma habitation, and placed it in
a glass with a specimen of Ahyla pentagona ; this was shortly seized on,
and in some ten minutes its velum was eaten up ; in a short quarter
of an hour the crustacean entered on its new home. On the morning
of the 26th the polyps had disappeared (? were eaten), and the home
took on the characteristic shape, with orifices at either end. On the
morning of the 27th the Phronima was removed from the Hydroid,
and placed under the same conditions with a specimen of (Sa/pa
fusiformis ; this was in like manner attacked, and on the morning of
the 28th the nucleus itself of the Salpa had disappeared. Some hours
later the invader was removed from its new home and replaced in its

* 'Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel,' i. (1878) p. 40.
t Ibid., p. 4G.

3 B 2

720 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

first habitation, which liacl been preserved in sjiirit ; in a few minxitcs
the calm crustacean was quite at ease.

Observations with Ptcrotrachea only led to negative results ; as to
the males, the greater number were found not to inhabit such
" houses," and in the case of PhronimeUa, no male was observed in
one ; while as to those of the female, not only were they excessively
thin, but as chemical observation never revealed the presence in
them of the cellulose, which is so characteristic of the integument of
the Tunicata, it may be concluded that whatever the houses of species
of this genus are formed from, they are not made at the expense of
any of these animals.

Some young Stages of Penseus Caramote.* — Mayer's next note
deals with some forms which he found in the central canal of Pyro-
soma elegans. The points said by Heller to be characteristic of the
species are: — (1) The deep longitudinal rostral groove; (2) The
shortness of the terminal filaments of the superior antenna) ; and (3)
The projections on the lateral surfaces of the sixth abdominal seg-
ment. As to the third point, the projections were not visible in the
young, inhabiting Pyrosoma, or in the smaller free-living forms. The
first was only visible when the animal left its home, and in the
youngest stages the antennary filaments are as long as the lamellar
appendages of the inferior antennae. In the earliest stages it is
impossible to distinguish the sexes by any differences in the characters
of their appendages, but in specimens 60 mm. long the internal
branches of the first abdominal foot are closely applied to one
another, although it is not till later that they fuse into an unpaired
organ.

Hermaphroditism of the Isopoda.t— To English readers this is
an especially interesting subject, as the results of Mr. BuUar of Cam-
bridge, were, when published, traversed by Mr. Moscley, who had at
the same time to deal with Captain Hutton of New Zealand, who had
asserted that Pcrqyatus, which, on account of his very notable dis-
coveries, might be almost called Mr. Moseley's especial property, was
likewise hermaphrodite. | Paul Mayer now states that the results of
his predecessor (Bullar) were quite correct, and that therefore there
really does exist a group of hermaphrodite parasitic Isopoda. The
basis for these results are the observations which he has been able to
make at Naples on Cymothoa, Anilocra, and Nerocila.

The free-living Isopoda are provided with three pairs of testes,
which are placed one behind the other, and open to the exterior by a
common vas deferens placed in the seventh thoracic segment ; in
addition to this there are two or (Oniscidte) one penis. The female
is provided with an elongated ovary and short oviduct, which opens
on the fifth thoracic segment. Now in the adult Cymothoa what
we find is this : the ovaries, which are attached posteriorly and
anteriorly to the dorsal wall, take a longitudinal direction ; the

* ' Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel,' i. (1878) p. 4i).
t Ibid., i. (1879) p. 165.

X Captain Hiitton has since allowed the existence of male spceimeus of
Peripatus (cf. s. v. Peripatus, ' Zool. Record' for 1877).

INVEETEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 721

oviduct is given off from it at riglit angles, and just behind tlie
central portion ; it opens on to the fifth pair of legs. On taking
a Ci/mothoa 13 mm. long we find, in addition to the ovaries,
testes, the vasa deferentia of which can be easily followed into the
penes. So that the hermaphrodite arrangement seems tolerably
certain ; tracing the matter still further, we may observe animals
when they are taken from the brood-pouch of their mother, as BuUar
docs not seem to have done ; in such, the external genitalia are not
developed, and the tissues of the internal organs are still in an
altogether embryonic condition ; four regions may, however, be made
out, of which three go to form the testes, and one the ovary ; two
efferent ducts, oviduct and vas deferens, may also be made out,
though they are as yet very short. In the next stage the testes were
enormous as compared with the ovary, and the two penes were
developed ; in the succeeding stages, the male organs were observed
to be in functional activity, and ova were developed in the peripheral
portion of the ovary. As affecting the supposition that the " testes "
observed by Mr. Biillar were " spermatophores," it is of interest to
note that Mayer expressly states that he was able to make out the
different stages in the development of the sperm ; in the anterior
l^ortion of each vesicle there were small cells, not to be distinguished
from epithelium, which were connected with a number of larger
vesicular cells, and succeeded by sperm-cells, with very short tails,
and then by bundles of still riper sperm, exactly similar to those
found in the terminal portion of the vas deferens. Notwithstanding
the presence of the tail, Mayer, no more than Bullar, was able to
observe any movement of the sperm ; and this is esijecially remark-
able, inasmuch as the parasitic Cirripedia are the only members of
the great group of the Crustacea in which mobile sperm-cells have as
yet been observed (always excepting Limiilus, which has so many
points of affinity to the Arachnida).

From what has been said, it will be seen that the young individuals
appear to be males, and the older forms females.

The view of Bullar that the ancestors of the parasitic species
were dioecious is supported by the investigations of Mayer, who
remarks further that in other Isopods he has observed indications of
hermaphroditism, inasmuch as in some females of the genera Cirolana
and Conilera, he has observed a filament passing just like a vas
deferens, to the seventh segment, together with rudiments of the
testes. Interesting as this observation undoubtedly is, the c[uestions
which it raises must for the present remain unexi)lained.

Asellus cavaticus.* — Dr. Max Weber, having had an opportunity
of examining this remarkable form at Bonn, takes the occasion to
point out certain characters which distinguish it from A. aquaticus,
and which have hitherto escaped observation. In correlation, probably,
with the absence of eyes, the olfactory organs are much larger in
A. cavaticus ; in the female the superior autenufe are nine-jointed, and
the last three joints are each provided with an olfactory process,

* ' Zool. Aiizeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 233.

722 KECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

while in the male the same ai^pendagcs are twelve-jointed, and six of
the joints have an olfactory function ; in A. aquaticus the number of
joints in the antennae is large, but still only three are olfactory, while
in the largest of the males the number of " olfactory joints " is only
four. The increase in the number of these appendages in the male,
which even in A. aquaticus has one more than the female, is duo
probably to sexual selection, and to the necessity of the blind male
seeking the female in the dark cave. The first pair of swimming legs
in the female of A. aquaticus are rounded, thin, and thickly covered
with fine hairs, while in A. cavaticus they are semilunar, with a broad
basis and continued to a sharp point, while the hairs are either com-
pletely absent or sparse and short. An arrangement obtains in the
liver of A. cavaticus, which is only temporary in A. aquaticus; the
superior pair of hepatic tubes are scarcely a quarter of the length of
the inferior pair, while in the other form they gradually attain to the
same length, and extend along the whole of the body ; but, as if in
compensation for this, the constituent hepatic cells are of a much
larger size.

New Peltidia.* — Dr. G. Haller, in describing some new Peltidia,
states that he preserved these small Copepods in Farrant's medium,
which retained the colour and external form admiiably. The new
Zausoscidia is so called from its having the general structure of
Oniscidium with the characters of Zaiis in the two rami of the first pair
effect. The single species is called i^oZw. A Porcellldiu7n smaller than
any yet known (^ "55 mm., and the $ -71 mm.) is described under
the name of parvulum. Three new species of Oniscidium are also
described briefly.

Vermes.
New Species of Tsenia.t — Professor Perroneito describes a form
which he has known for several years, and of which he has obtained
a large number of specimens ; hitherto confounded with T. expansa
or T. denticulata, it is always characterized by its constantly white
colour, hence the name alba now proposed for it. A technical descrip-
tion and a plate follow.

M. Moniez describes J T. Giardi, which is frequently foimd in
the sheejD, and which differs from T, denticulata in the position occu-
pied by the male products, and by the arrangement of its ova ; as to
the development of these latter, it is pointed out that the elements
of the " fundamental tissue " are not converted into a reticulum, but
form a continuous band ; this band takes on an undulating direction,
in which it is followed by a narrow canal, into which the ova pass
after fecundation ; the ova gradually pass into the interior band, and
it and the outer wall of the canal form a capsule for them. The
receptaculum seminis gives rise to three " currents " of ova, two of
which pass into the adjacent ovary, while the other passes over to the
other side.

In T. pectinata a number of irregular and communicating clefts
* • Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 178.
t ' Arch. Naturg.,' xlv. (1879) p. 235.
X 'Comptes Reudus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 1094.

INVEETEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 723

are formed in the tissues of the animal ; into these the ova fall, and
there undergo further development.

Notes on the Turbellaria.* — Dr. Ludwig Graff commences some
observations on this subject, with a not unfounded complaint as to
the confusion which he iinds to obtain in the systematic zoology of
this group, of which he promises a revision ; he then gives some
account of the urticating organs of these animals, as to which there
are at i^resent but few authentic reports ; in a new Stenostomum, which
he found at Trieste, and which ho dedicates to that veteran zoologist,
Siebold, he found urticating capsules, which were of interest as being
developed in just the same way as the rod-shaped bodies found in the
cells of the parenchyma, and so affording support to the doctrine
that the rods and the urticating capsules of the Turbellaria are homo-
logous structures ; in another new form — Stijlochus tardus — which was
also found at Trieste, the rod-shaped bodies were completely absent,
and the urticating capsules were in consequence very richly developed.

Drawing attention to the fact that Graff has observed chitinous
structures, in the form of spines, in the integument of the Turbellaria,
we have to note that there are interspaces between the longitudinal
bands of the dermo-muscular tube, which have hitherto been regarded
as being in all cases continuous, and that the observations now under
notice confirm the view of the Russian naturalist, Uljanin, that some
forms among the Turbellaria have no ccelom ; in such forms the
nutriment jjasses by a narrow cleft into a soft medullary substance,
rich in vacuoles and fat-drops, which is very similar to what is seen
in the Infusoria, with which they seem, pro tanto, to have closer rela-
tions than is now ordinarily supj)oscd. In the great majority of
forms, however, there are distinct walls to the enteric tract, and the
coelom is then filled with a lacunar connective substance, the parts of
which may be thick and inclined to form broad plates, or thin and
feebly developed ; the contained fat-di-ops usually include a coloured
watery fluid, which has some influence on the external coloration of
the animal in those cases in which there are no other pigments pre-
sent ; as a rule, however, there are such, which are found imbedded in
the connective substance, while the epithelium itself is always colour-
less. The observation of Oersted, that the spermatozoa vary greatly
in character, is shown to be true of the rhabdocoelous, but not of the
dendrocoelous forms. Grafl"s further investigations will be awaited
with interest.

Studies on the Nemertinea.t— Herr V. Kennel, in an elaborate
l)aper, deals with two very interesting forms, Malacohdella and
Geonemertes. Of these two, the former has long been regarded as a
Leech, but Semper and Hoffmann have shown that it rather belongs
to the Nemertinea than to the Hirudinea. The specimens examined
by Von Kennel were found in Cyprina islandica, and he notes that
they were never found in Mya arenaria ; the former molluscs, at the
station at which he observed — Kiel — were taken from a region which

* ' Zeitsclir. wiss. Zool.,' xxx. (Suppl.).

t ' Arbeit. Zool. Zoot. lust. Wiirzburg,' iv. (1878) p. 305

724 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

was often dry for a long period every day; as a rule, the larger
examples were found in older, and the smaller and younger specimens
in younger animals, but tliis was not always the case. As their name
implies, the MalacohdelUdce have a body of extreme softness ; when
young they are, except in the region of the sucker, of very much the
same breadth all along their whole extent. The oral apertm-e is
placed at the anterior end, and is in the form of a transverse cleft ;
the pharynx is intensely white, and may be seen through the trans-
parent integument ; the intestine is much narrower than it, and is of
a brownish or reddish-yellow colour ; the proboscis is of an opaque
white, and on either side of the pharynx there are cerebral ganglia,
which are small, and white or yellowish in colour.

The form in question seems to have been known to O. F. Miiller
(' Zoologia Danica,' 1779), and has since been examined by De Blain-
ville (1827), Blanchard (1845), and Van Benedcn. The result of Von
Kennel's inquiries is the confirmation of the Nemertine character of
the form ; the surface of the body is completely ciliated, the proboscis
is of the typical form, the vascular and excretory organs are of just
the same type as in the other Nemertinea, and the nervous and
muscular systems point to the same conclusion ; the anal nervous
commissure has been already found in Pelagonemertes. When, how-
ever, we come to inquire as to the position which it should take in
this group, we find it necessary to form a new family ; the Nemer-
tinea, hitherto divided into three families, contain one, the Enopla
(Tremocephalida), in which the proboscis is armed with spines, the
dermal musculature confined to two layers, and the nervous system
inferior to it ; and two, Rhocmocephalida and Gymnocephalida, in
which there are three dermal muscular layers ; between the two inner-
most lies the nervous system ; and in these — Anopla — the proboscis
has no armature of S2)ines : the fourth, and new family, may be thus
defined : —

MalacohdelUdce. — No armature of spines to the proboscis, the
dermo-muscular layer arranged in an external, circular, or an internal,
longitudinal layer ; no cephalic grooves or lateral organs ; enteric
canal simple, and forming several coils ; nerve-trunks free from the
muscular system, and united posteriorly by an anal commissure ; a
broad sucker at the hinder end.

Genus : Malacohdella. Characters of the family.

Species : M. grossa O. F. M. Body flat and broad, mouth anterior,
pharynx broad ; transparent and white (male), or yellowish — grey-
green posteriorly — (female). Semi-pai'asitic in the mantle-cavity of
various Lamellibranchs.

Geonemertes palcensis, Semper. — This interesting terrestrial Ne-
mertine, which was found by Professor Semper in the Pelew Islands,
has as yet been very incompletely observed. This animal, which is
from four to five centimetres long, is rounded and somewhat truncated
anteriorly, and of a reddish colour ; the head is provided with two
groups of eye-spots, of which there are three eyes in each, one larger
than the other two. The mouth is placed at the most anterior end
of the body ; the anus is dorsal, and the enteric tract is, as in most

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 725

Nemertines, provided with a number of lateral diverticula. The body
is iu vested by a well-ciliated simple epithelium, in which there are
dark pigment granules, but the rod-like structures, so commonly
found in the integument of allied forms, are here completely absent.
The dermo-muscular tube is formed of an external circular, and an
internal longitudinal layer ; the whole of the ccelom is filled with
connective tissue. The testes and ovaries are fouud, as they are in
some other rare cases among the Nemertinea, in the same individual.
The proboscis has exactly the same structure as in the other Enopla,
but, as in Malacobdella, it opens into the jiharyngcal cavity, and not iu
front of it or above it, as in most of these forms. The nervous system
is of the ordinary and typical form.

All the points already regarded point to the general similarity of
Geonemeries with the rest of the Nemertinea, but there remains to be
noted a special organ of very curious character. At the anterior end
of the body, and dorsally to the oral aperture, there is a fine pore,
which leads by a short canal into a cavity which has its long axis set
transversely to the longitudinal axis of the body ; the canal and the
cavity are lined by a simple epithelium, which passes without auy
distinct demarcation into the investing cell-layer of the body ; the
cilia in the hinder portion of the enlargement being only larger than
in the anterior portion, and in the canal. Connected with it there is
another coecal sac, which is elongated in form and circular in trans-
verse section ; its only contents was a fine coagulum. This organ has
apparently some connection with the terrestrial habit of the animal,
but whether it is or is not sensory iu function is still an open
question.

The circulatory organs are of the ordinary Nemertlne type, and
excretory pores still require to be observed ; they would be best seen
iu fresh specimens.

Histology of Convoluta Schulzii.* — This green Ehabdocoele
Planarian was the subject of the observations on chlorophyll in the
green Planaria by Mr. P. Geddes, referred to at p. 161 (from ' Comptes
Kendus '), which now appears in the ' Proceedings of the Eoyal Society '
with additional remarks on the histology of the animal, the general
characters of which have been already given by Schmidt.

Mr. Geddes first notices an interesting point in the histology of
the ciliated ectoderm. In teased preparations, kept cold, the ciliated
cells often become amoeboid, some of the cilia changing into slender
finger-like or stout fusiform pseudopodia. These often retain their
curvatm-e parallel to the unaltered cilia, and he has even seen the finer
pseudopodia contracting gently in time with the cilia of the same cell,
thus establishing a complete gradation between the rhythmically con-
tractile cilium and the amoeboid pseudopodium through what is really
a rhythmically contractile pseudopodium. Haeckel and others have
accumulated many instances of the transformation of ciliary movement
into amoeboid and vice versa, but only by Professor Lankester f has
the passage-form, the cilium-like pscudoijodium, been actually observed.

* ' Proc. Roy. Soc.,' xxviii. (1879) p. 449.
t 'Quart. Joum. Mici-. Sci.' (1870), p. 292.

726 BECOED OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

It is important that Lankester's passage-form occurred during the
transformation of amoeboid movement into ciliary, while the author
finds it exactly the same thing during the reverse change.

Two distinct kinds of organ exist in Convoluta and other Ehabdo-
cojles, and have been confused under the same name. First, the heap
of coloured rod-shaped bodies, the original " Stabchen " of Max
Schultze,* which furnish in Convoluta when treated in alcohol a'yellow
solution ; and, secondly, large and long spindle-shaped bodies, gene-
rally arranged singly, each containing a shar]) brittle needle, of which
the point lies close under the apex of the spindle. In a teased prepa-
ration they are generally empty, showing tlie tube in which the arrow
lay, and with a little granular protoplasm hanging round the mouth
like the smoke of the explosion. The dart is generally propelled for
some little distance, but sometimes sticks in the mouth of the tube.
Gratf's view that these are offensive weapons is certainly the right
one, but they are constructed on so distinct a plan from those of
Coelenterates that they might better be called sagittocysts than nemato-
cysts.

Below the epidermis lie the circular and longitudinal muscles, and
beneath them comes the layer of chlorophyll-containing cells. The
chlorophyll is not collected into granules as in the higher plants, nor
into drops as in the green cells of Vortex viridis, but is diffused
throughout the whole protoplasm of the cell, which is thus very in-
tensely coloured. One, or sometimes two, nuclei are present, besides
an irregular heap of granules. It was very difficult to break up the
cell completely, and so liberate the granules, but in one or two fortu-
nate preparations treated with iodine the blue coloration assumed by
many of these granules proved that we have here an actual deposit of
starch quite like that which Sachs has shown to take place within the
chlorophj 11 granules of the plant.

Deej)er than the green layer lie colourless granular nucleated cells,
which may be spherical or branched. These yield with iodine the
red-brown reaction of glycogen very conspicuously indeed. All the
internal tissues are bathed in that abundant slimy protoplasm so often
adduced in evidence of the infusorian aflSnities of the lower Turbel-
laria, which may well serve instead of a special circulatory fluid as
well as for digestion, any distinct alimentary canal being absent.

The development of the generative products is of interest. An
apparently ordinary mesoderm cell enlarges and divides into an oval
mass of about twelve to sixteen segments. The granular protoplasm
of these is gradually drawn out into the very long spermatozoa, and
thus each testicular mass is transformed bodily into a bundle of neatly-
folded spermatic filaments. The ova are also developed by the division
of a mesoderm cell. There are no separate vitellaria, but the yolk of
granules seems to arise in the finely granular amoeboid protoj)lasm of
the developing ovum.

Everywhere imbedded in the mesoderm are numerous small colour-
less cells scarcely so big as a frog's red blood-corpuscle. These are
more or less pear-shaped, with a large central cavity ; and lining one

* ' Zcitaclir. wiss. Zool.,' xxv. p. 421.

INVERTEBKATA, CRYPIOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 727

side of the interior of tliis cavity, and parallel to the long axis of the
cell, are a number of distinct transparent homogeneous filaments inserted
above and below into the ordinary granular protoplasm which consti-
tutes the remainder of the cell. In a teased preparation some of these
cells are easily found in a state of rapid rhythmical contraction,
giving as many as 100 to 180 energetic beats per minute. Tlie form
of the cell alters with every pulsation, shortening and broadening like
a contracting muscle. This change of form is simply imi)ressed upon
the cell-body by the contraction of the internal fibres, and does not
therefore truly correspond to that observed in a muscle. Some cells
also of extreme curvature (for hardly any two are quite alike) bend
sharply and return with a spring. The movements soon become slow
and incoordinate, and waves can be seen passing along the separate
fibres independently of each other. The movement stops altogether,
and the cell bursts, but the fibres resist for some time longer the
destructive action of the water.

Mr. Geddes was never able to observe any rhythmical contraction,
but at most a feeble quivering within the cell while in the body of the
animal, nor to make out any trace of definite arrangement. Max
Schultze has described how the alimentary canal of the higher Plana-
rians swarms with OpalincB, and it is possible that these so singular
structures may be excessively modified parasitic Infusoria. In any
case, the main histological interest lies in the fact that these pulsatile
cells cannot be classified either with ciliary or amoeboid, with plain or
striated muscular cells, but present a distinct type of contractile
structure.

Planaria Limuli.* — Dr. Graff points out that the Planarian para-
sitic on Limulus (the American king-crab), and so well entertained as
to be present in large numbers (" more than one hundi-ed ") on it, is
not the same as Planaria angulata. Somewhat similar in appearance
to P. lactcea, it differs from it by its pointed anterior end, and by the
possession of a large posterior sucker. The bilobed cerebral mass
has an eye, on either side, suj)ported by a pyriform swelling ; the eye
is covered by black pigment, and the lens is expressly stated (in
ojiposition to Minot) to be made up of a number of cells, as it is in
all fresh-water Planariaus and in all Khabdocoela which Dr. Graff has
examined. The longitudinal nerve-trunks are well develoi^ed in this
new species, and are united at the posterior end, above the sucker,
without any diminution in size ; from their point of union delicate
nerve-branches are given off to the sucker ; the longitudinal trunks
give off lateral branches at regular intervals, and, corresponding to
these, there are transverse anastomoses, so that a complicated mesh-
work of nerves is to be observed in these creatures. Development is
effected without any metamorphosis, and within the cocoon ; in em-
bryos i mm. long the enteric tract is not differentiated, and the
cerebrum has the form of two transversely-set, oval masses of cells.
The eyes first ajjpear when the embryo is 1 mm. long. Each cocoon
contains from two to nine embryos, and forms a yellowish-brown
oval capsule, about 3 mm. long and 1^ mm. broad, while it has a
* ' ZopI. Anzeiger,' 11. (1879) p. 202.

728 RECORD OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

stalk of about h mm. in length, and is attacliecl to tlie gill-lamella of
the abdominal ajipendages of tbc king-crab.

Classification of the Monogenetic Trematoda.* — It is to Dujardin
that zoology owes the first classification of the Trematoda, which
name was first used by Rudolphi (l>-08-1810). The French naturalist
recognized three families, and his work has been subjected to changes
at the hands of his successors ; it was not, however, till 1861 that a
really natural classification of these forms was put forth by IM. P.
van Beneden, who recognizing and giving the proper weight to
the striking differences to be observed in their modes of genera-
tion, divided the Trematoda into the Monogenea and Digenea. In
addition to the five families formed by Van Beneden and Hesse, Dr.
Taschenbcrg now proposes two new ones, Monocotylidie and Micro-
cotylida) ; and divides the Monogenea into two families of Tristome^B
and Polystomete, which differ in the following points : in the former
the anterior end of the body is not narrowed, there is no terminal
sucker, and the ova are only provided with a filamentous appendage
at one pole, while in the latter there is a large posterior sucking
disk, the body is elongated and narrower anteriorly, while the ova
frequently have two filamentous appendages.

Entoparasitic Marine Trematodes.f — An account of the mor-
phology of several sjjecies is given by A. Villot.

The author recommends hardening the specimens in absolute
alcohol, imbedding in glycerine soap, staining the sections with picro-
carmine or ha3matoxylin, clarifying with oil of cloves or creosote, and
mounting in balsam.

He describes three species of Distomiim, one of Monostomum, one of
Holostomum, and six of Cercaria, for the details of structure of which
we must refer to the paper itself, confining ourselves to the point of
chief morj)hological interest, namely, the account of the vascular
system as observed in Distomutn inslgne, a large species, found in the
digestive canal of the elasmobranch Echinorhinus sp/nosMS.

The vascular system in this species consists firstly of a Y-shaped
contractile vessel, opening posterioidy by a terminal pore, and
secondly, of a capillary network, permeating the tissues and anasto-
mosing at intervals, forming true sinuses. These dilatations are espe-
cially abundant just beneath the integuments in the outer layer of
parenchyma, where they form a distinct layer, presenting the appear-
ance in cross section of a multitude of cells, for which, indeed, they
have often been mistaken.

Villot considers that this apparatus is both excretory and cir-
culatory in function, the office of excretion being assigned to the
contractile vessel, while the extensive system of capillaries and sinuses
serves for the transport of nutrient matter from the alimentary canal to
the various parts of the system ; and he remarks that we have here
"a fresh example of the tendency to the accumulation of functions,
which always accompanies the degradation of the organism," and

* ' Zeitschr. ges. Natm-w.,' lii. (1879) p. 232.

t ' Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.),' viii. (1879), No.s. (2-3).

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOCrAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 729

which is, of course, the precise converse of the principle of division
of labour.

Helminthological Studies.* — It is quite impossible to do more
than draw attention to the energy of Professor von Linstow, from
whom a further contribution of " Helminthological Studies" appears
in the 2ud part of the ' Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte ' for 1879. Of
forty-two forms described, and mostly figured, nineteen are regarded
as new. A useful table is given of the characters of the eight species
of the genus Distomum, which are known to be found in German
reptiles, in the course of the description of a ninth species (from
Angn is fi -ag il Is).

Ascaris parasitic in the Lion, f — M. Chatin describes immature,
male, and female forms of this worm, and shows that in the absence
of the membranous expansions (" winged at its head ") and in the
characters of its mouth it differs from A. mystax which inhabits the
domestic cat ; in addition to this there are differences in the digestive
tube and generative organs which speak to A. leptodera, as defined by
Rudolphi, being a distinct sjiecies.

Ascaris of the Orang-Outang. li. — The same author enters into the
details of the structure of this parasite, which has ordinarily been
regarded as A. lumhricoidcs ; the new species A. satyri differs, how-
ever, in its smaller size, while the body is more closely striated, the
" buccal valves " (or labial lobes) are much smaller, the oesophagus
is provided with a well-marked enlargement, the uterus is more
highly developed, and the ova are smaller than in the ordinary
parasite of the human subject.

Filaria Otarise. § — M. Chatin describes this new species of
Nematoid parasite from the muscles of Otaria Stelleri, of which his
bibliographical researches have revealed no previous indication. A
short technical description is given.

Muscle-cells of the Nematoids.||— In a new genus, not yet named,
parasitic in CaUicWnjs, M. Chatin has observed some "true" muscle-
cells, which were short and ovoid, and narrower in their terminal
region ; easily separated by potash, they were seen to consist of a
mass of protoplasm with a refractive and excentrically placed nucleus ;
no distinct envelope could be observed, and the cortical layer was
merely differentiated.

Further Studies on the Oligochaeta.H— Dr. Franz Vejdovsky, in
describing a new si^ecies — bohemica — of the genus AnacJiceta, points
out that in it he has observed that what D'Ukedem called the " cap-
sulogenous," and he has called the " dissepimental glands," open by
two glandular efferent ducts into the pharynx, and that their secretion
appears to have some function in the ingestion of nutriment, so that
the EnchytrceidcB, like most of the Arihropoda, possess two pairs of

* ' Arch. Naturg.,' xlv. (1879) p. 1G5.

t ' CR. Soc. Biol.' for 1877 (1879) p. 26G.

X Ibid., p. 384. § Ibid., p. 204. 1| Ibid., p. 278.

H ' Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 183.

730 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

secreting glands, of wliich one (septal glands) open into the protru-
siblc pharynx, and tlie other (salivary glands) at the base of this organ
and into tho a3sophagus.

The pharynx of these worms forms a protrusiblo prehensile appa-
ratus provided with a complex system of muscles ; the buccal lobes in
connection with it appear to be gitstatory organs.

In describing their "lateral line" or "lateral cords," the author
points out that in the terminal segment there are a number of uni-
polar or multipolar cells, which extend along the sides of the body
between the glands of the sette and the ventral cord, giving off, in their
course, lateral branches to the setal glands, the dissepiments, and the
generative organs ; the greatest number of ramifications is to be found
in the genital and cephalic segments. The author comes to the
conclusion that these cords are to be regarded as true sympathetic
nerves, and ho would apply the name of " N. vagus " to the branches
which are given off from the oesophageal commissures.

The " jaws " found in the buccal cavity of Branchiohdella are
regarded as the homologues of the gustatory organs of Anaclmta,
while tho " follicular" structure of the nervous system of the former
may be made out also in the latter. The anatomical characters of
Branchiohdella lead the author to form for it a special family of the
Oligochceta, under the name of Discodrilida, most nearly allied to tho
CImfogastrida.

Spermatophores of the Earth-worm.* — Dr. Paul Fraisse makes
some observations on the small conical appendages which at the
period of reproduction are to bo noticed on the neural aspect of most
of the Lumbriciua ; called " penes," or " appendiculre generatrices,"
by the earliest observers, they were regarded (in 1849) by Fritz
Miiller as spermatoiihores ; but this view has been either neglected or,
as by Hering, expressly rejected.

In Lumhricus agricola Fraisse describes these bodies as forming
flattened and somewhat spirally-coiled structures, from 1^ to 2 mm.
in length, and from 0'5 to 0*7 mm. in breadth ; at their " superior "
end, in a small cavity, there was found a drop of sperm ; the cavity
was so arranged as to allow the contents easily to pass out on
pressure ; and the bodies, which were ordinarily arranged in pairs,
were attached to the twenty-third to twenty-seventh segments of the
worm. It is unnecessary for us to follow the author through his
descriptions of similar structures in L. communis, L. riparius, or
L. olidus : in all cases they were, just after copulation, found to be
soft, and they only gradually hardened when exposed to the air;
they are always attached to the cuticle in the neighbourhood of the
generative organs, and it is not difficult to get them oil". They icere
not found before cojmlation ; the spermatozoa, ,when expressed,
exhibited lively movements.

The question now arises, where are these spermatophores
developed? Great difficulties stand in the way of framing an
answer ; not only are the generative organs greatly complicated, but

* Scmpcr's ' Arbeitcii,' v. (1870) p. 38.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 731

iu copulation tlie worms become covered with a thick opaque mucous
layer, which very effectually prevents observation ; an examination of
the efferent ducts and seminal vesicles did not reveal the presence in
them of anything like the spermatophores, which, it maybe observed,
are attached to ridge-like projections somewhere between the twenty-
fourth and twenty-ninth rings ; the ridges were found to be connected
with internal follicles, which were apparently setigerous, and about
three times as large as the other setigerous follicles of the neural
aspect of the worm. The setiB in question differed from the rest, not
only by their greater size, but by the fact that they did not project
beyond the surface. They are surrounded by a capsule of connective
tissue, in the walls of which there are, in addition to the matrix of
the setfe, some small glandular structures, very similar to those found
in the " capsulogenous glands." Varying somewhat in number, these
glandular tubes always lie between the hypodermis and the circular
layer of muscles ; they have not a wide lumen, and are generally
found to be filled with a firm coagulated secretion ; a branch from
this follicle passes into the sheath of the seta, where it ceases to be
glandular, and the epithelial cells become flattened ; the spermato-
phores are generally found between the orifices of the two glands, and
sometimes project into their ducts ; before copulation the spermato-
phoral tubes are soft, and contain no semen ; and finally, if they are
found on the twenty-sixth ring (in L. agricola) they would in
copulation be exactly opposite the male orifice of the other worm.

The paper, which is illustrated by one plate, concludes with a
detailed list of the observations which were made.

Body-cavity of the Sedentary Annelids and their Segmental
Organs.* — M. Cosmovici communicates the following to ' Comptes
Eendus ' : —

The general body-cavity of the sedentary Annelids is divided
into several compartments by diaphragms, which sometimes exist
only in a portion of the cephalothoracic region (Arenicolce, Terehellce,
Cli/mcnice), sometimes throughout the length of the body (Serpu-
lida;) ; and then each segment has a cavity more or less inde-
l^endent of its neighbours. There are also divisions in the ojjposito
direction. In sections there are seen a central cavity filled by the
digestive tube, and two lateral ones separated from the former by
muscular bands in the form of oblique diaphragms. A communica-
tion exists between all the cavities through the interstices of the
fibres of the partitions. The lateral cavities contain the feet with
their retractor muscles and the segmental organs ; these are the pedal
cavities.

In Chcetopterus pergamentaceus the arrangement of the cavities
in the three vesicular segments is interesting. The median cavity,
containing the digestive tube and the genital glands, does not com-
municate with the lateral cavities, which are occupied by the reno-
segmental organs, except by the segmental pavilion which opens in
the wall of separation.

* 'Comptes Eendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 1092; 'Ann. anl Mog. Nut. Hist.,'
iv. (1879) p. 94.

732 RECOED OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

In the Chjmenkv. the corjwra Bojani are very long ; and at thcii"
anterior extremity tlio segmental organs arc attached. After the
eleventh segment there are no longer any renal bodies, and in their
place there is a plexus of blood-vessels of remarkable abundance.
The position of these networks is such that we may say that they
represent so many corpora Bojani formed solely by their vascular
frameivorJc.

The ovum of these animals is remarkable for the separation into
two parts of the vitelline mass ; one of these, the larger one, is formed
of large granules, the other of very small ones. In the latter is
situated the germinal vesicle and the spot, which becomes strongly
coloured by picro-carminate.

Pcctinaria helgica exhibits first a pair of very iarge corpora Bojani,
and then two pairs furnished with segmental organs. The genital
gland is on the median line, on each side of the supranervous vessel.
The animal is as transparent as glass ; and notwitlistanding this the
segmental organs cannot be perceived. It is curious that in less
transparent animals these organs have nevertheless been observed by
translucence and figured.

With regard to the segmental organs in the errant Annelides, we
find a pair of them in each segment, with a contorted tube having an
internal pavilion and an opening outwards. In the Serpulidae (a
family very rich in genera), among the sedentary forms, the same
thing is met with. Lastly, in all the other Sedentaria we find the
segmental organs sometimes free, sometimes annexed to the corpora
Bojani, and in the majority of cases we may say that the segmental
organs are indejiendcnt of those bcdies.

Hitherto we have been acq[uainted with three species of herma-
phrodite Spirorhis ; a fourth must be added, namely, Spirorbis communis,
which abounds at Eoscoff".

In the group Gejihyrea, in Phascolosoma vulgare, we find on the
anterior part of the two long blackish sacs, a tube furnished with a
pavilion with two broad ciliated lips. The structure of the sacs
shows them to be renal bodies, to which the segmental organs are
annexed. The genital gland, male or female, is situate at the base of the
posterior pair of the retractor muscles of the proboscis. The racemose
gland is attached to an elastic thread, which is probably a blood-
vessel. The ovum is remarkable for the presence of cilia at the
surface of the vitelline membrane, which, when observed in front,
appears finely striated.

lu the subiutestinal blood-vessel, in the midst of the elliptical
blood-globules, we find encysted trematodcs, which are carried along
even into the papillfe of the proboscis, by the cilia with which the
vessel is furnished. The above-mentioned papillfe appear to play a
great part in respiration ; in fact the whole circlet is in communica-
tion with the circulatory apj^aratus. The globules ascend along the
walls, and descend by the centre of the papilla. Processes of the
wall in the interior of the papillary cavity cause the globules to
remain a certain time in contact with the delicate wall of these
organs, and thus facilitate an exchange of gases. This may exjilain

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY^ ETC. 733

why the animal, when quiet in a trough filled with sea water, exerts
its proboscis every momeut.

Segmental Organs of the Capitellidae.* — Dr. Hugo Eisig had
intended to make a general revision of the segmental organs of the
Annelides, but various circumstances, and, more especially, the con-
viction that his object would be best attained by making a careful
examination of these organs in a ji'i'i'ticular group, have led to the
publication of the present essay, which is of interest and of value
as bearing on those structures, which the labours of Professor Scraper
and of Mr. Balfour have led them to regard as homologous in the
Annelides and in the Vertebrata.

In describing the organs of Notomastus lineatus, the author says
that they are typically formed of two processes, of which the longer
and broader one leads to the internal, and the shorter and more
delicate to the external orifice ; the two orifices are connected by
a canal, the cilia of which work outwards; the internal orifice
does not, as in most Annelids, float freely in the coelom, but is
closely applied to the peritoneal membrane, and is difficult to
perceive ; the outer one is, on the contrary, very evident, as it is
placed on an elevated infundibular process. The segmental organs
are also remarkable for being confined to one segment, where they lie
in the groove which separates the dorsal from the longitudinal
muscles ; the long axis is ordinarily set parallel to the long axis of
the body, and the external orifice is anterior, the looped portion
posterior, and the internal orifice median in position. In the adult
these organs are confined to the hinder setigerous portion of the body
— to the abdomen ; in the younger forms they are found, more or less
distinctly, in a number of the more anterior segments, and are
arranged in regular pairs, whereas in the adult they may be absent
from one or the other side of a segment, or from both sides ; what is
more remarkable is that occasionally more than one jjair of organs is
to be found in one segment ; but this is still more strikingly seen in
Capitella capitafa, where the "segmental organs " are confined to the
anterior portion of the abdomen ; in the adults examined they were
found in the tenth to the twentieth or twenty-third segments of the
body, and each of these segments contained several pairs of segmental
organs ; two to three in the more anterior, four to five in the median,
and five to six in the most posterior segments ; the organs are here
firmly attached to the peritoneal membrane, with the exception of
their internal orifices, and so close is this connection that in section
the organs appear to be mere thickenings of the membrane ; as to the
internal orifices, the number is not always limited to one for each
organ. The external orifices are not so easy to find as in Notomastus,
inasmuch as they do not open to the exterior, but pass their secretion
into the space between the cuticle and the integument proper ; this
observation was best confirmed by feeding the annelid with carmine.
As a rule, the organs of each segment are distinct from one another,

* ' Mittb. Zool. Stat. Neapel,' i. (1S7S) p. 93.
VOL. II. 8 c

734 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

but in some cases these were connected by a branch, the cilia of
which work from the more anterior to the more posteriorly set organ.
In the larval and young Capitella the segmental organs extend further
forward, but do not extend so far back in the body. The larval organs
are strictly segmental, or in other words, there is never more than
one pair in each segment, and, as in most Annelids, each organ is
placed in two segments, and their connection with the peritoneum is
not so intimate as in Notomastus ; the author was not able to observe
any definite external orifice. As the permanent segmental organs
appear the larval ones undergo degeneration.

It is impossible to avoid seeing the great importance of these
observations, as bearing on the fact that, in the Urodela, Max
Fiirbringer has observed, and has insisted on the observation, that the
" segmental organs " are not metameric, but " dysmetameric " ; that
observation is, as we now see, just as true of adult Capitella as
of Salamandra. Let us note some other points of resemblance.

The Vertebrata were regarded as distinguished by having the
segmental organs connected ; this is occasionally true of Capitella ;
in some Vertebrates (Selachii, Acipenser) the primary archinephric
cord remains connected with the peritoneum — just as in Capitella,
while in others (Amphibia, Amniota) the cord becomes separated
from the peritoneum as in Notomastus. The more anterior of the
segmental organs of the Vertebrata have a tendency to become
aborted ; this, too, is true of the Capitellidfe, The larval Coecilife
have one segmental organ in each segment, while the adult has a
number ; in Salamandra the organs increase in each myocomma as wc
proceed backwards ; all this is true of Capitella.

The author concludes with a few words on the receptaeiila
seminis ; the pores observed by Claparede lead into tubes, placed
between the seventh and eighth segments, which seem to have the
further function of a penis or of a vulva, according to the sex.

Lateral and other Goblet-shaped Organs of the Capitellidae.*
— In continuation of his researches into the anatomy of these Annelids,
Dr. Eisig now deals with the somewhat difiicult matter of their
sensory organs. The observations of Keferstein and Claparede had
led to the knowledge of certain protuberances in the abdominal
region, which were said to be provided with narrow orifices (lateral
organs of the abdomen), and of thoracic pores (lateral organs of the
thorax). The former, which are set along the whole of the abdomen
and on each segment between the neuropodia and the notopodia, are
provided with stifi" hairs, sensory in function, but they are not pro-
vided with pores and do not provide for the coelom of the animal any
means of communication with the outer world ; or, in other words,
they are not, as Claparede thought, the external orifices of the seg-
mental organs. Dealing with the structure of the sensory hairs,
Dr. Eisig points out that there are several hundreds of them on each
protuberance, from '04 to 'OG mm. long. They are about '001 mm.
broad at their base and become infinitesimally small at their tij) ;

* ' Mittb. Zool. 8tat. Ncapel,' i. (1879) p. 278.

mVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 735

immovable and stiff, they appear to consist of a pale homogeneous
substance. Having pointed out in detail the structure of the hairs
and of the protuberances upon which they rest, Dr. Eisig comes to the
conclusion that they are undoubtedly sensory organs : but how are
they innervated ? the sensory hairs are connected with rods, the rods
with spindle-shaped bodies, and these with granular ones ; between
these last and the ganglionic cells of the central cord there are many
points of resemblance, although the granules are without a neurilemma
and without those unipolar peripheral cells which are found in the
cord. As to the nerve, it is curious to observe that there passes into
the protuberance a band of matter which, at first sight, is easily taken
for the innervator, but which is really a muscle, for which we can
easily find a function when we note that the sensory hairs are capable
of being protruded and retracted. The true nerves arise from the
ventral cord ; three, or rarely four, being given off to either side from
the ganglia ; passing through the musculature of the trunk they
ramify in the integument, or, reaching as far as the gill, divide into
two strong branches, of which one goes to the gill and one towards
the sensory protuberance ; the observations, however, of our author
do not allow him to speak definitely as to the innervation of the
protuberances.

The remark just made will be found to apply also to the nerves of
the lateral organs of the thorax ; as to the pores of these organs, which
are elliptical or rounded, and quite evident, no passage could be dis-
covered by which they were connected with the perivisceral cavity of
the animal ; carefully examining them, Dr. Eisig one day saw a
rounded protuberance project from one of the clefts ; this was pro-
vided with stiff hairs altogether similar to those already observed in
the abdominal region. The whole matter was henceforward clear ; here
as in the abdomen there were sensory organs, but here they were
ordinarily hidden in cavities formed for their reception ; the pro-
tective apparatus was carried a step further in the thorax than in the
abdomen. The rounded protuberances are of the same form, though
somewhat smaller, and the sensory hairs are exactly similar.

Leaving these, which are truly segmental organs, we deal with
the goblet-shaped organs, which are irregularly scattered over the
cephalic lobes, the thorax, and the proboscis ; those on the first-
named structm-e are set around its whole circumference, and in great
numbers ; rounded or conical in form, they are only of about one-
tenth the size of the organs already described as existing on the pro-
boscis ; the sensory hairs are not so numerous and do not diminish in
size towards their free end, as do those already noted, which are also
about ten times as long ; no observations could be made as to their
structure or as to the supply of nerves to them. The goblet-shaped
organs of the thorax, which are very difficult to make out, are placed
in greatest number around the mouth ; very similar to those of the
cephalic lobes, they appear to be innervated from the ventral cord as
well as from the oesophageal ring. Similar organs are found in some
hundreds on the proboscis.

Bearing in mind the metameric arrangement of the lateral organs

3 c 2

736 RECOED or current researches relating to

of tlie CapitelliclaB, we are now led to ask what is their relation to tbo
organs of the same name among the Vertebrata ? Discussing in detail
the opinions of those who have busied themselves with the morphology
and embryology of the lower Vertebrata, Eisig finds that the abdominal
protuberances of Notomastus are comparable to what is found per-
manently in Gobius and others, and temporarily in the larvae of other
Vertebrata, while the hyaline tubes of the latter group are in Noto-
mastus replaced by the defended position of the organs ; so, too, the
thoracic organs of the worm correspond to the canals covered in by
integument in the Vertebrates. The author is of opinion that the
" lateral lines of the Naiades " are not, as Semper thinks, homologous
with the system of lateral organs in the Vertebrata. Turning to the
goblet-shaped organs, Eisig points out that in the Capitellidte and in
the Teleostei there are goblet-shaped organs on the head, in the
buccal cavity, and on the trunk of both ; that in both cases they have
no relation in their arrangement to the segmentation of the body, and
that they are more richly supplied to the buccal cavity and lips than
to the trunk, while their structure is exceedingly similar in both cases.
Comparing the goblet-shaped organs with the lateral organs wo
observe the following points of difference : —

(1) The former are not, and the latter are, segmental in arrange-
ment.

(2) The latter are chiefly confined to the trunk, and are found
only in animals of aquatic habitat.

(3) The sensory cells of the (Vertebrate) lateral organs are short
and pyriform, of the goblet- shaped organs long and filamentous.

(4) The lateral organs have long hairs, seemingly auditory, and
appear to be adapted to a mechanical mode of perception, while the
goblet-shaped organs have short hairs, seemingly olfactory, and appear
to be adapted to chemical changes.

There are, however, strikingly similar arrangements in both ;
they are both epidermal structures, both form rounded solid pro-
tuberances protected by the siu'rounding epidermal tissue, and both
contain centrally a bundle of special " sensory cells." The author
appears to incline to the view that the two sets of organs have arisen
independently of one another from the epidermis.

We come now to the interesting question of the function of these
organs. It has been suggested by Leydig that the system of lateral
organs in the Vertebrata forms an apparatus specially adapted to an
aquatic habitat, and an organ of a " sixth sense " ; F. E. Schultze
inclines to a somewhat similar view, regarding the organs in question
as being sensitive to movements in mass of the water, or of solid
bodies in the water ; Eisig, however, would look upon the arrange-
ments in the way of protection and so on, which are found in the
Capitellida), as being means for preventing the contact of solid bodies
with the sensory organs.

As to the goblet-shaped organs, there seems to be but little diflSculty
in regarding them as having a gustatory fimctiou ; strange as it may
seem to us that these organs should not be distinctly limited to the
buccal cavity, it may be pointed out that Schultze regards the similar

INVERTEBKATA, CRYPTOaAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 737

organs of the Teleostei as having a similar function, while there
appears to be a general consensus of opinion that the similarly shaped
(goblet-shaped) organs, which are found again on the tongue of the
Mammalia, are entrusted with the duty of tasting organs.

Echinodermata.

Anatomy of the Ophiurida.* — Dr. Ludwig deals in this paper
chiefly with the skeleton and with the generative organs of the Brittle-
stars ; pointing out the extreme difficulty offered by them, he says
that he has busied himself chiefly with the, in all respects, largest form
known to him — Ophiarachna incrassata Miiller and Troschel, which
came to him from Cape York.

Before considering their relations to the Asterida, he deals with
the leading characters of their own skeleton. In an arm, four dif-
ferent kinds of skeletal structures may be made out — the jointed
plates, the lateral, the ventral, and the dorsal shields. The last are
almost completely rectangular, are three times as broad as they are
long, at the base of the arms, and they occupy nearly the whole
of the dorsal side ; the lateral plates carry the four rows of spines
and the tentacular scales, while the ventral plates are quadrangular,
and have a somewhat convex aboral edge ; on their adoral edge there
is a process with a depression on either side. The joints, which are
formed by the fusion of two lateral pieces, are, with the exception of the
first pair, intimately connected ; in form they are discoid and pre-
sent four surfaces ; in the centre of the adoral and of the aboral
surface there are protuberances and depressions by which the several
joints are connected together. On the adoral side we find superiorly
two lateral cavities, and, inferiorly, a median one, while superiorly
there is a median protuberance, and inferiorly two lateral ones:
on the aboral side the conditions are reversed. In addition to
these there are other cavities which are less evident, and which go to
make up four for either side of each joint. The arrangement is, on the
whole, of such a kind that movement is possible in a horizontal as
well as in a vertical plane. Eunning along the median ventral line
of the arm there is a groove, at the base of which are small orifices,
which lead into five canals that traverse the joints. The adoral one
serves for the entrance of a nerve, and the aboral ones for a branch of the
ventral water-vessel ; and it is of interest to note that the arrangements
of this last-named system point, in the opinion of Dr. Ludwig, to the
complete homology of the joints of the Ophiurid and of the Asterid
arm. This view, which was held by Meckel and by Johannes Miiller,
has been lately opposed by Gaudry and by Lyman ; but it is impos-
sible to enter into a detailed description of the question here, and we
can only say that the lateral shields of the Ophiurida are regarded by
Dr. Ludwig as being homologous with the adambulacral plates of the
Asterida, while the ventral shields of the former should be regarded
as subambulacral plates, which are absent in the Asterida.

As to the skeleton of the oral region, it is thought that the ambu-
lacral covering-pieces are parts of the ambulacra, the lateral oral

* ' Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.,' xsxi. (1878) p. 348.

738 KECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

shields adambulacral pieces, and the second ventral shields subambu-
lacral; and it is concluded that the whole of the oral skeleton is
formed by tlie conversion of the first two joints of all the five rays,
together with the adambulacral and subambulacral pieces which belong
to these parts.

As to the generative organs, of which so little is exactly known,
it is generally stated that, in the Ophiurida, the generative pro-
ducts are passed into the coelom, and thence escape by the so-called
genital clefts, but it is here shown that the generative products do not
take this course, and that the genital clefts do not open into the
coelom. After a review of what has been stated by earlier writers,
Dr. Ludwig draws attention to the description he gave when treating
of the Asterida, when he showed that the genital clefts open into
depressions of the body-wall, for which he proposed the name of
hursce genitales, while the clefts were named " bursal clefts." An
examination of OpMoglypha shows that in it the bursa is a compara-
tively wide, but very thin sac, which commences at the edge of the
bursal cleft, and passes dorsally into the coelom ; at its aboral end it
is continued into a narrower portion which passes over the edges of
the stomachal sac towards its dorsal aspect ; it is a mere invagination of
the integument. The genital tubes are placed on that surface of the
bursa which faces the coelom, and the large number of fifty has been
counted on each bursa ; in youth they are rounded, but they gradually
take on a cylindrical form ; internally they are invested by a spermi-
genous or ovigerous epithelium, and the outer lamella of their walls
is provided with muscular fibres, somewhat irregulai'ly arranged ; in
general structui'e tbey resemble the similar organs of the Crinoida,
Asteroida, and Holothuroida. The generative pores may be seen to
form a number of small orifices, surrounded by epithelium, separated
by regular distances, and leading directly into the cavity of the genital
tubes, which are connected with them by very short efierent ducts ;
the contents are thus passed, not into tlie ccelom, but into the bursa.
Having compared the arrangements in various Ophiurids, the author
points out that in them, just as in the case of the branchial vessels of
the Asterida, there is reason for supposing that the burste serve also as
respiratory organs, and suggests that they may also serve as marsupial
pouches. That many Ophiurids are viviparous is certain, and the
suggestion is one which would free us from numerous difficulties.
The paper, which is of great value, concludes with pointing out ^the
likenesses that subsist between these burste found, among extant
Echinoderms, in the Ophiurida only, and the " genital tubes " or
" hydrospira " of the Blastoidea.

Aspidura.* — Dr. Ludwig has some interesting remarks on Dr.
Pohlig's late paper on this Triassic Ophiurid,| in which it was stated
that the oral shields were divided into two equal lateral parts.
Striking as this relation is, it was explained by the apparently justi-
fiable supposition that the oral shields (" buccal plates ") are primi-
tively paired, owing to their origin from the lateral plates of the

* ' Zool. Anzciger,' ii. (1879) p. 41. f I'liis Journal, ii. p. 581.

IN\'ERTEBBATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 739

skeleton of the arms. Dr. Ludwig now insists on the view which
he has lately put out,* that the oral shields do not belong to the
series of parts which make up the skeleton of the arms, but to the
interambulacral series. Evidence as to the correctness of this view is,
in Ludwig's opinion, to be found in Pohlig's own paper ; thus, what
Pohlig calls oral shields in Hemigli/pha, are really lateral shields, as
is shown by the statement that they resemble the lateral shields, that
the oral " lateral shields " are indistinct (this, of coui'se, is due to
the true oral " lateral shields " being regarded as proper oral shields,
while other small plates which are mentioned in the description are
seen to be the true oral shields). A somewhat similar criticism is
brought to bear on the description of the characters of ArnijJiiglypha.

Comatulae of the 'Challenger' Expedition.! — Mr. P. Herbert
Carpenter, M.A. has made a preliminary report on the collection of
Comatnloi made by the staff of the ' Challenger,' which includes specimens
from 45 different localities, but few of which are deep-water stations.

Comatulce were only obtained seven times from depths exceeding
1000 fathoms. At lesser depths, 200-1000 fathoms, they were met
with at 13 stations ; but by far the greatest number both of species
and of individuals were dredged at depths much less than 200 fathoms,
and often less than 20 fathoms, at 26 widely distant stations.

The collection contains 111 species, mostly new; but as the work
of examination and description progresses, it is not unlikely that forms
now considered different, may turn out to be merely local varieties of
one and the same species, so that the number given above may bo
subject to alteration.

Of these 111 species, 59 belong to the genus Antedon, 48 to Actl-
nometra, 1 to Ophiocrinus, and 3, which are peculiar in having ten
rays to the calyx instead of only five, to a new genus for which is pro-
posed the name Promacliocrinus {-po^axos, " challenger ").

The distribution of Promachocrimis is as follows : —

F. Kerguclcnsis (20 arms). Balfour Bay, Kerguclen, 20-60 fathoms.

Royal Sound, „ 28 „

Cape Maclear, „ 30 „

Heard Island . . . . 75 „

P. a6(/ssorMm (10 arms). Station 147 1,600 „

„ 158 1,800 „

P. iW<3s« (10 arms). „ 214 500

Ophiocrinus was obtained at four localities at depths varying from
565 to 1070 fathoms, two in the South Pacific off South Australia and
New Zealand respectively, and two in the North Pacific, one off Japan,
and one just north of the Philippine Islands. All the specimens
belong to one species, which is by no means so slender and graceful
as Semper's Philippine species from shallower water, but has a much
more massive arm skeleton.

The comparative distribution of the other Comatulce is very
striking. Eelatively speaking, Adinometra is extremely limited in

* This Joiu-nal, ii. p. 580.

t ' Proc. Koy. Soc.,' xxviii. (1879) p. .383 ; ' Nature,' xis. (1879) p. 450.

740 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

its range, botli geographical and bathymetrical. It is almost exclu-
sively a tropical genus, its northern limit being about 30° N. lat. and
its southern 40° S. lat. Isolated species are known from the Cape of
Good Hope, Natal, South Australia, and Port Jackson, but its chief
home is Oceania, especially the Philippines. A few Actinometra
species are also known from the west coast of the Atlantic, as South
Carolina, the West Indies, Bahia, and St. Paul's Kocks.

The bathymetrical limit of Actinometra is likewise very slight.
Nearly all the' Challenger ' species are from depths less than 20 fathoms,
while only three come from a greater depth than 100 fathoms. The
individual species of Actinometra, like the genus itself, are very local
in their distribution. Each of the forty-eight species of the ' Challenger '
collection has its own locality.

With Antcdon, however, the case is different. Not only do nearly
all the deep-sea Comatulce belong to this genus, but some species of it
have a fairly wide range. Ant. rosacea ranges from the north of
Scotland to the Mediterranean, while Ant. Eschrichtii is found over a
much wider area. It is well known on the American coast, and was
dredged by the 'Challenger' oif Halifax, while the 'Porcupine' met
with it in the " cold area " of the North Atlantic.

Some Antedon species occur in duplicate from different localities.
Two species from near the Kermadec Islands (S. 170), also occur in
the neighbourhood of the Fijis (S. 174, 175). A third species was
dredged at Stations 147 and 160, two localities in the Southern Sea,
in nearly the same latitude, but separated by almost 90° of longitude.
A fourth species came up from 1070 and 775 fathoms, off the Admiralty
Islands and Japan respectively.

The above facts would seem to show that, with few exceptions, the
geographical range of the individual members of the family Comatulidce
is exceedingly limited, nearly every species having its own locality,
and that not a very extensive one.

The voyage of the ' Challenger ' has settled a curious question in
connection with the Criuoids, the origin of which is due to Loven. It
refers to Hijponome Sarsii, a so-called recent Cystid, which turns out
to bo notliing more than the disk of a Comatula, minus its skeleton.
The antambulacral plating may be very extensive,''forming a complete
pavement over the ventral surface of the disk as in many Pentacrini ;
and the ambulacra are not wide and open as is usual in most Comatulce,
but almost entirely closed by the approximation of the marginal leaf-
lets at their sides, so that the food-grooves radiating from the mouth
are converted into tunnels.

The plates in the marginal leaflets are probably movable as un-
plated leaflets are in Antedon rosacea; so that they can be erected
when the arms are spread out, leaving the grooves open for food
particles to travel towards the mouth. On the other hand, when the
arms are all contracted over the disk, the marginal plates fold over
the grooves and cover them in. This is the condition of most spirit-
specimens, but it is not in any way comparable to that of the Palfeozoic
Crinoids, in which the mouth is truly subtegminal while the ambulacra
become real tunnels beneath the upper siu'faco of the vault.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 741

Sections through one of these plated Hyponome-diska show that all
the various structures which underlie the grooves of ordinary Comatulcp
are present and exhibit their usual characters.

The examination of the ' Challenger ' Comatulce has entirely con-
firmed the opinions held by Dr. Liitken and the author respecting the
distinguishing characters of Antedon and Actinometra. Both agree in
referring forms with a (sub) central mouth, five equal ambulacra, and
no terminal comb on the oral pinnules, to Antedon. On the other
hand, species with an eccentric mouth, a variable number of unequal
ambulacra, and a terminal comb to the oral pinnules, belong to
Actinometra.

It will be seen at once that these characters are of no use in dis-
tinguishing the genera of fossil Comatulce. But there are very con-
siderable difierences in the shape of the radials and centrodorsal piece
in Antedon and Actinometra respectively, and as these are exactly the
parts which are most met with as fossils, the generic determination of
a fossil form is almost as easy as that of a recent one, which has given
up its disk to produce a Hyponome. The author has shown elsewhere
that in Act. polymorpha and Act. Solaris, half, or even more than half,
of the arms may have neither ventral groove, tentacles, ambulacral
epithelium, nor ambulacral nerve. No less than twenty-three out of
the forty-eight species of ' Challenger ' Actinometrce may have more or
fewer of such ungrooved arms, in which the ambulacral nerve is
entirely absent. These arms are usually those which come off" from
the hinder part of the disk, but in one gigantic Philippine species with
over 100 arms there are several ungrooved arms upon each radius.
Evidence of this negative character appears to the author to be a
serious objection to the German view, that the ventral bands con-
stitute the sole nervous apparatus of the Crinoids ; and on the other
hand, to strengthen the opinions held by Dr. Carpenter and by the
aiithor, that the axial cords of the skeleton are also nervous in
character.

Coelenterata.

New Genera and Species of Corals.* — The Eev. J. E. Tenison-
Woods describes three new genera and one new species of Madrepo-
raria corals; the genera being Vasillum (tuberculatuni), Diechorcea
(boletiformis), and Phyllopora (^spinosa) and the new species Balano-
phyllia dentata.

In Vasillum (one of the Turbinolidfe) the corallum generally
represents Splienotrochus, but in place of a columella the septa of
opposite sides of the calice unite to form separate comjiartments.

DiecJiorcea (one of the Poritidfe) is a very remarkable instance of
the appearance in the present epoch of characters which belong to
long-extinct forms of life united to others which are our commonest
forms of zoophytic life. Microsolena is a fossil coral of the upper Jura
of France and great oolite of England, and is distinguished by having
all the individuals enclosed in a strong or compact ei^itheca, and the
septal apparatus confluent. The zoothome thus resulting is massive,

♦ 'Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,' iii. (1878) p. 92.

742 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

turbinate, gibbous, digitiform, dendroid, or spread out in plates. There
are about twenty fossil species known, and tbey appear as late as the
later Mesozoic rocks. Diechora'a is a Microsolena in wbich tbe septa
are not confluent. It would belong to the turbinate division, but
must be placed in a genus by itself, for the septa are not only trabe-
cular, irregular and distinct, but the gemmation is most peculiar,
being intracalicular and in congeries of individuals, rising one above
another. The walls are also entire above, and form more or less
complete partitions above with none of that open, spongy tissue which
occurs in Alveopora, neither are there any of those horizontal partitions
across the cells, which give that genus the tabulate character of the
ancient Favosites. From these peculiarities of the walls, septa, and
mode of gemmation, the name of Biechorcea is given (from Stc'xw, to
stand apart, in allusion to the non-confluent septa). The genus is thus
characterized : — Poritiua; with the individuals enclosed in a common
and conspicuous epitheca, like Microsulena, but with the septa not
confluent, apart and trabecular ; gemmation intracalicular.

We may suppose that the real septa upon which the animal rests
are the granular points on the summit of tlie wall, and that the
spiculas or pseudosepta in the fossa are the supports for the base of
the animal. The calices themselves are quite microscopic, three or
four of them occupying no more than the sjiace of a millimetre.

PhyUopora is one of the Seriatoporidne. Ca3uenchyma hispid,
compact ; tabulte rarely visible ; calices distant ; septa exsert, dis-
tinct, and in cycles.

Balanophyllia dentata (Madrejiorida!) was parasitic upon a Polyzoon
{Eschara) from the south coast of Australia, and was so completely
imbedded in the foliations that they had to be broken away to ex-
tract it.

The author is not aware whether any other instances are known of
corals growing on tufts of Polyzoa, but as this has been found, col-
lectors will probably make a more diligent search, as the specimen of
Eschar a had been a long time in the Macleayau Museum, and had
been many times handled before the existence of the Balanophyllia
was observed.

In other papers * six other new species of corals are described,
viz. : — ('from Darnley Island) Symphyllia JiemispJierica, Mussa solida,
31. laciniata (from Wellington, New Zealand), Cylicia Huttoni, G.
vacua, and (from north-east coast of Australia) Placotrochus pedicel-
latus.

Ctenophora of the Gulf of Naples, t — Di'. Carl Chun's arrange-
ment of these forms is as follows : —

Tentaculata.
With " grappling-lines."
Two long tentacles, simple or beset with lateral filaments. All
the vessels end blindly. 1. CydippidcB.

Tufts of grappling-lines which are set on either side of the

* 'Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,' iii. (1878), pp. 128 and 131.
t 'Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel,' i. (1879) p. 180.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 743

margins of the mouth. Primary tentacles present or absent, vessels
communicating. The young forms are Cydippoid.
With oral lobes. 2. Lohake.
Body band-shaped. 3. Cestidoe.

NUDA.

No " grappling-lines."
Vessels ramify largely. 4. Beroidce.

It will be seen that by this arrangement we get two distinct
groups, or subclasses ; the fom* sixborders have been long recognized,
but in addition to the presence or absence of the grappling-lines,
Chun points out that, as McCrady first saw for the Lobatce, both
these and the Cestidce have clearly diverged from the Cydipjndce more
lately than the Beroidce, inasmuch as they still retain in their life-
history an indication of their parentage. Leuckart recognized two
subdivisions equivalent to the Nuda and Tentaculata, which he
named respectively Eurystomata and Stenostomata ; it is now pointed
out that the diiference in the size of the mouth, or of the stomach, is
not a character on which any reliance can be placed. Taking then
the tentacles as his guide. Dr. Chun shows that where they have been
stated to be absent in any one of the Tentaculata, it is on account of
the insufficiency of the observations, or of some confusion of these
with other organs. The large mouth of the Beroidae, with their large
sabre-like cilia, the great development of the musculature and the
branching of the vessels, are points by which these forms make up for
the absence of the " grappling-lines," which are not present even in
the larval stages.

The filaments are two in number in the Cydippidae, and are pro-
vided with a number of secondary lateral filaments ; in the Cestida)
and Lobatse they are present in greater nimabers, as simj)le filaments,
even where the larger tentacles are also present ; these simple fila-
ments are set in a groove, formed by a fold of the integument, which
extends from the base of the tentacles, along the margins of the
mouth, as far as the lobes.

A further point, which appears to be of value in the classification
of the Ctenophora, is to be found in the arrangement of the water-
vascular system, which is in all cases really arranged along two
radii ; the variations in the arrangement are indicated in the foregoing
table.

With regard to the systematic portion of the paper, of the Cydip-
pidse, four species of the Pleurobrachiadae, and four of the Mertensidae,
were found in the Gulf of Naples ; of these Fleurohrachia rhodopis,
Ewplolcamus staiionis, Lampetia pancerina, and Thoe paradoxa were
discovered by Chun.

The author is of opinion that the five families formed by Agassiz
in the Lobatas cannot stand, as there are not presented any characters
which should be regarded as family ones; two new species are
described.

With regard to the Cestidai the author points out in a note
that there is no Latin and no Greek word cesium, but that in both

744 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

languages we find tlie masculine form, so that the well-known
" Cestum Veneris " should be " Cesfus Veneris."

Of the Beroidas forty-five species and some eight genera have
been described by various zoologists ; this number is apparently due
to the great difference in characters which may be found to obtain
between forms at various stages of development, while some exhibit
a great tendency towards variation, and it seems to the author that
quite a third of the species have been formed on differences in pigmen-
tation. To take an example : from the common Beroe ovata of the
Mediterranean, Idijia roseola (western coast of North America), B.
cucumis (Greenland, Norway, and Baffin's Bay), B. capensis and B.
punctata (Cape of Good Hope and Azores) and B. macrostomus
(Pacific and Indian Oceans) differ too slightly to form other species.
In the Gulf of Naples Chun finds Beroe ovata and B. ForsJcdlii.
The paper is illustrated by one plate.

Protozoa.

Eozoon Canadense. — An excellent abstract of the chief points of
Dr. K. Mobius's recent monograph on " The Structure of Eozoon
Canadense compared with that of the Foraminifera," appears in
' Nature,' * copiously illustrated with nineteen woodcuts.

Dr. Carpenter also announces j" that he has in preparation (in
conjunction with Professor Dawson) a full and complete memoir on
Eozoon, based upon investigations far more comprehensive (he
considers) than those of Professor Mobius. It will necessarily
occupy considerable time in consequence of the elaborate illustrations
it will require. And in the meantime Dr. Carpenter makes some
brief remarks on that part of the discussion which relates to the so-
called " canal-system."

Among the numerous figures given by Mobius of sections of the
" canal-system," there is not one which represents what Dr. Carpenter
described and figured, when he last wrote on the subject,^ as " what
appears to be the typical mode of its distribution." Nor is this
brought out in any of the small number of figures given of the internal
casts obtained by decalcification, though, in fact, it is only when the
sections are interpreted by such solid models, that the real forms and
relations of these " canal systems " can be made out.

Having been furnished by Professor Dawson with numerous
specimens obtained from different localities and in different states of
mineralization, he is now able to assert with confidence that the
peculiar distribution described and figured by him from the actual
specimens five years ago, is the regular and characteristic " canal
system " of Eozoon. His cabinet now contains hundreds of ex-
amples of it, both in transparent sections and in the solid models ob-
tained by decalcification ; and these last, in partially " dolomitized "
specimens, show the following singular peculiarities, which do not
seem to have fallen under Professor Mobius's observation. When a
band of dolomite runs through the calcite layers, (1) the " canal

* ' Nature,' XX. (1879) pp. 272, 297- t Ibid., p. 328.

1 ' Aun. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' June 1874, pi. xis.

INYERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 745

systems " in its neighboiirhoorl are very commonly filled with dolomite,
instead of witli serpentine ; (2) in one and the same canal-system,
some of the branches are often filled with dolomite, and others with
serpentine ; while (3) individual branches are often partly filled with
one mineral and partly with the other.

How these facts can be explained, except by the pre-existence of a
system of canals in the calcareous layers into which these minerals
have penetrated, he is unable to conceive ; and that they thus afford
demonstrative evidence of a structure which cannot be otherwise than
organic is not merely his own opinion, but that of Professor Geikie,
who has been for some years engaged in the microscopic study of the
metamorphic rocks of Scotland, and Professor Bonney, who has been
similarly studying the Cornish serpentines.

Whether, when taken in connection with the general structure of
the organism, these "canal-systems" indicate its Foraminiferal affinities
is, of course, an altogether different matter. To Professor Mobius
the difference seems greater than the resemblance ; but it is note-
worthy that his comparisons are limited to tyjjes examined by himself,
and do not extend to Calcarina, in whose " canal-system " Dr. Dawson
and the writer recognize the nearest approach to that of Eozoon. He
cannot regard it as a valid argument against its Foraminiferal affinities
that its canal-system has a plan of its own.

That in its general plan of growth (to which the distribution of the
canal-system is intimately related) Eozoon differs from all recent
Foraminifera at present known cannot be regarded as a proof of its
non-foraminiferal character by any who have fully studied the very
wide range of forms which that group comprehends, including the
numerous indefinite "arenaceous" types, whose import is only now
beginning to be understood by those who have the best opportunities
of studying them. He finds in the chambered structure of Eozoon,
and in its general relations to the canal-system traversing its cal-
careous layers, points of essential conformity to the Foraminifera,
which far outweigh the differences of detail by which Professor
Mobius has been led to the opposite conclusion.

Hereafter he proposes to show that the " cumulative" argument in
favour of the organic character of Eozoon is as strong as that of the
human origin of the " flint instruments." Any one of the fractures
that has given to these their characteristic forms, might have been
accidental ; and yet it is impossible to conceive that any number of
such flints can have been so shaped " by accident."

Peridinium and Gymnodinium.* — Dr. Q. Joseph, in describing
the " Grotten-Infusorien," gives a valuable account of the history of
the cilio-flagellate forms which have been known under these two
generic names.

The Peridinia of fresh water are distinguished by a differentia-
tion of the outer layer of their body-substance, which takes on the
form of a smooth or a plated carapace. The oval body is convex
on its dorsal, and more or less flat on its ventral surface. The

* 'Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 114.

746 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

body is divided into two halves by a groove, and the hinder half is
provided with a flagellum ; the anterior edge of the groove carries
fine, short, and closely approximated cilia, and the groove is, on the
ventral surface, crossed by a non-ciliated longitudinal groove, which
extends along the more posterior region, and the flagellum, when at
rest, lies in this groove. These and other details were distinctly
made out in small transparent forms, which have hitherto been
regarded as Gymnodinium. Examined during growth, the carapace
was observed to lose its simple character and to become plated,
forming at last some five-and-twenty pentagonal pieces, which were
connected together by the new cuticle, which could be seen between
them ; this is the form of Peridinium, and in this stage the creature
was observed to be sexually mature. The double contour of the
covering plates, which may be sometimes observed, is shown to be due
to one plate underlying another, and as having been formed into
a plate by a bursting of the cortical portion subsequent to that by
which the first set of pentagonal plates was formed.

BOTANY.
A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology
of the Phanerogamia.
Division of the Pollen-grain in Angiosperms.* — Botanists havo
hitherto generally believed that the processes which take place within
the pollen-grain before pollination are essentially different in Angio-
sperms and Gymuosperms. In Gymnosperms it has long been known
that a division takes place of the contents of the pollen-grain into
one large cell from which the pollen-tube is produced, and several
smaller cells which take no part in any further process, and have hence
been called vegetative cells. An analogy is thus traced with the de-
velopment of the microspore of Isoetes and Selaginella, the large fertile
cell being regarded as homologous with the antheridium, the vegetative
cells with the male prothallium. In Angiosperms, on the contrary,
it was believed that the pollen-grain remained perfectly unicellular
up to the time of pollination. It is true that Eeichenbach and
Hartig detected and figured pollen-grains with two nuclei, a structure
which was confirmed by Strasburger. But it has been reserved for
F. Elfviug, of Helsingfors, in a most careful and admirable series of
experiments carried on in Strasburger's laboratory at Jena, to demon-
strate for the first time that a cell-division takes place normally with-
in the pollen-grain in Angiosperms corresponding to that of Gymno-
sperms. The following are the main results arrived at : —

At a certain stage of development, before pollination, the pollen-
grain of Angiosperms divides into two cells, a larger and a smaller
one ; the latter, or " vegetative " cell, may again divide into a two- or
three-celled body.

This latter vegetative cell (or cells) is separated from the large cell
only by a protoplasmic membrane, though in a few cases a distinct
wall (of cellulose ?) is formed.

* ' Jenaische Zeitschr. Naturwiss.,' xiii. (1870) \>. 1.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 747

The pollen-tube is developed from the larger cell. In certain
cases the vegetative cell (or cells) takes no part in this process, the
nucleus and other contents of the larger cell only passing into the
tube. But usually the separating wall is resorbed. It may disappear
almost immediately after the division, but in most cases endures for a
certain time ; the entire vegetative cell (or cells) separates itself from
the inner wall of the pollen-grain, and is thus surrounded by the
larger cell, assuming a peculiar spindle or crescent shajie. The
vegetative cell may remain for a longer or shorter period in this con-
dition ; or its nucleus divides, and fresh cells are thus formed by free
cell-formation. In both cases the protoplasmic membrane is finally
resorbed, either in the pollen-grain itself, or after the vegetative cell
has passed into the pollen-tube. After the disappearance of this
membrane, a further division of the naked nucleus may take place,
either in the grain or in the tube. The nuclei often have a peculiar
form.

Except in the case of the Cyperacete, no division of the nucleus of
the larger cell was observed.

No definite order is usually maintained in the passage of the con-
tents of the pollen-grain into the pollen-tube. The nuclei are ab-
sorbed sooner or later, but always before fertilization. Tlie larger
cell and its nucleus api>ear to be of greater importance in impregna-
tion than the others. This may be inferred from the facts that it is
the larger cell that develops into the tube, and that there are circum-
stances in which the nucleus of the larger cell always takes prece-
dence in the movement, while the opposite case was never observed ;
and even in those plants in which this precedence is not constant, it is
still most usual ; as also from certain cases where the vegetative cells
remain in their original position within the pollen-grain, and do not
enter the pollen-tube.

The observations were made mostly on monocotyledonous plants
belonging to the orders Orchideae, Liliaceae, Irideee, Cyperaceae, &c. ;
but some also on dicotyledonous plants, as Latlajrus sylvestris,
Plantago media, Eyjyericum cahjcinum, &c. The preparations were
made almost entirely with a one per cent, solution of osmic acid.
The author found it, however, almost indispensable to use some pig-
ment after fixing the preparation with osmic acid ; and for this
purpose he found the best to be a solution of carmine to which some
glycerine was added. By this means, after about twenty-four hours,
preparations were obtained which left scarcely anything to be desired
as to clearness.

In order to see the growth of the pollen-tube, recourse must bo
had to artificial culture ; and for this purpose many sorts of solutions
were used, and of very different degrees of condensation ; but in the
end the author came back to a simple solution of sugar. In some
cases weak solutions were rec[uired, and in others strong ones. The
culture was generally made in the dark, and at a summer temperature,
but some grown in daylight succeeded admirably.

On three plates the difterent forms to be met with in some twenty-
three species of plants are represented.

748 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Anatomical and Physiological Study of Nectaries.* — Critical
Considerations. — Messrs. Darwin, Miiller, Lubbock, &c., consider that
the nectariferous tissues accumulate sugar in order to attract insects
and effect cross-fertilization. They moreover describe all floral arrange-
ments as being contrived to produce this result in a definite manner.
M. G. Bonnier concludes, on the contrary, from his numerous observa-
tions, carried on since 1871 in the Alps, France, Pyrenees, Sweden
and Norway, &c., that the size of the corolla, the development of
colour in the floral organs, the perfume, and the spots and striee on
the corolla, are not correlated to the formation of nectar, and that
they are independent of the frequent visit of insects.

In dioecious nectariferous plants the insects do not go to the male
flowers first, though they are more visible than the female flowers.

The same flower may be visited in many ways by the same insect.

The form of the flower may be altered without any sensible modi-
cation in the visit of the insects ; they very often gather nectar with-
out fertilizing the flowers. The insects that visit the same flower
vary according to the quantity of nectar it produces, and those of the
same species difier greatly in different countries.

We cannot conclude from the facts observed that the colour, per-
fume, and corolla of flowers are disposed so as to exclude insects not
adapted for cross-fertilization.

In short, there is no ground for admitting a definite reciprocal
adaptation between insects and flowers.

Moreover, nectaries frequently exist without any external nectar.
Numerous nectariferous tissues are also found unconnected with
flowers. The role of these nectaries is unknown.

The preceding remarks show that the modern theory on the role of
the nectaries is insufficient.

Anatomical Considerations. — By nectariferous tissue M. Bonnier
means all tissue in contact with the exterior, in which the different
kinds of sugar accumulate in considerable proportion.

He examined the sacchariferous tissues by means of cupro-potassic
tartrate, polarized light, and fermentation, as well as with absolute
alcohol, and microscopically, in more than three hundred genera, and
came to the following conclusions.

There is always an accumulation of saccharine substances, parti-
cularly saccharose, near the ovary, and often a localization of it in
certain parts of the appendicular organs.

The structure of the nectaries is very variable.

Physiological Considerations. — "When the epidermis of the nectari-
ferous tissue is furnished with stomata (which is most commonly the
case), it is chiefly by these openings that the liquid is emitted ; in
other cases it may pass through the non-cuticularized membranes, or
by raising the cuticle.

We may conclude, all conditions being equal, 1st, that the quan-
tity of liquid emitted by the nectariferous tissues increases with the
quantity of water absorbed by the roots ; 2nd, that it increases with
the hygrometric state of the air. By combining the two influences,

* ' Comptes Kendiis,' Ixxsviii. (1879) p. 662.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 749

M. Bonnier made plants (hyacinths, tulips, &c.) artificially nectari-
ferous. Other experiments showed that the osmotic impetus of the
roots, and the capillary force of the vessels, are not necessary to, though
they accelerate, the emission of the saccharine liquid.

In settled fine weather the quantity of nectar emitted is at a
minimum in the afternoon ; it is the same with the proportion of
water which it contains. In fact, the production of nectar is in direct
relation to the transpiration of the plant.

The floral nectaries examined at different ages show that the
maximum production of nectar is at the epoch in which the ovary
finishes, and the fruit has not yet begun, its development. The pro-
portion of saccharose contained in the tissue varies in the same way,
whether emitted or not. There exists near to the saccharine tissues
an inverting ferment, which transforms the saccharose into glucose,
and abounds at the time when the fruit is about to develop.
Finally, the whole or greater part of the accumulated sugars return
to the plant ; the floral nectaries contribute to the nourishment of the
young fruit and the fertilized ovules, and the extra-floral nectaries to
that of the neighbouring organ about to develop ; at the same time
the saccharose diminishes relatively.

Tlie nectariferous tissues, whether floral or extra-floral, lohether emit-
ting liquid or not, constitute special nutritive reserves, in direct relation
to the life of the plant.

Causes of the Change in Form of Etiolated Plants.* — In 1873
Professor Godlewski published in 'Flora ' an account of his investiga-
tions respecting the formation of starch in chlorophyll-grains. In
that memoir he stated that the changes in form which plants undergo
in darkness are not due to the suspension of the assimilative process.
In 1875 and 1877, he published in the Polish language two short
notices of his further observations upon this subject, which he now
fully recounts in the present paper.

Only the first series of his later experiments will be referred
to now, namely, those bearing upon the question as to the relation
of the assimilative process to the change of form in growing j^lants
deprived of light. It is a general rule, to which there are some
exceptions, that internodes grown in the dark are longer, and leaves
are smaller, than those which develop in sunlight. In Prings-
heim's ' Jahrbuch f. wiss. Botanik,' vol. vii. p. 213, Dr. G. Kraus
has sought to explain the latter fact by the hypothesis that it is chiefly
out of assimilated matter freshly formed in growing green leaves
themselves that they expand to their full size, and hence the diminutive
size of etiolated leaves is thought by him to be directly dependent
upon the absence of the assimilative process.

In Professor Godlewski's experiments germinating plants were
cultivated in an atmosphere deprived of its carbonic acid, some of them
in light, others in perfect darkness, but under similar conditions of
temperature and moisture. It was found tliat when the plants had
exhausted the food stored in the seed and had ceased to grow, the total

* ' I3ot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 81.

750 RECORD OF CUKRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

weiglit of dry organic matter was tlie same in the green and in the
etiolated phxnts. The plants which had grown in the light, but in
air free from carbonic acid, and where assimilation could not take
I^lace, did not bear the slightest resemblance iu form to etiolated
plants. They were of perfectly normal habit.

Effects of Submersion on Aerial Leaves, and of Water on
Floating Leaves.* — Previous experiments by E, Mer on the ivy,
haricot, and Tropaeolum, had led to the following conclusions, viz. : —

1. Throughout the whole submersion the leaves have no power of
producing starch, and they rapidly lose that which they contained.

2. Their development is greatly retarded, and they never acquire
their normal dimensions.

3. They die more or less rapidly, according to the sj)ecies. This
is generally preceded by the infiltration of the lamina.

Further investigations by the same authority show that the cause
of the death of submerged leaves is not so much asphyxia as starva-
tion, from the failure of the power to assimilate consequent on the
diminished supply of oxygen. The perishing is also greatly
accelerated by the infiltration of the tissues, which, however, does not
usually take place until the starch has completely disappeared.
Leaves of plants with bulbous roots suffer much less than others by
immersion, because of the constant supply of assimilated food-
material from the reservoirs. The infiltration is perceptible chiefly in
the intercellular spaces, but, in order to reach these, water has first to
penetrate the epidermis.

In the case of aquatic plants with floating leaves, M. Mer shows
that these leaves are also killed, like aerial leaves, by submersion,
and that the starch which they contain is produced entirely on the
up]3er surface, and not from the carbonic acid dissolved in the water.

Absorption of Water by the Lamina of Leaves.! — The following
results have been arrived at by E. Mer, in continuation of his
researches on the eflects of submersion on the leaves of plants : —

1. The lamina of leaves can absorb water, both when they are
entirely submerged after having lost their turgidity, and when placed
in contact with the liquid only by a portion of their surface, the other
part remaining exjiosed to transpiration.

2. Absorjition is more active by the lower than the upper surface,
and more so in those leaves which have a thin than in those with a
thick cuticle. In the former it is sufiicient to suspend desiccation in
the interuodes and the remaining leaves which are not submerged,
when these organs do not receive water from any other source ; it is,
however, not sufficient to preserve the turgidity of the roots. In the
latter the absorption of water is not sufiicient to recover the weight
which they possessed before fading.

3. The absorption is not merely local, since it restores turgidity
in the neighbouring organs. All the tissues of a plant are more or
less capable of absorbing water. This can be proved in a variety of
cases.

* 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' xsv. (1878) pp. 79 and 89.
t Ibid., p. 105.

INVERTEBEATA, CRTPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 751

4. The lamina of leaves does not absorb water wbeu (1) they have
retained their tiirgidity ; at least it does not take place in the vicinity
of organs which are actively transj^iring ; (2) when they have within
their reach tissues containing abundance of water ; when slightly
withered they appear to prefer imbibing water from this source.

Movements of Growing Leaves and Petals.* — Dr. Carl Eraus
has an elaborate and important paper on this subject in ' Flora.' The
author mentions in the first place that these periodic movements are
of two kinds : — those caused by unequally accelerated or retarded
growth of different masses of cells ; and those which are not dependent
on growth, but on a transitory alternate elongation and shortening of
certain masses of cells. The first kind are movements of nutation ;
to the second kind, which Pfefier has made specially his study, he has
applied the term movements of variation. His investigations have
shown that every sensitive movement caused by decrease of light is
followed by changes in position of the part affected, the extent of the
oscillations depending on the degree of change in the amount of
light. Alterations in the amount of light are, therefore, the chief
cause of those movements. A secondary cause is a change in the
amount of moisture in the air. On these two causes depend mainly
the opening and closing of flowers. It is obvious that the " bifacial "
structure of the flat, horizontal leaves of most dicotyledonous plants,
combined with the fact that, as the leaf unfolds, the under surface is
more completely exposed to the light than the upper surface, must
bring about different conditions in these respects between the two
surfaces of the leaf. The following are some of the special
phenomena thus exhibited : —

1. Changes of position from decrease of turgidity. This is the
ordinary familiar phenomenon of the withering of leaves or petals
when the supply of moisture is cut off. In many plants, such as
Chenopodium album, Stellaria media, Nicotiana latissima, &c., the loss
of water is sjn'ead so rapidly from cell to cell that no perceptible
difference is manifested between the upper and lower surfaces, and
the leaves simply hang down ; and the same is the case with the
petals of Solanum tuberosum and Convolvulus arvensis ; while those of
Silene noctiflora roll themselves up inwards.

2. Changes in position from increased turgidity. For the changes
under this condition the original paper must be consulted. Observa-
tions were made on the leaves of Chenopodiura album, Sulanum
tuberosum, Nicotiana latissima, Stellaria media, and Polygonum Con-
volvulus, and the petals of Convolvulus arvensis, Solanum tuberosum,
Silene noctiflora, and Calendula pluvialis and officinalis.

The cases of those Papilionaceae of which the leaflets raise them-
selves erect in the evening, like Trifolium pratense and incarnatum and
Lupinus luteus, and of those which are depressed in the evening, like
Lupinus albus and Phaseolus, were subjected to careful investigation ;
and the mechanical causes of the various phenomena described are
minutely discussed in the paper.

* ' Flora,' Isii. (1879) p. 11.

3 D 2

752 RECOED OF CUEEENT EESEAECHES RELATING TO

Disengag-ement of Heat which accompanies the Expansion of
the Male Inflorescence of Dioon edule.* — This cycad has recently
flowered abundantly in the hot-hoTises of the Botanic Gardens at
Paris. The opening of the male inflorescence was .attended by a
strong and nauseous odour, coinciding apparently with the dehiscence
of the anthers. M. Poisson has observed that this was accompanied
by an elevation of temperature of at least 10° C. ; and that the dis-
engagement of heat is promoted by light, and is consefjuently more
marked on the side exposed to light than on the shady side.

Spiral Cells in the Root of Nuphar advenum.f— M. Pihier notes
in the root of this plant a single superficial layer of these cells,
analogous, in their appearance and their situation, to those described
by M. Chatin in the aerial roots of epidendral orchids. This struc-
ture, all the more exceptional in its character from its occurrence here
in submerged roots, may be held to establish a new point of similarity
between the Nymphpeacese and the order placed by many botanists at
the head of Monocotyledons as respects complexity of structure.

Structure of the Fruit of Conium maculatum.l — M. Moynier
de Villepoix has made a more careful examination of the structure of
the fruit of the hemlock than has hitherto been conceded to it. He
finds in the seed an abundant endosperm, as is usual in Umbelliferfe,
formed of polygonal cells with thin walls, and containing gi-ains of
aleurone. This is bounded on the outside by two zones of brown
cells which have long been known as especially characteristic of the
mericarp of the hemlock. Thirdly, there is the pericarp, properly so
called, in the parenchymatous tissue of which are the organs of
secretion or vittje, although the fruit of Conium is frequently de-
scribed as being destitute of these.

Modifications which Starch undergoes from a Physical Point
of View.§ — F. Musculus thus sums up the results of a series of
experiments : —

Starch can be obtained in the colloid or crystalloid state.

In the colloid state it is soluble in water, is coloured blue by iodine,
is not difi"usible, is easily converted into sugar by ferments and dilute
acids, and readily passes over into a condition insoluble even in boiling
water, and is then scarcely acted on by ferments or acids, and assumes
a red or yellow colour under the subsequent iodine reaction. After
treatment with concentrated sulphuric acid or soda-ley, the blue colour
is again obtained by iodine, and ferments or dilute acids have a
powerful action.

Crystalline starch consists of separate crystals which readily unite
into plates, and then become gradually less soluble in water, so that
crystalline starch behaves in this respect like colloid ; on the other
hand, it remains soluble iu water of 50°-60° C, is difiusible, though
with difficulty, and is readily acted on by ferments or dilute acids.

* ' Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' xxv. (1878) p. 253.
t Ibid., p. 1C3. X IL'id., p. 166.

§ 'Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 315.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 753

The separate crystals are not coloured by iodine-solution, but sucb a
solution assumes a rod colour, which turns to violet and finally blue
on evaporation.

A similar difference in the degree of molecular cohesion occurs
also in the case of cellulose. On the one hand, the cellulose in certain
cotyledons is a delicate tissue, coloured blue by iodine and acted on
by diastase ; on the other hand, it is a hard solid mass, as in cotton,
the pith of the elder, &c., which undergoes change only after long-
continued action of concentrated acids or alkalies.

Cellulose and starch present therefore many analogies, not only in
their chemical, but also in their physical properties.

Rain of Sap.* — On the 22nd August, 1878, at 4 p.m., in calm
weather, with a clear sky, and a temperature of 24'^ C. in the shade,
M. C. Musset was struck by the evolutions of the gnats under the
outspread branches of two trees, varieties of Abies excelsa. Round
some yew trees {Taxus haccata), a lime tree {Tilia plati/pltylla), and
two very old stumps of Althcea frutex, he noticed similar swarms of
insects, but less numerous ; under other trees there was not a single
gnat. He then noticed an immense quantity of very limj)id little
drops falling in the form of fine rain, which became visible against the
rays of the sun.

The phenomenon was observable for a fortnight, at any hour of
the day, and often, by the light of a lamp, in the night.

If, on hot days, with a misty sky, the falling of the drops is not to
be seen, it is easy to prove the reality of the fact by spreading a piece
of dark-coloured silk material.

The following are briefly, in his opinion, the approximate causes
of this phenomenon. At the end of summer and the commencement of
autumn, vegetation gradually suspends its activity, the tissues become
cuticularized, and consequently the transpiration decreases ; but the
sap continues to rise in the vascular bundles, and, being no longer
utilized for the work of assimilation, its excess is poured out by the
stomatic ojienings and the bordered pits, so peculiar to the cells and
vascular fibres of the Coniferae.

This aqueous sap is nearly insipid, perhaps slightly purgative,
and colourless, but in a few days it assumes a j)ale amber tint.

B, CRYPTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

ProthaUium of Salvinia natans.| — Bauke has investigated the
development of the unfertilized prothallium of Salvinia, a point left
undetermined in Pringsheim's investigations. Sachs has already
shown that of the two families of Ehizocarpese, the SalviniaccEe exhibit
an intermediate stage between the other family, Marsileaceee, and
ferns, especially in reference to the structure of the fructification.
The development of the unfertilized prothallium of Salvinia natans
was thus followed out by Bauke. The power of division of the cells

* ' Comptps Reudu?,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 30G.
t ' Flora,' Ixii. (1879) p. 2U9.

754 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of the apical ridge is limited. In the whole of its anterior portion
cell-division has completely ceased when about four rows of archegonia
have been formed. The conclusion of growth is always indicated by
the pushing forwards of the archegonia close up to the cells of the
apical ridge ; they therefore appear to be directed towards tlio
margin. Archegonia were never seen to originate from the cells of
the marginal ridge. Since no further growth takes place in the
anterior direction, the posterior cells on both sides of the ridge which
are nearest the macrospore retain their power of division. There
remains therefore on each side a zone of growth, increasing down-
wards, by the activity of which a relatively broad wing-like
appendage is produced. In this zone of growth archegonia are con-
tinually being produced, and especially on the prolongation of the
ridge of the prothallium ; and since at the same time growth ceases
gradually downwards in the marginal cells, new archegonia are also
produced laterally towards the margin. Since the new archegonia
are produced in acropetal succession, a further resemblance of the
Salviniaceae to ferns is here indicated.

Bauke has also made an additional observation on the formation
of the ventral canal-cell of the archegonium. While the canal of the
neck is at first filled with granular protoplasm, there is finally only a
very small granular string left within the mucilage, the loss of mass
being very striking. The formation of the mucilage is therefore a
process of excretion or growth rather than simply of swelling. This
indicates a similar origin of the mucilage to that in the case of ferns.
No rhizoids were ever observed on the jDrothallium of Salvinia, such
as occur in Marsilea.

Fungi.

Contribution to the Germ Theory.* — Dr. Eobert Koch has pub-
lished an important monograph on the eetiology of infectious traumatic
diseases (Wundiufectionskrankheiten). The paper opens with a defi-
nition of the diseases treated of, and a review of the present state of
our knowledge with regard to contagium vivum, and of the arguments
for and against the doctrine. Then follows a description of the
author's method of research, and then the most important part of the
work, a detailed description of his exact and laborious experiments
on artificial traumatic diseases.

1. Scpticwmia in Mice. — Putrid blood or infusion of meat was in-
jected uuder the skin of the back. Characteristic symj)toms showed
themselves, and the animals died in four to eight hours. No bacteria
were found beyond those injected, so that in this case the disease was
evidently due to a soluble poison (sepsin), and not to the agency of
microphytes. In correspondence with this no efiect was produced by
very small injections (1 to 2 drops), except in about one-third of the
cases. In these, different but equally characteristic symptoms super-
vened, death took place in about fifty hours, and a post mortem
examination showed the blood to be crowded with small bacilli about
1 /x in length, which occurred in the vessels of all organs of the

* ' Untoisuchungeu iiber die Aetiologie der Wuudiufectiouakraukbuitcu,'
Leipzig, 1878.

INVERTEBEATA, CRYPTOGAMIAj MICROSCOPY, ETC. 755

body, surrounding tlie red corpuscles and absolutely filling tbe white.
Even -^^j drop of the blood tlius affected was able to communicate the
disease to another mouse, and the disease was, in fact, carried through
seventeen generations. There seems little doubt that the bacilli are
the actual contagium of this form of traumatic septica3mia. It is a
curious circumstance that field-mice and rabbits were not suscej)tible
to the disease,

2. Progressive Tissue-necrosis (Gangrene) in Mice. — In mice injected
with decomposing blood there were sometimes found at the place of
injection (in the subcutaneous tissue) micrococci, as well as the
regular bacilli of septictemia. These micrococci had a diameter of
0 • 5 /x, multiplied rapidly, and showed a great tendency to the forma-
tion of " chains." Lymph from the subcutaneous tissue infested with
these was injected into a mouse's ear. The micrococcus-chains soon
multiplied so fast as to interpenetrate the whole ear, the tissue of
which became so changed as to be hardly recognizable ; cartilage cells
looked pale, as if treated with potash, and blood and connective-tissue
corpuscles were no longer to be seen. It seems clear that the septi-
caBmia-bacillus is a necessary forerunner of the gangrene-micrococcus.
An interesting pure-culture experiment was tried. Field-mice, which,
as stated above, are not susceptible to septicaemia, were injected with
fluid containing both bacilli and micrococci. The former had no
effect, the latter multiplied and caused death, and from the animals so
affected both field and house mice could now be inoculated, the
result being always gangrene and never septicaemia.

3. Progressive Abscess-formation in Babbits. — Rabbits were injected
with putrid blood. A flat, hard, lenticular infiltration was gradually
formed at the place of injection, producing at last a fatal abscess in
the subcutaneous tissue. The abscess was covered by a thin layer of
micrococcus-zoogloea ; its cheesy contents were finely granular, and
contained no bacteria, but were probably derived from the zoogloea
and from the enclosed dead tissues. The individual micrococci were
0-15 w in diameter. The blood of rabbits dying from this disease
produced no infection, but the disease v/as communicated by injecting
a little of the interior of the abscess rubbed up in water.

4. Pyismia in Rabbits. — A rabbit was injected with fluid obtained
by macerating mouse-skin in water. A purulent infiltration of the
subcutaneous tissue resulted, accompanied by swelling of the spleen,
morbid changes in lungs and liver, and peritonitis. Micrococci
abounded in the affected places, occurring in the blood-vessels sur-
rounding the corpuscles, and forming accumulations which some-
times quite obstructed the lumen. These micrococci are distinguished
from those of gangrene and abscesses by not forming chains or
zooglcea, and by their size (0 • 25 ^a). For inoculation, J^ of a drop
was sufficient, but not y^fny

5. Septiccemia in Babbits. — The animals were injected with a
putrid infusion of meat. A purulent accumulation (jauchige Vereiter-
ung) took place, and the subcutaneous tissue in the neighbourhood
became filled with a watery fluid, containing large oval micrococci
(diameter 0-8 to 1 1^), \yhich also occurred in the kidney and spleen.

756 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Injection of 5 to 10 drops of tlie oedema fluid communicated tlic fatal
symptoms.

6. Erj/sipelatous Process in Bahhits. — The ear was injected with
mouse's dung, softened in distilled water. The organ became red,
swollen, and flabby, and was found to contain large numbers of
bacilli 3 fxin length and 0 • 3 ya in diameter. The author failed to
communicate the disease to other animals.

After the description of these experiments, Koch devotes a few
pages to splenic fever, and then sums up his results, and discusses
their importance. For the first five cases there is complete, for
the sixth partial evidence of parasitic nature. Infection is pro-
duced by so small a quantity of fluid, that toxic efiects are quite
excluded. For each disease the bacterium-form is distinct and un-
changeable ; this is the most important result of all. The living body
is the best possible pure-culture apj)aratus.

Some former writers have stated that the virulence of the poison
in these diseases increases constantly in successive generations ; Koch
considers that it increases iip to the second, or latest the third gene-
ration, and then remains constant.

Nature of the Fur on the Tongue.* — The fur on the tongue is
generally stated to consist chiefly of epithelial cells usually sodden and
granular, though Eobiu, KuUiker, Billroth, and others have described
fimgi as existing in it or in the buccal mucus.

According to Mr. H. T. Butlin, Schizomycetes form the essential
constituent of the fur.

On 68 healthy tongues examined, fur was found on all except one ;
and on 178 tongues of persons sufi'ering from disease or accident, on
all except two.

Microscopical examination of the results of scraping gave in
nearly every instance the same results : (1) Debris of food and bubbles
of mucus and saliva; (2) Epithelium; (3) Masses which appeared at
first to consist of granular matter, but which are the glcea of certain
forms of Schizomycetes.

That the last-named of these three is the essential constituent is
proved by the fact that the quantity of the gloea depends roughly
upon the quantity of fur, and that its jiosition upon the tougue cor-
responds with that of the fur, both covering the tops of the filiform
papilla?, but not usually lying between them.

In order to ascertain the true nature of the gloea, and to obtain it
in a purer form, it was cultivated upon a warm stage (30^-33° C).
Several fungi were discovered, but only two of these were present in
every instance, Micrococcus and Bacillus siihtiUs ; and, as the gloea
produced artificially was similar to that existing naturally in the
tongue-fur, it is believed that fur is composed essentially of these two
fungi. 3Iicrococciis developed abundantly and rapidly, forming large
masses of yellow or brownish-yellow colour. Bacillus did not deve-
lop, but existed in greater or less abundance in all the cases examined.
Its development was probably prevented by the presence of other

* ' Proc. Eoy. Soc.,' xxviii. l'. 484.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 757

developing organisms, from which it was found impossible to separate
it. It appeared to be identical with the Leptothrlx huccalis of Robin.
Although it did not develop under artificial conditions, it is probable
that development takes jdace freely upon the surface of the tongue.
Its habitual occurrence there, and the presence of spore-bearing fila-
ments, favour this view.

Besides these fungi, there were present, more or less constantly. Bac-
terium termo, Sarciiut vcntricnli, Spirochceta jjlicatilis, and a larger form
of Sjnrilhim. Sarcina ventricidi was frequently present, and generally
developed quickly, forming large masses of a yellow or brownish-
yellow colour. SpirocJueta plicatilis occurred only in two or three of
the specimens examined. Bacterium termo existed in some of the
furs, and twice developed with such rapidity that the whole of the
fluid was crowded with these organisms.

The slime between and around the teeth was foixnd to consist of
the same fungi as the tongue-fur, but the rods of bacillus were longer,
probably owing to the distui-bing causes being fewer.

When thin the fur can only be scraped off with difficulty, and
always brings with it numerous fragments of the haix'-like processes
which form the terminations of the filiform papillte. But when
thicker, soft and moist, it can be removed in considerable quantity
with ease.

Supposed Amylaceous Substance in Fungi.* — The entire group
of Fungi are generally stated to be altogether destitute of both
chlorophyll and starch. In his investigations of the Pyrenomycetes,
M. Crie believes that he has detected an amylaceous substance in the
asci of Splicer ia Desmazieri. The young asci, having a length of from
0-005 to 0-007 mm., proceed from the hymenium of a perfectly
closed perithecium, and have hard and very dark walls ; they are
simple cylindrical cells, formed from a homogeneous or finely granular
protoplasm, enveloped by a single membrane. The existence at this
period of an amylaceous globule is very perceptible, presenting the
appearance of a simple point occupying the summit of the ascus.
This globule, which is distinctly organized, increases gradually in
size by intussusception, as can be proved by the iodine reaction, which
shows also that it is composed of granulose. The globule appears to
take no part in the formation or nutrition of the spores, but is ex-
pelled from the summit of the ascus immediately before their dis-
semination. It appears to consist of true starch, but is formed in perfect
darkness, from a protoplasm destitute of chlorophyll, and insoluble
in the cell-sap. He proposes for it the term amylomycine.

M. de Seynes, however, contests the view of this structure taken
by M. Crie-t He points out that in many of the Sphferiaceae the asci
are composed of two utricles or membranes, one enclosed within the
other. The inner membrane is sometimes permanent and bears the
spores on its outside when it bursts the outer membrane. Sometimes
it is transitory, and disappears as the spores are being formed, when
it is diflicult of detection. Berkeley and Broome, the first describers

* ' Comptes Reudus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 759.
t Ibid., p. 820.

758 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of tlic Spliceria Desmazieri, describe this inner membrane as being
furnislied with an oblong process at the tip ; and it is this " oblong
process" which M. Crie has mistaken for an amylaceous substance.
When first formed it is in intimate connection with the membrane of
the ascus, and remains attached to it after the formation of the spores ;
the narrow neck which unites them becomes thicker, so that the
corpuscle, at first spherical, becomes pear-shaped. The same struc-
ture, with slight variation, was observed in two allied species, Bosellinia
Aquila and B. Thelena.

Cellules en boucle.* — The peculiar cells found in some fungi and
known as " cellules en boucle " or " Schuallenzellen," already de-
scribed by Hoffmann and de Bary, have received further attention from
M. de Seynes.

They are distinguished by the presence of a rounded appendage
placed here and there on their external wall. This is a cylindrical
cellular formation, very short and of small diameter, proceeding from
the cell below a septum, and united with it either in its entire
length or only by its summit. The cavity of this small cellular
excrescence usually remains in communication with that of the cell
from which it emanates, but is sometimes separated by a septum.
The writer believes these structures to be simply an arrested con-
dition of cells in the act of multiplication. They are well shown in
the pseudo-parenchyma of the receptacle of Fistulina.

Anthracnose of the Vine.t — M. Cornu gives a full description of
the disease of the vine known as "anthracnose," from the neighbourhood
of Narbonne, where it is committing great ravages. The cause of the
disease is a fungus considerably smaller than the oidium, but committing
even greater devastation. It appears to be strictly annual, and makes
its appearance on the green organs during the season of fine weather.

Ascliotricha.l — M. Bainier describes two species of Aschotricha
grown on damp linen.

The first is very abundant and of an elegant appearance. In the
centre are the naked asci ; at first elongated, subsequently round, and
so small as to be difficult to distinguish. Each contains eight smooth
ascospores, oblong and yellow when mature. Dispersed among the
asci are paraphyses, black filaments, the extremities of which are
finally transformed into a segmented club-shape. The paraphyses
branch and anastomose. The conidia have no special su^jports.

The second species, less common and often much smaller, is dis-
tinguished at first sight by the absence of the club-shaped extremities
of the paraphyses, which also do not anastomose. The conidia are
not round, but have somewhat the form of little corkscrews.

Development of Sclerotia.§ — M. Cornu has followed out the re-
searches of Tulasne and Leveille as to the part played by the " sclero-
tium " in the development of certain fungi, confirming on the whole
the previous observations.

* ' Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' xxv. (1878) p. 95.
t Ibid., p. 227. X Ibid., p. 245.

§ Ibid., p. 176.

INVERTEBEATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 759

The fungus which gives rise to the " gclerotium complanatum,"
not uncommon in the neighbourhood of Paris, is Clavaria juncea,
while the species which grows from the development of the sclerotium
is a very delicate one, placed in an allied genus, and known as
Typhula jjJiacorrhiza, which was, however, described by Desmazieres as
a variety of Clavaria juncea parasitic on the sclerotium. The " sclero-
tium varium " was found to develop into a Peziza allied to P. tuhe-
rosa. The sclerotium which gives rise to Acjaricus cirratus is " s.
subterraneum var. truncorum." The "sclerotium varium" causes a
destructive disease in Jerusalem artichokes.

New Genus of Sphseriacese.* — Some years ago M. de Seynes
gathered in a garden in the neighbourhood of Montpellier a twig of
wood, on which were black elevations caused by the attacks of a fungus
belonging to a genus new to science, to which he gave the name
Euvijtlieca monspeliensis. While belonging to the Sphasriacea3 it ap-
pears to present some characters intermediate between that family
and the Tuberacese. The asci are placed in considerable numbers
side by side in the tissue of the stroma ; they are of an elliptical form,
with trans j)arent walls, and measure about O'Dlto 0-055 m. The
spores are^large, 0*025 to 0'03 m, in length, the number in each
ascus varying between four and eight, as is frequently the case in the
Tuberacete. There are no paraphyses.

Specific Differences among the TJredinese.t— The /wH/jjerMs Oxy-
cedri of the Mediterranean region is often attacked by a Podisoma,
which has generally been regarded as identical with the P. Jimiperi
so abundant on the common juniper. M. Cornu has succeeded in
studying this fungus by cultivating it, in its form of Bcestelia
laceiata, on the leaves of the hawthorn, and has fully established its
identity.

The spermogonia appeared abundantly at the end of fifteen days
or less. It is probable, however, that many ^cidia which appear
identical are not so in reality. De Bary has shown that the species
parasitic on the haricot and the common bean, so alike externally, are
not identical, but differ from one another as greatly as the Uromyces
Phaseolornm and U. Fahce from which they proceed. It is much
more difficult to distinguish from one another the secidial than the
teleutospore forms ; and it is no doubt for this reason that the num-
ber of species of Puccinia is much greater than that of ^cidium,
even when from the former are excluded those which, like P. Biantlii
and P. Malvacearmn, reproduce themselves directly without any
alternation of generations. Of two hawthorn-bushes on which the
spores of the Podisoma were sown, one perished entirely, the other
appeared to die all except a single bougli, which, when the plant was
placed in a greenhouse, gave birth to a branch of very peculiar struc-
ture, with short sessile leaves and axillary branches, the whole of
which was strongly infested with the Eoestelia, appearing in February,
far from its normal time of year. The parasite was feeble, and pro-

* ' Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' xxv. (1878) p. 87. t IWd., p. 221.

760 RECORD OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

duced but a small number of spermogonia. This sbows that although
the EoGstclia is strictly annual, the mycelium may retain its vitality
for a time in the tissue of the host.

Neovossia, a New Genus of Ustilaginege* — Von Thiimen has de-
tected in the ovary of Molinia cmrulea — a grass on which no jiarasite
of the kind has hitherto been observed — an ustilagineous fungus,
which he makes the type of a new genus nearly allied to Tilletia, and
describes under the name Vossia MoIinitB (subsequently altered to
Neovossia, the former name having been already appropriated).

The mycelium consists of slender hyaline hyphae, 4 to 5 mm.
thick, not distinct at the apex, but forming a pseudascus or gela-
tinous follicle subpersi stent around the mature sjiore, with a rather
long cormoid process ; the spores are dusky, and ellii)soidal or ovate.
The origin of the spores at the ends of the hyph?e, and their formation
in the gelatinous sac, are very characteristic, as well as the remain-
ing of the spores within this sac even when ripe ; while those of
Tilletia present at the same age no trace of the gelatinous layer
which previously enveloped them, but are perfectly free.

Injection of Bacteria into the Blood without any Toxic Eflfects.t

— Professor Livon states that he has injected into the femoral or
jugular veins of various dogs different liquids in a state of putrefaction-
bile, urine, e^c. — and containing a large quantity of Bacteria, without
any other result than a certain amount of lassitude ; the only change in
the blood was an augmentation in the number of the white corpuscles ;
autopsy revealed no lesions. We draw attention to these statements
chiefly because it does not seem to be as generally understood as it
should be, that ordinary atmosi^heric bacteria do not set up fer-
mentative changes in the liealthij living organism ; Bacillus will pro-
duce splenic fever in healthy organisms, but these forms require for
their perfect development free exposure to oxygen, which is very far
from being the case with Bacterium termo.

Anthrax and its Cause.:}: — M. Paul Bert states that the blood of
animals suffering from anthrax (" charbon"), when submitted to great
pressure of oxygen, retains its mortal capabilities for ninety-nine hours,
but no " bacteria " were seen ; similar blood, treated with three to
four times its volume of strong alcohol, gave just the same results ;
and he concludes that the bacteria are neither the cause nor the
" necessary effect " of the disease, but that its virus is of the same
nature as that of cow-pox or of glanders. He further states that
the blood of the dog suffering from the disease is not poisonous to
another dog or to the guinea-pig.

M. Leflaive, speaking at the same " seance," stated that he believed
he had shown that in the Herbivora the poison resulted in a general
affection of the whole system, while in man it only gave rise to a
local affection, the blood not containing the virus, and being therefore
incapable of propagating the disease. What obtains in man appears
also to M. Leflaive to obtain in the Carnivora ; in which case we get

* 'OcstciT. Bot. Zcitsch.,' xxix. (1879) p. 18.
t ' CR. Soc. Biol.' for 1877 (187U), p. 355. % Ibid., pp. 10, 20.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 761

an explanation of Professor Bert's results. At a later meeting*
M. Bert stated that tlie results of some experiments on a guinea-pig,
whicli had been poisoned with the morphological element ("bac-
terium ") of anthrax poisoning, and whose blood lost completely its
toxic effects after a week's treatment with compressed oxygen or con-
centrated alcohol, had led him to believe that there were two maladies
confounded under the name of the " charbon" ; that one is virulent and
owes its origin to the matter precipitated by alcohol, while the other
is merely micro-'parasitic ; it is possible that the two states may co-
exist in the same animal, but, where the poisoning has been of the
virulent type, Bert found but few bacteria ; in the guinea-pig it was
noticed that the " virulent blood " killed in ten to twelve hours, and
the blood-corpuscles were crenulated, while with the " bacterian
blood" death occurred after thirty to thirty-six hours, and the corpuscles
retained their original character.

The volume already cited also contains (p. 442) an account of a
pathological investigation on the human subject ; the patient was a
carrier of meat who had cut his chin with a razor ; during life a drop
of blood revealed the presence of long " bacteridia " (J^ mm. in length).
The patient exhibiting a very low temperature (33° C), the respiratory
gases were examined, and it was found that he, a man weighing 80
kilogrammes, absorbed 7-924 litres of oxygen, and gave off 6 • 300 litres
of carbonic acid in an hour ; in other words, only about one-third of
the healthy quantity of oxygen was inspired. In pursuance of the
subject (p. 465), M. Eegnard gives an account of the investigations
which, with the aid of another colleague, he had made on a dog ; here
again the results of anthrax poisoning were a diminution in the amount
of oxygen absorbed and of carbonic acid exhaled, together with a
great fall in temperature, and the presence of a quantity of bacteria
in the blood. Previous to inoculation with the anthrax poison, the
blood of the dog absorbed 20*4 c.c. of oxygen per 100 grammes,
while after poisoning the same quantity of blood absorbed 26 c.c.

Lichenes.
Lichenological Review. — The ' Revue Mycologique ' is in future
to deal with Lichens as well as Fungi, the editor being of opinion
that the change is justified on account of " the j)oints of con-
tact which in certain genera so intimately unite the Lichens to the
Fungi, and which are so evident even to observers the most disposed
to defend the autonomy of Lichens as a distinct family, that they have
not hesitated to declare in their writings that it was difficult to say
where the Lichens ended and the Fungi began."

Algae.

Power of Algae to resist Cold.f — At a recent meeting of the

Botanical Society of France, M. Cornu stated that he had seen

several Chlorophycefe, and especially Hydrodictyon, growing beneath

ice. Palmella hjalina produced myriads of zoospores in a vase filled

* 'CR. Soc. Biol.' for 1877 (1879), p. 317.
t ' Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' xsv. (1878) p. 79.

762 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

with melting ice. Hasmatococcus vegetates at very low temperatures,
even beneath ice.

Marine Algse of the Gulf of Naples.* — P. Falkenbcrg gives a
list of the marine alga3 found at Naples, which will be exceedingly
useful to the student of these forms who visits that region : the most
complete work on the subject is very old, inasmuch as it was published
in 1823 — the ' Hydrophytologia Eegni Neapolitani' of the famous
Delle Chiaje.

The systematic portion of the essay is based upon Agardh's work
on these forms ; but there is also given in addition, notes on the
times at which the algas were found and of their times of fructifica-
tion, while the localities of the rarer forms are also indicated. The
list contains the enumeration of six algfe from Messina, which are not
mentioned in Langenbach's list ; some of these are new to the flora of
the Mediterranean.

New Diatoms.t — P. Eichter records two new fresh-water species
of Diatomacea3 belonging to the genus Homceocladia, hitherto known
as an almost entirely marine genus, which he calls H. germanica and
H. conferta. They were found in a mill-stream near Leij)zig,
growing amongst Cladophora, within reach of the spray of the mill-
wheel. The ground in the neighbourhood is strongly impregnated
with salt.

Terrestrial Diatoms.:j: — M. J. Deby recalls the inquiry of
Ehrenberg § as to how it was that amongst the 400 species of diatoms
found in the environs of Berlin, the two species which were most
common in the atmospheric " dust " of all parts of the world, and at
all elevations above the level of the sea, Eunotia (NitzscJiia) ampJujoxis
and Pinmilaria horcalis, and which were also those met with most
frequently in dust deposits at Berlin, were of the greatest rarity in a
living state on the ground. He points out that few naturalists have
occupied themselves with the search for diatoms outside their usual
habitat in the sea or fresh water, with the exception of the late Mr.
Walker Arnott, in whose collection are two gatherings obtained from
moss growing on elms at Ulverston and in Perthshire. Mr. C. John-
son, of Lancaster, and the Eev. — Cresswell, of Teignmouth, have
also made similar collections.

The following were the species obtained : — OrtJwsira mirabilis, 0.
spinosa, Navicula miitica, N. pnsilla, Pinmilaria horealis, Nitzschia
ampliyoxis, Amphora affinis, Achnantidium coardatum.

These species, and probably many others, M. Deby considers to
be essentially muscicole, living habitually on trees and in other places
exposed to atmospheric vicissitudes ; and he recommends the methodical
washing of mosses wherever foruid, with a view of forming a list of
Bacillaria which they contain in a living state. The presence of these
species in the mosses of trees explains the fact of their presence

* ' Mitt. Zool. Stat. Neapel,' i. (1879) p. 217.

t ' Hedwigia,' xviii. (1879) p. 61.

X ' Bull. Soc. Beige Micr.,' v. (1879).

§ ' Uebersicht der seit 1847 fortgesetzten Unteiaucliuugen, &c.' (1871) p. 102.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 763

in the atmospheric dust without being found in a living state in
adjoining water ; and thus Ehrenberg's question is answered.

It is very possible that these diatoms belong to those in which the
phenomena of deduplication, conjugation, and formation of spores are
the most active, rapid, and easy to follow, and it is on this account
that the study of terrestrial diatoms deserves attention.

The Eev. George Davidson, of Scotland, told M. Deby that for
several years he has searched mosses for diatoms, and has found
that the mosses growing at the foot of elms on the side exposed to the
north furnish the greatest number.

MICEOSCOPY, &c.

Method of preserving- Infusoria, &c.*— M. Cortes repeats in the
' Journal de Micrographie ' the account of his observations, which
have already appeared in the ' Comptcs Eendus,' f to which he adds
the following remarks : —

To obtain good preparations the following conditions must be
fulfilled.

1. The absence of any movement of the cover-glass which could
crush the Infusoria.

2. Bapid action of the osmic acid and complete elimination of the
reagent as soon as the desired action is obtained.

3. Sloiv and progressive action of the colouring reagent, whatever
it is, and elimination of it by glycerine.

4. Very slow substitution of the pure glycerine for the diluted and
coloured glycerine.

5. Hermctical sealing, which cannot be obtained either with
paraffin or with sealing was dissolved in alcohol, or with Canada
balsam if the margins of the preparation are not perfectly dry.

Haematoxylic Eosin and its emplojnnent in Histology. J — It is

known that eosin, soluble in water, colours the i)rotoplasm of the cell
elements, without having any selective action for the nuclei, so that when
we wish to bring out these latter in a preparation coloured with eosin,
recourse must be had to the method of double colouring proposed in
1876 by Wissotsky, a method which is long and requires several
successive washings, which easily leads to the deterioration of the
sections. Moreover, alcoholic or aqueous solutions of eosin precipitate
that of hematoxylin prepared after Boehmer's classic formula.

M. J. Eenaut, having remarked that eosin in an aqueous or
alcoholic solution does not precijntate the hematoxylin of Boehmer's
liquid, when the mixing is effected in the presence of neutral glyce-
rine, conceived the idea of employing a liquid prepared in this manner.
He mixes one part, by volume, of neutral glycerine and one part of a
saturated solution of eosin in alcohol or water (according as pure
eosin or eosin a la i^otasse is iised). There is then added drop by
drop hfematosylin prej)ared according to Boehmer's formula until the

* ' Joimi. de Micr.,' iii. (1879) p. 242.

t See this Journal, ii. (1879) p. 331.

X 'Coraptes Keudus,' Ixsxviii. (1879) p. 1039.

764 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

green fluorescence of tho mixture is scarcely visible. The filtered
liquid gives a violet solution, which he calls hcemafoxylic eosiii, and is
employed in the same way as picro-carminate of ammonia in mounting
preparations in glycerine or in Canada balsam. In the latter case
the dehydrating is effected with alcohol charged with eosin and
clarified with oil of cloves similarly charged.

Preparations made after the action of osmic acid or chromic solu-
tions colour very well with this reagent, showing very regular dif-
ferentiations. Tho nuclei are tinted violet, the connective tissue
pearl-grey, the clastic fibres and the blood-corpuscles dark red, the
protoplasm of the cells and the axis cylinders of the nerve-tubes a
very intense light rose, &c.

In treating sections of the salivary glands of Helix Pomalia, the
author discovered two kinds of cells — the one secreting mucus and
colouring an intense blue, the other secreting a special matter distinct
from mucus and colouring rose ; this distinction is not observable
when other colouring matters are used.

In sections of the salivary glands of mammals, and particularly
of the Solipedes, the same fact is, remarkable to say, presented. In
each acinus (from an ass) the clear cells icliich secrete the mucus were
coloured ixde blue ; the nucleus buried at the base was coloured violet.
The crescent cells of Gianuzzi, that is, the cells which secrete the salivary
ferment, ivere coloured a deep rose and showed a violet nucleus contained
in the centre of the protoplasmic mass.

Brbsicke's Staining Method.* — Dr. G. Brosicke, of Berlin, recom-
mends a combination of osmic acid and oxalic acid for staining the
tissues, instead of osmic acid alone.

Small pieces of the tissue, or prepared sections, are placed for an
hour in one per cent, osmic acid solution, and then carefully washed
to remove all superfluous acid. They are then immersed for twenty-
fom* hours or longer in a cold saturated aqueous solution of oxalic
acid (one to fifteen), and are ready for examination in water or
glycerine.

The result is that while certain substances, such as mucin, cellu-
lose, starch, bacteria, the outer coat of certain fungi, &g., arc scarcely
at all coloured, other tissues, such as the vitreous humour, the sub-
stratum of the cornea, the walls of the capillaries, and various inter-
cellular connective tissues, appear of a bright carmine ; and muscular
fibres, tendon, hyaline cartilage, the outer fibrillary substance of
decalcified bone, and most of the tissues rich in albumen are stained a
darker carmine. The grey substance of the central nervous system,
most nuclei, and many cells, assume a dark Burgundy rod tint. In
all these cases, however, each particular tissue is stained a slightly
difierent shade, so that it can be readily distinguished from its
neighbours.

None of the objects treated by this method swell up or exhibit
signs of internal coagulation. The oxalic acid produces darker or
lighter shades in proportion to the length of time the specimen had

* ' Sci.-Gossip,' No. 175 (1870) p. 160.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOaAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 765

previously been immersed in osmic acid, and if the latter Las once
completely blackened the tissue, the oxalic acid is powerless after-
wards to redden it. Mixed solutions of osmic acid and oxalic acid
stain proportionally to the relative strength of each. The chief
drawback to this method is the small penetrating power of osmic
acid, which prevents the whole thickness of a specimen from being
equally stained.

Method of examining Living Cells of Larva of Newt, see p. 692.

Undescribed Microscopes. — We believe that the following Micro-
scopes have never yet been described in any English treatise or
journal. We propose to add from time to time the descriptions of
any other extant forms which present any specialty, and have not
hitherto been described in this country.

Fig. 1 represents the " Microscope nouveau grand modele renverse
avec miroir argente " of Messrs. Nachet.

If the eye-piece of a Microscope is removed considerably from the
objective, the image is of course largely increased, but to obtain the
full advantage, it is necessary that the eye-piece should be of increased
diameter. The weight of this and the long tube presents, however, a
practical difficulty in addition to the fact that the observer is so far
from the stage that it is impossible for him to manipulate properly.

To avoid these difficulties, M. Nachet conceived the idea of the
Microscope represented in Fig. 1.

A strong tripod base supports a hollow brass column, the upper
end of which is closed by a plate with a central hole, and to which is
fixed a socket in which the tube carrying the objective A is moved by
the milled head B forming the coarse adjustment. A fine adjustment
is obtained by means of a second tube moved by the milled head V.

To the side of the column is soldered another tube (placed obliquely
as shown in the figure), the interior of which is in commimication
with that of the column by an ellij)tic opening and having the eye-
piece at the upper end. At the bottom of the column is placed a
plane mirror silvered on its upper surface, and inclined at such an
angle as to be perpendicular to the line bisecting the angle formed by
the two tubes, so that all the rays from the objective pass to the eye-
piece. The mirror does not appreciably deteriorate the image, the
loss of light being insignificant. The distance of the eye-piece from
the objective is 90 cm., and very large amplification can be obtained.

The stage is supported above the objective on three supports, and
is supplied with movements by G and D. Above the stage is a " super-
stage " C (which can be turned aside from the Microscojje) for illu-
minating apparatus, and over that the mirror with universal movements,
supported on an upright rod, which can be moved round the summit
of the column.*

One of these instruments (from Mr. Crisp's collection) was exhibited
at a recent soiree of the Quekett Microscopical Club. It was first
exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition.

* Cf. Robin's ' Tnute du Microscope,' 2ud ed. (1877) p. 62.
VOL. II. 3 B

766

BECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Fig. 2 represents the Portable Demonstration Microscope of Messrs.

Nachet, which is very handy and convenient for class demonstration.*

It consists of a tube carrying the objective and eye-piece, which

slides within another attached to a handle by means of which the

Microscope is held by the observer and directed to the light. To the

handle is fixed a rod which carries the stage and illuminating apparatus.

* Cf. loc. cit., p. SI.

INVERTEBEATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICEOSCOPY, ETC.

767

A speciality of the stage is that the object is fixed to its under side, so
that no change of focussing is required with preparations mounted on
slides of varying thickness. The coarse adjustment is made by sliding
the tube carrying the objective through the outer one, and there is in
addition a special fine adjustment moved by a screw close to the
objective.

By means of the handle and the fork at the end of the rod which
carries the stage, the instrument can be rested on the table without
any danger of injuring the slide.

Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

If in a preparation any point difficult to find is required to be
shown, the Microscope can be fixed in the base which carries a mirror
(shown in Fig. 3), and the preparation examined in the ordinary way.

This instrument will be shown at the next meeting of the Society.

Novel Method' for Focussing.* — The Societe de Biologie of Paris
devote a page of their ' Comptes Eendus,' just issued, to a descrip-
tion by M. d'Arsonval of an arrangement which he has devised for
focussing, " without touching either the object or the Microscope."
The inventor states that he discovered the method several years ago,
but neglected to communicate it, though at the same time he wishes it
to be understood that he makes no claim for priority.

The idea was suggested to him by the observation that if an object
is viewed through a parallel plate of glass, it will appear the nearer

* ' CR. Soc. Biol.,' xsix. (1877, pub. 1879) pp. 124-5.

3 E 2

768 EECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

as tlie plate is thicker. He accordingly arranges a layer of liquid
between the objective and the eye-piece, the tube which carries the
eye-piece being closed by a piece of glass, above which is a small tube
communicating with a syringe full of water. On pushing the piston,
water is injected between the objective and the eye-piece, and it is
thus possible to vary the thickness of the layer of water to the extent
of the whole distance which separates the two.

The method enables thicker cover-glasses to be used, and is
available with the most powerful immersion objective, in which it
differs from the arrangement of M. Govi (who placed a horizontal
glass vessel of water between the object and the objective, and varied
the thickness of the layer of water), that being only applicable to
Microscopes which have a focal distance of at least 1*01.

The method may also be very conveniently used, according to the
inventor, for photography, as coloured solutions may be employed to
give monochromatic light.

Roy Microtome.* — The woodcut (Fig. 4) represents this instru-
ment in natural size, the design of Dr. C. S. Roy. The object aimed
at is simply to combine the accuracy gained by the use of a good
microtome with the simplicity and convenience with which sections
can be cut with the unsupported razor, not a few of the best his-
tologists having abandoned microtomes on account of the trouble and
waste of time occasioned, more especially in pathological work when
a few sections are requii-ed from each of several different specimens,
or from different parts of the same specimen.

The horse-shoe shaped piece of glass rod a is intended to support
and guide the knife or razor which is used for cutting, and which
glides on the surface turned in the figure towards the observer. This
glass rod is firmly fixed by its two extremities in the brass plate
5. The smaller brass plate c, on the upper siu-face of which a
thin layer of cork is cemented, can be moved forward or backward by
the fine-threaded screw d, movement in any direction being prevented
by the form of the bed which has been cut in the larger plate for its
reception. The small thumb-screw e serves to connect the movable
plate with the end of the larger screw d, and admits of the plate
being removed when desired.

Fastened underneath the larger plate in such a way that it can be
readily removed and replaced is the bent brass tube /, which is
intended to admit of a few drops or of a constant flow of sj)irit being
projected on the knife and specimen while sections are being cut.
This tube is connected with a test-tube arranged after the principle of
a Wolff's bottle, and which can conveniently be suspended by a thread
from the button-hole. A caoutchouc tube, with a mouthpiece of glass
attached to it, permits of air being blown into the test-tube, forcing
out a part of the contained spirit or water by the tube /.

The method of using the instrument is exceedingly simi)le. The

portion of tissue to be cut is imbedded in an appropriate imbedding

mass, and is then placed upon the movable plate c. Upon this it is

held fixed by the thumb of the left hand, the index and middle fingers

* ' Journ. Physiol.' (Foster), ii. (1879) p. 19.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC

769

of wliicli pass under the plate 6, aud exert a counter pressure. Botli
the specimen and the microtome are thus held in the same manner as
one holds the specimen when no section-cutter is employed. The
plate and imbedded specimen are pushed gradually forward by turning
the milled head of the screw d.

The imbedding mass employed by Dr. Eoy is the well-known
mixture of white wax and olive oil (equal parts by weight for warm,
with a larger proportion of oil for cold weather) used with small
oblong moulds of zinc without bottoms (instead of the usual paper
boxes). They have the convenience of giving a cast suited to the size
of the plate on which it is to rest. If the specimen is not imbedded,
a pallet of wax or of wax and oil is placed between the tissue and the
cork plate so that the edge of the razor may not come in contact with
the latter.

Woodward's Oblique Illuminator.* — Colonel Woodward has de-
vised an apparatus, to which he gives the above name, intended to
* ' Am. Quart. Micr. Joiu-n.,' i. (1879) p. 268.

770

RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

obtain with certainty illumination at definite angles witli Microscope
stands which are not fitted with a swinging substage. The inventor
describes it as follows : —

" A perspective view of the apparatus (slightly reduced in size) is
shown in Fig. 5. It consists of a transverse bar of brass (1), at one
end of which, attached by a hinge (2), is a square brass plate (3),
which can be inclined at any desired angle. This plate is transfixed

Fig. 5.

centrally by a brass tube half an inch long, in which a second tube
(4) an inch and a half long slips easily. The slip-tube (4) is provided
at one end with the Society's screw, by which a 3-inch objective (5)
or any other preferred for the purpose, can be attached. The movable
square plate is provided with a spring catch (6) which fits into any one
of a series of notches in the edge of a brass quadrant (7), and thus
serves both to hold the plate in position and to register the angle of
obliquity. The transverse bar (1) slips in a groove on the upper
surface of a strong brass tube (8), fitted to the substage of the Micro-
scope. The bar itself has a longitudinal slot running nearly its whole

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 771

length, so that it can be pushed to any desired position without dis-
turbing the position of the central steel rod (10), at the upper end of
which a lens (9) is fastened. The lens (9) is such a segment of a
hemisphere of crown glass, that when brought into optical contact (by
oil of cloves) with the under surface of an ordinary glass object-slip,
the object to be studied will be as nearly as possible at its centre of
curvatiu'e, and the rod (10) slips freely in the top of the substage
tube (8), so that the lens may be pushed into position or withdrawn at
pleasure.

In using this ajiparatus with monochromatic sunlight, I first set the
square brass plate )3) at the desired angle as read on the quadrant, and
then slip the transverse bar (1) backwards or forwards as may be
necessary, until the pencil of monochromatic sunlight (to which the
desired degree of obliquity has been previously given by means of a
prism) falls centrally through the slip-tube (4) and illuminating
objective (5) upon the face of the lens with which the object is viewed.
By means of the slip-tube, the illuminating objective (5) is then
brought to the proper focal position. Ordinary illumination is thus
obtained of any desired obliquity, from about 30'' to the limit of the
thickness of the stage. When I desire still greater obliquity I use
Powell and Lealand's extra stage, and slip the transverse bar into
the groove at the upper end of the holder which those makers
provide with it to carry the small bull's-eyes they furnish for the
examination of Amphipleura pellucida. In this manner I can get more
oblique illumination up to 80^ or even 85°, but of course the oblique
pencils thus obtained are refracted at the under surface of the glass slip
that carries the object, and cannot possibly reach the object itself at an
obliquity greater than 41°. To obtain greater obliquity than this, I
make use of the hemispherical lens (9). The illuminating objective
is set at the desired angle, say 45°, and the object illuminated as
described above. When this is satisfactorily done a droj) of oil of
cloves is placed on the flat surface of the hemispherical lens, which is
then pushed up into contact with the under surface of the slide on
which the object is mounted. The light now enters in the line of a
radius of the hemisphere, at the angle registered on the quadrant (7).
Fig. 6 represents a section of the apparatus when thus in use (also
slightly reduced in size). The numbers in the two figures correspond.
In addition, on Fig. 6, A is the objective, B the slide carrying the
object, and C the immersion fluid.

I have found this apparatus exceedingly convenient for the pur-
poses of photo-micrography and sunlight work generally ; for when I
have once obtained any particular result by means of a certain obli-
quity, I am able to reproduce the effect at pleasure without any loss of
time. It has also proved useful, for the same reason, by ordinary
lamplight. When, however, the object of the microscopist is merely to
resolve Amphipleura peUndda or similar tests mounted in balsam, by
lamplight, with suitable objectives, I still give preference to the
simple substage prism I described last year,* through which I can
throw the light at once at an angle of 45° by means of the concave
* See this Journal (1878), p. 246.

772 KECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

mirror or a small bull's-eye, and thus obtain for this particular pur-
pose equally good effects, with less expenditure of time in making the
adjustments."

Fig. 6.

Improvements in Microphotography.* — Dr. E. Cutler describes
the apparatus he adopted for photographing with Tolles' J^^ objective,
the special features in which the apparatus differs from Colonel
Woodward's plan (besides portability) being (1) in the size of the

* 'Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts,' xviii. (1879) p. 93. ,

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 773

condenser, and (2) the absence of tlie ammonio-sulpliate of copper or
alum cells, which are troublesome.

The condenser consists of an 18-inch Voigtlander photographic
objective, about 3 inches in diameter, and is probably the largest ever
employed in microphotography. The reason of its selection was
simply to avoid heat. It is easy to see that if a 2-inch condenser is
regarded as suflScient, the same amount of light could be obtained
with a 3-inch, away from the heat focus and thus avoid the effect of
focussing the sun's rays on the object and the objective. This
practical point has been of great value, and explains the absence of
contrivances to prevent the passage of destructive heat.

Modern Applications of the Microscope to Geology.* — An inter-
esting article on this subject is contributed by M, L. Fouque to the
' Eevue des Deux Mondes.' The progress of human knowledge, he
says, is not accomplished in a regular and continuous manner, but by
starts. Sometimes a man of genius gives a new impulse to science
by the power of the divine reflex which animates him, but more often,
particularly in experimental researches, each clearly marked impulse
of the scientific movement is signalized by the employment of a new
method of investigation. Thus the invention of the Microscope was
the point of departure of brilliant discoveries in natural history, and
each of its improvements corresponded to a period of progress in the
development of the science to which it was applied. To-day the
manufacture of the instrument has arrived at a remarkable degree of
perfection, its magnifying power is enormous, its images are of an
extreme clearness, and ingenious arrangements have rendered the
instrument more manageable without having lessened precision, and
its constructors have known how to adapt it to the special require-
ments of each class of research.

The consequences of these innovations were soon manifest. The
study of organized beings took an unexpected turn, anatomy and
vegetable physiology were entirely transformed, the domain of the
zoological sciences was enlarged beyond conception, and the secrets
of life have been explored in their most mysterious functions.

The application of the Microscope to the examination of the
inorganic world took place more tardily in consequence of special
obstacles. These difficulties are now happily surmounted. A harvest
of new results is being reaped, so rich that it dazzles the imagination
of those who gather it.

In the first part of the article is traced the historical development
of modern " Microscopical Petrology," commencing with 1858, when
Dr. Sorby's memorable researches first appeared, and on whom is
passed a warm eulogium as " the real initiator and propagator of the
new method," and after dealing with the labours of Zirkel, Vogelsang,
and Eosenbusch the author regrets as a " curious matter and one
difficult to explain that though in Germany microscopical petro-
graphy is now studied with unequalled ardour, in England, the
country of its origin, it seems to make but slow progress."

* ' Revue des Deux Mondes,' xxxiv. (1879) pp. 40G-31.

774 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The second part explains tlie results obtained by tbe application
of the Microscope to the study of minerals and rocks, and par-
ticularly the light thereby thrown on the actual constitution of the
latter, and on the complex structure of a great number of crystals
supposed to be simple, their mode of formation and the changes
in the temperature, chemical composition, and stability of the
media during the process. The Microscope is thus able to give an
account of the conditions which prevailed when the minerals were
being formed, as well as doubling the field to which geology can
extend its conquests.

The third part gives a summary account of the methods of
examination by polarized light, and the modern improvements which
have been made in the examination of minerals by its means.

Adams' Measuring Polariscope. — This consists of three principal
parts. The lower section consists of a mirror, a lens, a Nicol's
prism, and two other lenses. The upper section consists of lenses
and Nicol's prism arranged in the reverse order. Each lens and
Nicol's prism is supported separately by screws, and its position can
be altered independently of the others. These two parts form a
complete polariscope.

Besides these there is a middle piece, consisting of two lenses
(nearly hemispheres) forming a box to enclose the crystal immersed
in oil, their curved surfaces being concentric. The whole middle
piece is supported on the tubes of the upper and lower portions, and
may be turned about the optical axis of the instrument. The vertical
graduated circle carrying the central lens and crystal may be turned
through an angle about its horizontal axis. By means of an arc
fastened perpendicularly on the graduated circle, with its centre at
the centre of curvature of the central lenses, the crystal may be turned
about another horizontal axis at right angles to the former, so that
the crystals and the central lenses can be turned about each by three
axes which are mutually at right angles. By means of a system of
toothed wheels in gear with the rims of the central lenses, the central
and crystal lenses may be turned separately about the optical axis of
the instrument, so as to bring the planes of the optic axes of a
biaxial crystal parallel to the plane of the vertical graduated circle.

Homogeneous Immersion. — From conversations which we had
with microscopists at the time of Professor Abbe's recent visit, it
appears that the difference between the modern " Homogeneous
Immersion " and the " Oil-Immersion " of Amici and Hartnack "has
not been appreciated.

One of the leading points of Professor Abbe's theory of 1874 was
his explanation of the important bearing which the diffraction pencils
have on the formation of the microscopic image so that the resolving
power of an object-glass is dependent upon the difiraction pencils that
are taken up by it.

This fact was not previously known, and in the absence of that
knowledge it is not surprising that those who suggested the use of oil
instead of water abandoned it in practice, not thinking it worth while

INVERTEBRATA, CRTPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

775

to follow it u]}. The use of oil as an immersion fluid would obviously
have seemed at that time to bo a disadvantage so far as aperture was
concerned, in consequence of the diminution of aitgle which was
necessarily caused.

When, however, the bearing of Professor Abbe's theory was
appreciated, it was seen that an object-glass acting in oil might take up
diifraction pencils which one of larger angle acting in air could not
reach, and hence, although the angle was reduced by the use of oil,
yet the diffraction pencils belonging to an aperture of more than 180°
in air would be compressed (so to say) within the lesser angle, and
greatly increased apertures could be utilized.

" Homogeneous immersion " is thus seen to be essentially depend-
ent upon the principles enunciated by Professor Abbe in 1874,
and the reason why it was not previously discovered, even by those
whose minds were directed to the subject, is explained.*

Hamilton Smith's " Universal Apertometer."t— Prof. Hamilton
L. Smith describes this apparatus devised by him (Fig. 7), which he
uses for measuring the true angle in all cases, the old system being,
he considers, all wrong, telling a false story in either case, dry or
immersion. For angles in glass, or for immersions, the new
apparatus may be used precisely like Dr. Abbe's apertometer, and
indeed, as it seems to him, has some advantages over that instrument,
which will not give the direct air angle, but deduces it from the angle

Fig. 7.

in glass ; a separate graduation being required when it is to be read
off directly. The 180° are compressed into an arc of 82°, and the
whole space on that arc between 60° and 80° is not more than that
between 0° and 10°, i. e. the graduations are necessarily unequal, and
the instrument is only graduated to every fifth degree. The cylin-
drical surface, though it may show a sliding edge with sufficient
clearness, is not so good as the more easily made spherical surface

* Mr. Stephenson draws our attention to an error in his note on p. 490, in
which he says that the present homogeneous system " gives an angle greatly
in excess of even the ideal maximum of a dry lens (180°) " — for " angle " should
bo read " aperture."

t ' Am. Quart. Micr. Journ.,' i. (1879) p. 194.

776 RECORD OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which forms a part of the new instrument, and by means of which
one may bisect a minute white circle with the greatest accuracy.
Moreover, few would be able to graduate the " apertometer " cor-
rectly, and the process of computation, though easy enough, is not
necessary.

A brass tube a (Fig. 7), say 2 inches long, is supported on a
pillar, into which another tube h slides easily, carrying at one end
the objective c ; the other end h is open except when a cap with a
small hole is put on for purposes of centring, and when it is used
after the manner of Abbe's apertometer; e is an arc (a good pro-
tractor answers very well) graduated to degrees (any higher refine-
ment is quite useless, as in the larger angles there will always be an
uncertainty of at least a quarter of a degree, a space readily esti-
mated). An arm moving freely on a pin at the centre of the arc,
carries at its end an eye-lens in a small sliding tube, and having a
small eye-hole /, the lens having its focus over the central pin ; g is
an ordinary glass slide (3 by 1), which can be slipped in or out of
place at will, and is held at right angles to the plane of the graduated
arc by two springs, which press it against two uprights, so that the
front surface of the glass is exactly over the centre of the arc, and
therefore of the pin on which the movable arm turns. The glass
slide is held by a sejiarate brass holder, which can be pushed forward
when the focal point of the objective is just over the pin until the
slide touches the front lens, and a black bar with a straight edge
painted on the glass can be made to cut off just half of the surface of
the front lens, by putting in the perforated cap at h, and looking
through /, which is supposed to be standing over the middle of the
arc. This is for using Mr. Wenham's method, and it gives very
nearly the same results as his (Prof. Smith's) own. The apparent
aperture of the uncovered half is measured (twice this will give an
extravagant angle), the whole aperture is then measured, but in the
usual way, i. e. until the light disappears ; the angle of the half is
now subtracted from that of the whole, and twice the remainder is
the true angle; this method is only available when the front lens
is flush with the surface.

The mode in which he prefers to use the instrument, however,
and which gives the true air angle, is as follows : — The front surface
of the slide g is brought accurately over the centre of the arc by slip-
ping the brass holder quite home ; two fine cross lines ruled with a
diamond on the glass, are, by sliding the glass laterally, brought
directly over the centre of the arc or j^in on which the arm carrying
f moves ; their intersection is thus placed directly over the centre of
motion ; the objective is focussed on these lines : it is not necessary
to use an eye-piece unless the focal length be very long. Yet for
true angle, independent of definite length of tube, it would be suffi-
cient simply to focus upon the lines without an eye-piece ; the screw
j may be used for this purpose, or it may be effected by simply
sliding the tube h in a. Supj)ose now the eye-lens /to be over the
middle of the arc ; on looking through towards the objective one will
see something like Fig. 8, where the outer circle is the periphery of

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

777

tlie front lens, the middle one is the image of the diaphragm at the
back of the objective ; or, if this diajihragm is sufficiently large, the
margin of the j^osterior system ; the inner circle is the image of the
end of the tube h, and within the area of this will be an inverted
picture of external objects crossed at the centre by the lines on the
glass; the objective c and the eye-lens / forming a sort of minia-
ture telescoj)e, and having the lines as a common focal point : the
smaller cii-cle would disappear if the end of the tube b was large
enough, and there would be but these two — the periphery of the front
lens, and the image of the diaphragm or posterior system —and it is
with this last we are to deal. A piece of tissue paper, or cap with

Fig. 8.

Fig.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

ground glass, is now put on at b, and immediately a soft light fills
the field, and the lines appear like cobwebs stretching across it.
The sector arm carrying the lens / is now swung round until the
intersection of the lines is tangent to the image of the margin of the
posterior system or diaphragm, as in Figs. 9 and 10, which represent
the circles as they would appear with very small angles ; with wide
angles they are foreshortened as in Fig. 11, where the larger circle is,

Fig. Vi

Fig. 12.

Fig. 14.

as before, the margin of the front lens ; the next inner one is the
image of the diaphragm, and the smaller (partly obscure) is the
bright field still visible, and which gives the exaggerated angle to
measurements made in the old way. The sector arm may be swung
many degrees farther on each side before this will disappear. When
the fine lines are thus projected on the face of the front lens, they
will, as in Fig. 12, mark the extremities of a diameter of the circle
which, if stopped out, would exclude all light from passing through

778 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the objective when used to form an image in the field of the eye-piece
of the Microscope.

So much for the air angle; for balsam, or what we will here
consider as the same thing, angle in glass, the slide g is replaced by
another (Fig, 13) of the same thickness, but with a small bull's-eye —
say 0 • 25 inch radius — cemented to it, and of such thickness that its
centre of curvature is in the front surface of the slide ; fine lines are
also ruled on this slide passing through the centre of curvature of the
lens. When the bull's-eye is properly adjusted, it will make no
difiierence in the distinctness with which the images of external
objects are exhibited when using the objective and eye-lens / as a
little telescope, whether the glass slide and bull's-eye are in position,
or whether they are removed, the rays pass through the slide and
bull's-eye, emerging without refraction at the convex surface ; they
will emerge indeed at a much smaller angle, as shown in Fig. 14,
from the refraction at the front surface ; and in this refraction nearly
all the rays which give the exaggerated angle disappear, and the
angle of the emergent rays is the true angle in glass, from which the
true air angle may be computed. To avoid this computation, Zeiss
constructs the apertometer with another scale, uj^on which an arc
of 82° corresponds to 180=, and one of 77-5° to 144°, &c.

A Spencer |^ inch, when the systems were closed, and it was
adjusted on the cross lines in the centre of curvature of the hemi-
spherical lens, transmitted rays making an angle of 77*5°. The
natural sine of half this angle is • 6259, and this, multiplied by 1 • 52,
assumed as the index of refraction of glass, gives 'OSIS, the natural
sine of 72*05^, twice which, or 144' 1°, is the air angle. Measvired
directly, using the glass slide g, and the lines as before described,
144° was obtained. Measured on the sector in the old way, there
was no difficulty in getting 179^ before the light disappeared.

It will be understood that for immersion angle, or, as it is gene-
rally called, " balsam angle," all that is necessary is to introduce a
di'op of fluid (theoretically, this should have the same refractive index
as the glass) between the objective front and the glass slide, and to
re-focus on the lines. The ^ inch, at the same closed point which
gave only 77 • 5° from air into glass, will give 87° with glycerine inter-
posed. There is very little difiiculty in observing the true angle here ;
the proper point is when the circle of light, which is beautifully
shown when the tissue paper covers the open end of the tube h, is
dichotomized, and the slightest movement will cause it to disappear.
This action is even more prompt with the fluid interposed than when
air intervenes.

To convert the instrument substantially into Abbe's apertometer,
it is only necessary to keep the slide and the bull's eye in place, focus
on the lines, and then, putting on the cap with the small eye-hole
at b, look in there instead of at /. Placing a sheet of paper in front of
the graduated sector, and allowing the light to shine through it, we
shall get a distinct picture of the end of the tube /, and see a little
spot of light (the eye-hole) in the centre. The lines ruled on the
glass may interfere with perfect definition in the middle of the field,

INVERTEBBATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 779

but when the sector arm is swung round, the little circle of light
can be neatly bisected on each side of the field, as shown in Figs. 15
and 16. A long focus lens may be applied at the eye-hole if neces-
sary, or the supplemental tube recommended for Abbe's apertometer,
but the Professor finds all that is required is his ordinary reading-
glasses, and he can make the bisection of the little bright circle as
accurately as when using a compound Microscope to view it even with
a yV objective.

Fig. 15. Fig. 16.

If we remove the bull's-eye slide, and focus on the lines on the
plain slide, we may obtain the air angle with great accuracy by simply
looking through the eye-hole in the cap applied at the end of the tube
h (Fig. 7), and observing, by aid of a long focus lens, when the image
of the hole in / is neatly bisected on either side, as shown in Figs. 15
and 16. If, instead of a single lens, a short compoimd Microscope
with an objective of 4 inches focus is used, the eye-hole will not be
necessary. Except for higher amj^lification, this supplemental part is
not needed. The highest air angle objective measured by Professor
Smith is an old ^^ by Spencer, 163°. He has no doubt that some
of the first-class modern dry objectives of recent date may reach 170°
or more ; but even with an angle of 163° the extreme rays strike
with such obliquity, that more than half the light is reflected from
the front surface, without entering the lens at all, and yet more at
higher obliquities. Professor Smith does not mean to say that there
is not a gain worth striving for in passing from, say, 160° to 170°, but
an objective whose real air angle is more than that last named will
have an inconveniently short working distance.

To compute rigidly the balsam or glass angle from the observed
air angle, or vice versa, the objective must not only be accurately
focussed, but the intersecting lines must be used ; otherwise an exag-
gerated angle (varying very much in different objectives, to the
extent of 2° to 12^) may be obtained as the glass angle ; and if from
this we should compute the air angle, it might be 10° or 20° too
much.

Carefully used, the instrument will give entirely concordant
results. Moving to the right, the point of intersection will travel in
the same direction as from Fig. 8 to Fig. 10, and to the left the change
will be from Fig. 8 to Fig. 9. This is contrary to what one might at
first suppose ; a little reflection will show the reason for this.

As it seems to have been supposed that Professor Smith intended
in his paper to cast doubts on the accuracy of Professor Abbe's
instrument, we may point that the Professor himself says in his

780 BECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

original article that " witli high powers and wide angles, the agree-
ment between his oion instrument and that of Professor'Ahhe is as close
OS could he desired," while Colonel Woodward shows * the source
of the erroneous readings which Professor Smith obtained when he
attempted to use his apparatus after the Abbe method with low-power
objectives.

Mr. Wenham, writing on this paper,! calls attention to the follow-
ing experiments, not as indicating any defect in Professor Smith's
principle, but in the mode of use which he considers may be the cause
of error in the measurement : —

In order to well define the transmitting diameter or boundary of
the light spot on the front of the glass. Professor Smith applies a piece
of tissue paper or ground glass to the open end of the object-glass tube.
This gives results in excess of truth, which may be attributed to the
diameter of the screen. Instead of following this course, set a lamp a
few feet away exactly in the axis of the object-glass, and focus the
Microscope on the index line ; the flame of the lamp will be beauti-
fully in focus at the same time, showing that the examining Microscope
does not in the least alter the focal distance of the object-glass under
test. On traversing the lower Microscope sideways, the flame appears
curiously projected, as if it were actually strung on to the lines ruled
on the glass. At an obliquity greater or less according to the aperture
of the objective, the flame shows a tendency to leave the line before it
vanishes. Now, with the flame, this limit gives a result less than
when the ground glass is used. The former is, therefore, the limit
of aperture. The ground glass does not increase the transmitting
diameter of the front, which remains the same under all circum-
stances ; but it allows oblique rays from a screen or field of view to
pass through. The lamp flame is distant, and in one fixed, axial,
focal point. As the image of the flame and the ruled line are kept in
the direction of the axis of the examining Microscope, the angular
traverse of the line of this axis must indicate the true aperture.

Mr. Wenham also thus summarizes the facts upon which Pro-
fessor Smith's conclusions are based : —

" 1. That the front lenses of Microscope object-glasses only admit
incident rays through a central area, far within their actual diameter.

" 2. That angle of aperture strictly means the angle measured by a
triangle taken from the extremities of the diameter of this light sjiot
as a base line up to the focal distance in the axis, whether that
distance is in air, water, or glass, with the difference of angle due to
the refraction of each.

" 3. That rays extending laterally from places without the central
focal point do not constitute a proper angle of aperture, but cover an
area known as field of view.

" 4. That rays from every part of the field of view pass through
every portion of the transmitting diameter of the front lens, and,
together, enter the pujiil of the eye from the eye-piece.

" 5. That in the optical methods of measuring angles of aperture

* ' Ain. Quart. Micr. Journ.,' i. (1879) p. 27S. See infra, p. 734.
t Ibid., p. 280.

INVEETEBEATA, CEYPTOGAMIA, MICEOSCOPY, ETC. 781

heretofore in use, rays from the light or index points have traversed
and intersected all these exterior rays or oblique angles in succession
to the limit of the field of view, which has been erroneously assigned
as angle of aperture."

Measuring Aperture. — Professor Hamilton Smith in his paper
above referred to describes an experiment with a Spencer ^, made when
the systems were closed and a small dot of ink put on the flat surface
of the front lens, just large enough to cut off the little circle of light
that appears when one looks into the objective with the front system
toward the eye. Under these circumstances when the objective was
attached to the Microscope, not a ray of light could be obtained
except what came through the instrument, yet on the sector he was
still able to see light when the arm was swung up to 179°. He
further says, " The true air angle at the same closed point .... is
only 141°."

Mr. J. Mayall, jun., properly points out * that this experiment is
fallacious. " It being admitted that no aperture, properly speaking,
can be measured unless the image of a point be rendered, approxi-
mately at least, as a point ; does Professor Smith mean to say that
when the system of lenses is closed he can measure the true air angle?
My experience with immersion lenses of high angle is thab when the
system is closed, so as to get definition through the thickest cover-
glass and the immersion medium, at that adjustment no true air angle
can be obtained. Tlie true air angle can only be actually measured
when the objective is adjusted so as to give true focus in air, a focus
sensibly free from aberration."

So far as Professor Smith's apertometer is applicable to immersion
lenses, Mr. Mayall considers it is practically the same as Mr. Tolles's
traverse lens which yields results equivalent to those obtained with
Abbe's aj^ertometer.

Woodward's Apertometer. j — Colonel Woodward describes an
apertometer which he has been using for some time, which is a combi-
nation of the Abbe ajjertometer with the well-known sector, and which
he thinks has advantages over both that and the Universal apertometer
of Professor Smith.

Colonel Woodward objects to the Abbe apertometer (1) in regard
to the cutting away of the surface that corresj)onds to the diameter of
the semicylinder at an angle of 45°, rendering necessary the silvered
cover-glass with circular central spot, which should correspond to a
path of the rays to the oblique surface, and thence by reflection up-
wards, just equal to the radius of curvature, an error in selecting this
point rendering the reading inaccurate ; and (2) in regard to the
graduation into divisions corresponding to an arbitrary scale. The
modified instrument is shown in Fig. 17.

A is a circular disk of brass of about 10 inches radius, inlaid near
its circumference with a silver circle divided to sixths of a degree. It
is mounted for convenience on a heavy three-legged stool of wood.

* 'Am. Quart. Micr. Jouru.,' i. (1879) p. 28i.
t Ibid., p. 272.
VOL. II. 3 F

782

RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

It was made a full circle, in order to use it for another purpose also ;
but a semicircle of the same size would answer equally well. Into a
hole in the centre a pin is fitted, on which swings the radial arm B,
which carries on one side of the centre of rotation the body of a Micro-
scope E, while its extremity is provided with a vernier clamp D and

Fig. 17.

tangent screw C. On the other side of the central pin the radial arm
carries a table, on which is mounted a semicircle of crown glass F of
about two inches radius and half an inch thick. This is so mounted
that the edge, which corresponds to the diameter of the semicircle, is
directly over the centre of rotation, and the Microscope objective can
be focussed exactly upon the centre of the semicircle. At this spot a
thin glass cover, silvered except at a central circular hole (or ver-
tical slit) about 2^^ of an inch in diameter, is cemented with Canada
balsam, the central hole (or slit) being fitted precisely over the centre
of the semicircle. A suitable achromatic convex lens (a 4-inch
objective answers very well) is screwed at the end of the draw-tube of
the Microscope body, and serves to convert it into a telescope, pre-
cisely as in the apparatus of Abbe.*

The particular method for which the apparatus was constructed
and by which exact measurements can be made, is as follows. Using

* This apparatus can be used precisely like Ijis, if the semicircle is engraved
to degrees, and two shutters or indices provided.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 783

the Microscope as a telescope, some distant object is viewed so small
that it only occiij)ies an extremely minute portion of tlie field, and so
bright that it can easily be discerned as the slit of a spectroscope
placed at about 10 feet and illuminated by monochromatic (blue) sun-
light. This appears when the adjustments are rightly made as an
extremely minute blue star in the centre of the field. The radial arm
is then swung until the star comes to the extreme margin of the field,
the adjustment is made as exact as possible with the tangent screw,
and the vernier read. The radial arm is then swung till the star
comes to the opposite margin of the field where the same process is
repeated. The difference between the two readings is the aperture of
the objective for any medium of the same index of refraction as the
crown glass semicircle. The apparatus reads to half minutes, which
is closer than the observations can be accurately made. In fact,
after the star comes to the edge of the field, it usually begins to fade
just before it entirely disappears, and a motion of several minutes is
necessary to effect the change. The best plan is to adjust the instru-
ment as exactly as possible at the point at which the star begins to
fade and then read to the next lowest sixth of a degree, neglecting the
small fractional remainder. The same instrument answers very well
to measure the glass angle corresponding to the actual air angle of
dry objectives of any power, or the semicircle of glass being removed
and the Microscope still used as a telescope to view the blue illu-
minated slit as before, air angles may be directly read with a degree
of precision not attainable when the sector is used in the ordinary
way.

From the angles of aperture measured in the semicircle of crown
glass, it is quite as easy to compute air angles, water angles, glycerine
angles, balsam angles, &c., as from the numerical scale of Abbe. It
is only necessary to subtract the logarithm of the index of refraction
of the rarer medium in which the aperture is to be expressed from
that of the index of the glass semicircle, and to preserve the difference
as a constant for use whenever the aperture in the selected medium is
to be computed from the angle observed with the semicircle. Then
to perform the computation, it will only be necessary to add this
constant to the logarithmic sine of half the observed angle, and take
from the table of logarithmic sines the angle corresponding to the
sum, which will be half the angle required.

It will readily be understood that if the crown glass semicircle of
the apparatus is of precisely the same index of refraction as the crown
glass front of the objective, the rays of light passing into the objective
from the semicircle will, after more or less refraction as they enter
and leave the immersion fluid, resume in the crown glass front, pre-
cisely the same course they had in the semicircle. In this case the
angle measured in the semicircle would be precisely equal to the
aperture of the pencil passing through the crown glass front, and might
be called the first interior angle of aperture, or briefly, the inferior
aperture of the objective. As this is the angle which after all deter-
mines the resolving power of the objective (provided its aberrations
are properly corrected), Colonel Woodward thinks it would be better

3 F 2

784 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

hereafter to express the angle of objectives in degrees of interior
aperture instead of speaking of air, water, or balsam angles, or using
the numerical scale of Abbe. This end will be obtained with sufficient
exactness if the crown glass semicircle has an index of refraction of
1 • 525. In this case the angles read by the apparatus with each ob-
jective will be its interior aperture, and no computation will be neces-
sary. But equally exact results can be obtained from a glass semi-
circle of hijiher or lower index, provided only its index of refraction
is known. In this case it is simply necessary to compute the corre-
sponding angle in a medium of 1 • 525 from the observed angle by the
method already explained.

The index of refraction of the glass semicircle may be exactly
determined in the ordinary way by measuring the angular deviation
produced by a prism cut from the same piece of glass. But in the
absence of conveniences for this determination it is one of the advan-
tages of this apertometer that it affords the means of measuring the
index of the glass semicircle with sufficient accuracy, for if the angle
of any immersion objective that exceeds 90^ of interior aperture be
measured by it, and then the immersion fluid wiped away, and the
angle measured with a very thin film of air between the front of the
objective and the semicircle, the observed angle will be reduced to a
figure which is constant for all objectives of the same or greater
aj^erture, and which is independent of variations in the angles of
such objectives, representing in fact doiible the angle of total reflection
from the glass of the semicircle to air. If the sine of half this con-
stant angle be divided into unity the quotient will be of course the
index of refraction of the glass semicircle.

Provided the glass semicircle is nicely centred, the silvering of
the glass cover which prevents vision from taking place except through
the small hole or slit directly over the centre of the semicircle, would
be unnecessary with the highest powers ; for the diameter of the cir-
cular spot through which rays can pass into the objective is so small,
as compared with the diameter of the semicircle, that the gi-eatest
l^ossible chance of error from this source will be very small indeed.
Biit with dry lenses of low power this is not the case ; the greater the
transverse diameter of the objective, the more readily would those
rays enter it, which having passed through the semicircle but not
through its centre, would indicate a greater aperture than the objective
actually possessed. This is. Colonel Woodward supposes, the source
of the erroneous readings which Professor Smith obtained* when he
attempted to use his apparatus after the method of Abbe with low-
power objectives. He did not use the opaque cover with a small
central hole which is indispensable in this case.

Microscopical Researches in High-power Definition.f — Dr.
G. W. Royston-Pigott presented a paper on this subject to the Royal
Society in their last session (not yet printed in extenso), but of which
the following is an abstract by the author.

* 'Am. Quart. Micr. Journ.,' i. (1879) p. 203.
t ' Proc. Koy. Soc.,' xxix. (1879) p. 164.

INVERTEBEATA, CRYPTOaAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 785

lu its general scope the paper is intended to deal with difficulties
in microscopic research, usually found insuperable, such, for instance,
as the invisibility of minute closely packed refracting spherules, ex-
isting in double rouleaux, or promiscuously aggregated ; when their
individual diameter varies between the -^^^^ to the ^ ^ ^^^ ^ ^ of an
inch.

These difficulties are principally created by overlapping images,
due partly to residuary aberration both spherical and chromatic,
partly to the effects of diffraction, caused by brilliant illuminations
of spurious disks of light, partly to the constant development of
Eidola or false images, which vary the loci of their development
according to the nature of underlying structures, and according to
the object-glasses being over- or under-corrected, and partly, and
indeed very considerably, created by the use of excessively large
angular apertures.

The pajjer discusses also the relative eff'ects on visibility, of large
and small angular apertures in objectives.

It shows that the black margins or black marginal annuli of
refracting spherules, constantly displayed by low aperture glasses,
are attenuated gradually to invisibility, as the glasses employed are
endowed with the largest apertures ; that the black margins also of
cylinders, tubules, or semi-tubules suffer similar obliterations ; and
that, in consequence, innumerable minute details are concealed or
destroyed till the aperture is sufficiently reduced; that minute
refracting bodies obey the laws of their refrangibilities, and display
beautiful phenomena, discoverable by transcendent powers of defini-
tion, but totally unseen by inferior compensations ; and that, in con-
sequence, the so-called achromatism of modern glasses is an illusory
approximation to correct vision.

Examples are given of molecular structures, varying in form,
translucency, and refrangibility, in which natural pencils arc caught
and displayed in the ordtr in which, as in a rain-drop, iridescent rays
are emitted by the decomposed light. Several examples are also
introduced, in which a high order of lenticular correction beautifully
discovers structure, hidden, according to Dr. Carpenter, from the
great bulk of observers.

As the paper deals so often with magnitudes very much less
than the xooVo^ "^^ *^ inch, a method is introduced of readily esti-
mating roughly such magnitudes between the -g^^oo and the 500V00"
of an inch, by means of a micrometer gauge. The writer has been
emboldened to grapple with these difficult minutite, in consequence of
the sharp and clear definition he has attained of spider lines miniatured
down to the fourteenth part of jTyijoTro ^^ ^^ inch. The eye, ac-
customed to contemplate this subtlety of form, readily appreciates the
one-fourth or one-sixth of this size, i. e. 4o7iVo o' ^^ TrWorro-

A new test for the Microscope is also described displaying bright
lines of uniform thickness less than you^ooo? ^^^ sharp black lines of
much less tenuity than those given by Nobert's celebrated lines
ruled on glass, and incomparably more easy of illustration.

The employment of various fluids for immersion lenses is care-

786 RECORD OP CURRENT RESEARCHES, ETC.

fully considered ; and the singular property of castor oil, discovered
by the writer, is referred to.

As the author's paper on " A Searcher for Aplanatic Images,"
was inserted in the ' Transactions,' he now introduces a new form
which offers some advantages, by its extended traverse, by its sim-
plicity and economy of light with increase of magnifying power.

Finally, some examples are given of producing transcendent
definition in cases found hopeless by a niimerous body of observers.
The means also of its attainment are minutely described.

( 787 )
BIBLIOGEAPHY

OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

INVEETEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPy, &c.
including Embryology and Histology generally.

JOURNALS, TRANSACTIONS, &c., received since the last number, the

CONTENTS OP WHICH ARE INCLUDED IN THE FOLLOWING BIBLIOGRAPHY.*

UNITED KINQDOM.
England.

Anaals and Magazine of Natural History, Fifth Series, Vol. IV., Nos. 20-1
(August-September).

Entomologist, Vul. XII., Nos. 195-6 (August-September).

Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, Vol. XVI., Nos. 183-184 (August-
September).

Geological Magazine, N. S., Dec. II., Vol. VI., Nos. 8*-9 (August -September).

GreviUea, Vol. VIII., No. 45 (September).

Hardwicke's Science-Gossip, 1879, Nos. 176-7 (August-September).

Journal of Botany, N. S., Vol. VIII., Nos. 200-1 (August-September).

Journal of Conchology, Vol. II., Nos. 1-7 (Junuary-July).

Journal of Physiology (Foster), Vol. II., No. 2*.

Midland Naturalist, Vol. II., Nos. 20-1 (August-September).

Monthly Journal of Science, Thii-d Series, Vol. I., Nos. 68-9* (August -
September).

Naturalist, Vol. V., Nos. 49-50 (August-September).

Nature, Vol. XX., Nos. 509-10, 511*-512*, 513, 514*, 515, 516 * (July 31-
September 18).

Zoologist, Third Series, Vol. III., Nos. 32*-3* (August-September).

London. Linnean Society— Journal (Botany), Vul. XVII., No. 102.
„ (ZoologV), Vol. XIV., No. 80.
„ Mineralogical Society — Mineralogical Magazine and Journal of the

Society, Vol. II., No. 12(*)*, Vol. III., No. 13* (May and July).
„ Quekett Microscopical Club — Journal, No. 40 (July).

Royal Society— Pjoccedings, Vol. XXIX., No. 197.
,, Zoological Society — Proceedings, 1879, Part 2.

Bristol. NaturaUsts' Society— Proceedings, N. S., Vol. II., Part 3.

COLONIES.
Canada.

Canadian Naturalist, N. S., Vol. IX., No. 3*.

Australasia.
New South Wales. Linnean Society— Proceedings, Vol. III., Part 4.

UNITED STATES.
American Journal of Microscopy, Vol. IV., No. 6 (June).
American Journal of Science and Arts, Tldrd Series, Vol. XVIII., Nos. 104-
5 (August-September).

* Those marked (*) do not contain any article, &c., within the scope of the
Bibliography.

788 BIBLIOGKAPHY OP

American Naturalist, Vol. XIII., Nos. 8-9 (August-September).
American Quarterly Microscopical Journal, Vol. I., No. 4 (July).
Cambridge. Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College-
Memoirs, Vol. VI., No. 1 (1st part).

GERMANY.
Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, Vol. XLV., Part 3.
Archiv fiir Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und fiir Klinische

Medicin (Virchow), Vol. LXXVIL, Parts 1-2.
Botanische Zeitung, Vol. XXXVII., Nos. 25-30, 31*, 32, 33*, 34 (June 20-

August 22).
Flora, Vol. LXII., Nos. 21-6 (July 21-September 11).
Hedwigia, Vol. XVI 11., Nos. G-8 (June- August).
Linnsea, Vol. XLII., Part 5.

Jenaische Zeitschrift fiir Naturwissenschaft, Vol. XII [., Part 2.
Morphologisches Jahrbuch, Vol. V., Part 2,
Naturforscher, Vol. XII., Nos. 30*, 31, 32*, 33, 3t*-5*, 3G, 37*-3S* (July 26-

Soptcmber 20).
Zeitschrift fiir die gesammten Naturwissenschaften, Vol. LII. (May-June).
Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, Vol. XXXII., Part 4.
Zoologischer Anzeiger, Vol. II., Nos. 34-7 (July 28-September 8).
Berlin. K. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften — Monatsbericht,

1879, May.*
Gottingen. K. GeseUschaft der Wissenschaften — Abhandlungen, Vol. XXIV.
Wiirzburg. Zoologisch-Zootomisches Institut — Arbeiten, Vol. V., Part 1.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Oesterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift, Vol. XXIX., Nos. 8-9 (August-
September).

Vienna. K. Akademie der Wissenschaften — Mathem.-Naturw. Classe —
Denkscbriften, Vol. XXXIX.
„ K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt — Verhaudlungen, Nos. 7, 8*, 9.

Jahrbuch, Vol. XXIX., No. 2*
(April-June).

HOLLAND.

Amsterdam. K. Akademie van Wetenschappen— Verslagen en Mededeel-
ingen, Second Series, Vol. XIV., Part 2*.

„ ,, ,, Verhandelingen, Vol.

XVIII*.

NORWAY.

Botaniska Notiser, 1879, No. 3* (May 17).

SWITZERLAND.

Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, Third Series, Vol. II., Nos.
8-9 (August- September).

RUSSIA.
Moscow. Societe Imperiale des Naturalistes— Bulletin, Vol. LIII., No. 4.
St. Petersburg. Academie Imperiale des Sciences— Bulletin, Vol. XXV., No. 4

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 789

FRANCE.

Annales des Sciences Naturelles (Botanique), Sixth Series, Vol. VII.,
No.s. (5 and 6) ; Vol. VIII., Nos. (1 and 2).

Archives cle Zoologie Experimentale at Gen^rale (Lacaze - Duthiers),
Vol. VII., No. 4.

Journal de I'Anatomie et de la Physiologic (Kobin), Vol. XV., No. 4 (July-
August).

Journal de Conchyliologie, Third Series, Vol. XIX., No. 2.

Revue Internationale des Sciences, Vol. IV., Nos. 8-9* (August-September).

Paris. Academie des Sciences— Comptes Kendus, Vol. LXXXIX., Nos. 1-6, 7*
8 (July 7-August 25).

„ Societe Botanique de France— Bulletin, Vol. XXV., Part 4; Vol.
XXVI., Eevue Bibliographique, Part A-B.

BELGIUM.
Brussels. Academie Royale des Sciences, &c., de Belgique— Bulletin, Vol.
XLVII., No. 6 ; Vol. XLVIII., Nos. 7-8*.
„ Societe Beige de Microscopie— Bulletin, Vol. V., Nos. 9-10.

„ Societe Entomologique de Belgique— Annales, Vol. XXII., Tri-

mestre 2.
„ Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique— Bulletin, Vol. XVII.,
Part 1, Fasc. 1,

ITALY.
Pisa. Societa Toscana di Scienze Natural!- Atti, Vol. IV., Fasc. 1.
Turui. R. Accademia delle Scienze— Atti, Vol. XIV., Parts 4*-5* (March-
April).

ZOOLOGY.

A. GENERAL, including- Embryology and Histology
of the Vertebrata.
Arnold, Prof. Dr. J. — On the Minute Structure of Cells under Normal and
Pathological Conditions.

Arch. path. Anat. ^ Phys. {Virchow), LXXVII., pp. 181-206.
Balbiani, Prof. G. — Lectures on the Generation of Vertebrates. (Course of
Comparalive Embryology at the College of France.) 279 pp. Plates 1-6. 144
figs. 8vo. Paris, 1879.

CoRNiL, V. — New Histological Observations on the Condition of the Cells of
the Kidney in Albuminuria due to Parenchymatous and Interstitial Nephritis.
Plates 29-33. Journ. Anat. ct Fhys. {Bobin), XV., pp. 402-48.

EiMEK, Prof. Dr. — On the Propagation of the Bats.

Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 425-6.
Flemming, Prof. W. — On the Behaviour of the Nucleus in Cell-division, and on
the Signification of Multinucleate Cells. Plate 1.

Arch. path. Anat. ^ Phys. (Virchow), LXXVII., pp. 1-29.

Forbes, Prof. S. A. — On some Sensory Structures of Young Dog-fishes.

Plate 19. Am. Quart, liter. Journ., I., pp. 257-60.

Jeleneff, a. — Histological Eesearches on the Smaller Brain of Pctromyzon

fluviatilts. 1 plate. Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petershourg, XXV., pp. 333-45.

Kijllikcr, Prof. A. — Embryology ; a Complete Treatise on the Development of

Man and the Higher Animals. {Traml. from tlie 2nd German edition by

A. Schneider, with a preface by Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers.) Part 1. Paris, 1879.

„ ., History of Embryological Doctrines. ( Transl.)

Eev. Intcrnat. Sci., IV., pp. 115-.S6.

Lewis, B., L.K.C.P.— On the Comparative Structure of the Cortex Cerebri.

Abstract. Proc. Boy. Sac, XXIX., pp. 234-7.

790 BIBLIOGBAPHY OP

MacLeod, J.— On tbo Structure of Harder's Gland in the Domestic Duck.
1 plate. Bull. Acad. Sci. Belg., XLVII., pp. 707-811.

Masquelin, H., and A. Swaen.— First Phases of the Development of the
Maternal Placenta in tlie Rabbit. Preliminary Communication.

Bull. Acad. Roij. Sci. Belg., XLVIII., pp. 45-69.
Maupas, E. — On some Multinucleate Animal and Vegetable Protorganisms.

Comptcs Rendus, LXXXIX., pp. 250-3.

Ord, W. M., M.D., &c. — An Account of Experiments on the Influence of

Colloids upon Crystalline Forms, and on Movements observed in Mixtures of

Colloids with Crystalloids. Plate 1. Proc. Roy. Soc, XXIX., pp. 238-46.

Ranviee, L. — On the Vital Properties of Cells, and on the Appearance of their

Nuclei after Death. Comptes Rendus, LXXXIX., pp. 318-20.

Schleicher, W. — Further Communications on the Living Cartilage Cell.

Bull. Acad. Sci. Behi., XLVII., pp. 811-23.
Stowell, Prof, 0. H. — The Origin and Death of the Red Blood-corpuscle.

Am. Quart. Micr. Jouni., I., pp. 2.19-305.
Strasser, Dr. H. — On the Development of the Cartilages of the Limbs in
Salamanders and Tritons. A Morphogenetic Study. Plates 16-19.

Morph. Jahrb., V., pp. 240-315.
Taschenberg, Dr. O. — Colouring of Animals as a Natural Protection against
their Enemies. Zeitschr. ges. Naturw., LII., pp. 408-20.

Taylor, T. — Oleomargarine and Butter. Plate 21.

Am. Quart. Micr. Journ., I., pp. 294-5.
TouKNEUX, F.— The Interstitial Cells of the Testicle. Plates 25 & 26.

Juurn. Anat. ct Fhys. {Robin), XV., pp. 305-28.

B. INVERTEBRATA.

FoLiN, Marquis de. — Lacustrine Fuuna of the Ancient Lake of Osse'gor.
16 pp. Plates 1 & 2. Svo. Dax, 1879.

Trautschold, H. — Over the Jura from Isjum. Plate 3.

[Palaiontological — Belemnitcs nitidas ; Phasianolla Buvignicri; Ncrinwa quadri'
lobata ; Exogyra spiralis ; Rhjnchonella concinna ; Thamnastraea concinna, and
Comoseris irradians ; figured, and others described.]

Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, LIIL, pp. 149-64.

MoUusca.

Ashford, C. — Note on Limnwa ghdinosa MuUer. Journ. of Conch., II., pp. 6-8.
„ „ //e^/a; /wsca Montagu, near Redcar. „ „ p. 128.

„ „ Helix lamellata Jeflreys, near Redcar. „ „ p. 209.

Bergh, Dr. R. — Genera of Nortliern Dorididce. Plate 19.

Arch. Natu-g., XLV., pp. 340-69.
BouCHAED-CHANTEREArx. — Observations on different Marine MoUusca of the
Boulonuais. \_Pholas ; Modiula modiolus ; Purpura lapillus.']

Journ. de Conch;/., XIX., pp. 122-5.
Brazier, John, C.M.Z.S. — List of Marine Shells collected on Fitzroy Island,
North Coast of Australia, with Notes on their Geographical Range. [77 sp.]

Journ. of Conch., II., pp. 186-99.

Bull, M.M., F.R.C.P.L. — Testacclla Maugeiva. Jersey. Journ. of Conch., II., p. 98.

Carriers, J. — The Glands in the Foot of the Lamellibranchiata. Plates

5 & 6. Arbeit. Zool.-Zout. Inst. Wiirzburg, V., pp. 56-92.

CoLLiNGwooD, C, M.A., M.B., &c. — New Species of Nudibranchs from the

Eastern Seas. Abstract. [1 n. gen. ; 16 n. sp.]

Journ. Linn. Soc. {Zool.), XIV., pp. 737-8.
Crosse, H., and P. Fischer. — Malacological Fauna of Lake Baikal. Plate 4,
[10 genera and 30 species; also 7 doubtful genera and 16 species.]

Journ. de Conch;/., XIX., pp. 145-68.

„ „ On the Reabaorption of the Internal Walls of

the Shell in tlie Auriculidse. Journ. de Conchy., XIX., pp. 143-4.

Dei'ontaillier, J. — Diagnosis of a New Si^ecies of Nassa of the Blue Clays of

Biot, near Antibes. \_N. Bisotensis.'] Journ. de Conchy., XIX., pp. 177-8.

Droiet, H. — New or little-known Unionidje.

[_Microcondylus, 5 ; Unio, 6 ; Anodonta, 1.] Journ. de Conchy., XIX., pp. 137-42.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 791

D'Urban, W. S. M., F.L.S.— The Mollusca of Barents Sea between Spitz-
bergen and Novaya Zemblia. Jouni. of Cunch., II., pp. 88-94.

Fischer, P. — Note on the Animal of Valuta musica Linn. Plate 5.

Journ. de Conchy., XIX., pp. 97-106.
„ „ The Genera Macrocyclis Beck and Selenites Fischer.

Jonrn. de Conchy., XIX., pp. 118-22.

Fredericq, Dr. L. — Kesearches on the Physiology of the Common Poulp

(Octopus vuli/aris). Arch. Zool. {Lacaze-Duthiers), VII., pp. 535-83.

Garrett, A. — Annotated Catalogue of the Species of CyprceidiB collected in

the South Sea Islands. [75 and 7 sp.] Journ. of Conch., II., pp. 105-28.

Gassies, J. B., and E. P. Montbouzier. — Uudescribed Shells from New

Caledonia.

[Succinea viridicata ; Zonites Savesi ; Bulimns (SubuUna) Pronyensis ; Melampus

Frayssci ; Scarabus regnlaris ; S. intermedins ; S. lacteolus ; Physa perhwida ;

Keritina suavis ; Ntwicella nana."] Journ. de Conchy., XIX., pp. 125-36.

Gibbons, J. S., M.B. — Comparison of Omalonyx unguis D'Orb. with 0. felina

Guppy. Journ. of Conch., II., pp. 99-101.

„ „ ,, Descriptions of two New Species of Land Shells, and

Eemarks on others collected on the East African Coast.

\_Ennea Taylori ; Stenogyra lucida.'] Journ. of Conch., II., pp. 138-45.

„ „ „ Land Shells collected at Puerto Plata, San Domingo.

Jnirn. of Conch., II., p. 209.
„ ,, „ Notes on some of the Land Shells of Curasao, W.I.,

with Descriptions of two New Species. [Cionella Gloynii ; Succinca gyrata.']

Journ. of Conch., pp. 135-7.

„ „ „ Notes on the Habits and Distribution, &c., of certain

West Indian Pulmonifera. Jonrn. of Conch., II., pp 129-34.

GoDwiN-AusTEN, Lt.-Col. H, H., F.Z.S., &c. — Description of two New Species

of Plectopylis, a Subgenus of the Helicidse. \_Helix (P.) rninor ; P. Ifanlct/i.']

Aim. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., p. 163.
Jeffreys, J. Gwtn, LL.D., F.R.S. — Notes on Colonel Montagu's Collection of
British Shells. Journ. of Conch., II., pp. 1-4.

Kowalevsky, Prof. A. — On the Development of the Chitons.

Zool. Ameig., II., pp. 469-73.
Legband, W. — Notes on a few Tasmanian Land and Fresh-water Shells.

Journ. of Conch., II., pp. 95-6.
Locard, a. — Description of the Malacological Fauna of the Quaternary
Strata of tlie Environs of Lyons. 207 pp. 1 plate. (From ' Ann. Soc. d'Agr.
et d'Hist. Nat. Lyon.') [22 gen., 80 sp.] 8vo. Lyons and Paris, 1879.

Lowe, E. J., F.R.S., &c., and C. T. MrssoN.-^Nottinghamshire Land and

Fresh-water Sliells. [99 sp.] Midi. Aat., pp. 197-200.

Markat, F. p. — Nassa trifasciata Gmelin. Journ. of Conch., II., p. 79.

„ „ Note on Kassa elegans Sow. „ „ pp. 78-9.

Martens, E. v.— Trilobites and Limuli. Naturf., XII., pp. 337-8.

Mazyck, \Vm. G.— Note on the Geographical Distribution of Crcpidula aculeata

Gmelin. Journ. of Conch., II., p. 78.

JIeneghini, Prof. G. — Description of New Tithonian Cephalopods of Monte

Prime and Sanvicino. 8 figs, of Plate 10.

\_rhyUoccras Ganavarii ; Simoceras Ludovicii ; Aspidoceras Montisprimi ; Rhynchc-
teiithis titonica, R, denticulata.'] Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., V. pp. 131-8.

Mojsisovics, Dr. E. von. — Brief Preliminary Summary of the Genera of
Ammonites of the Mediterranean and Juvavian Trias.

Verh. Gcol. Reichsanst., 1879, pp. 133-43.
„ ,, On some new Discoveries of Fossils in the East

Carpathians. Verh. Geol. Reichsanst., 1879, pp. 189-91.

Nelson, W. — A Variation in the Colour of the Animal of Planorbis comeus.

Journ. of Conch., II., p. 150.
,, „ Zmm-ca /icrcf/m Muller, in Tasmania. ,, „ p. 4.

„ „ Valvata cristata in the Vale of York. ,, „ p. 185.

„ „ Clausilia rugosa var. albida, at Smeaton, Yorkshire.

Journ. of Conch., II., p. 185.

NoRJiAN, Kev. A. M. — On the Occurrence of Ncomcnia (Solenopus) in the

British Seas. Ann. if Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 164-6.

792 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Norman, Rev. A. M. — The Mollusca of the Fiords near Bergen, Norway.

Journ. of Conch., II., pp. 8-77.
Parkinson, C. — The Cephalopoda of the Chalk Marl and Upper Greensand,
Isle of Wight. 12 figs. Sci.-Goss!p, No. 177, pp. 204-5.

Perez, Prof. J.— Researclies on the Phenomena which precede the Segmenta-
tion of the Ovum in Helix {N, aspersa). Plates 27-8.

Journ. Anat. et Phys. (Robin), XV., pp. .329-401.
Petteed, W. F. — Colonising Land Shells.

\_Bulimus, 1 ; Helix, 4; LimncB i, 1 ; Planorbis, 1.]

Jonni. of Conch., II., pp. 96-8.
„ „ Discovery of D!p?omj9Aa/ws in Tasmania.

Jouni. of Conch., II., p. 219.
„ „ Discovery of Gundlachia [^Petterdi'] in Tasmania.

Journ. of Conch., II., p. 137.
„ „ List of the Freth-water Shells of Tasmania. [36 sp.]

Jo'ini. of Conch., II., pp. SO-8.
„ „ New Species of Tasmanian Marine Shells. [7 n. sp.]

Journ. of Conch., II., pp. 102-5.
EossMASSLER, E. A , and Dr. W. Kobelt. — Iconography of Land and Fresh-
water Molhisca. Vol. VL 158 pp. Plates 151-178. 8vo. Wiesbaden, 1879.

Smith, E. A., F.Z.S.~On a Collection of Mollusca from Japan. Plates
19 & 20. [89 sp., 42 n. sp.] Proc. Zool. Soc, 1879, pp. 181-218.

SouvERBiE, Dr. — Description of an Undescribed Narica from New Caledonia.

\_N. Montrouzieri.'] Journ. de Conchy., XIX., p. 136,

Taylor, J. W. — Note on Cochlicopa tridens Pulteney.

Journ. of Conch., II., p. 220-1.
„ ,, Occurrence of a New British Variety, Pupa secale var.

Boileausiana Charp. Journ. of Conch., II., p. 5.

,, „ Description of a New Variety of Pupa secale var. edentula.

Journ of Conch., II., p. 5.
TouENOUER, R. — Description of some New Species of Fossil Shells of the
Tertiary Strata of Spain and Portugal. Plate 6.

[Fusus Almeras, Nassa ? Tarraconensis ; Bulimus (^Plecocheilus ?) Riheiroi ;
B.? Olisipponcnsis ; Pupa? Lusitanica.']

Journ. de Conchy., XIX., pp. 168-77.
VatssiIire, a. — Description of Marionia Berghii. Plate 7.

[Classification — Tritoniadse between Tritonia and Scyllea, nearer the latter.]
Journ. de Conchy., XIX., pp. 106-18.
Watson, Rev. R. Boog, B.A., &c.— Mollusca of H.M.S. 'Challenger ' Expedi-
tion. IV. TrochiAai {continued), viz. the genera Basilissa (1) and Trochus (16), and
the Turbinidse, viz. the genus Turbo (3). [All n. sp.]

Journ. Linn. Soc. {Zool.), XIV., pp. 692-716.

Woodward, H., LL.D., F.R.S., &c. — Notes on a Collection of Fossil Shells, &c.,

from Sumatra (obtained by M. Verbrek, Director of the Geological Survey of the

West Coast, Sumatra). Part I. Plate 10. Geol. Mag., VI., pp. 385-93.

Molluscoida.

Busk, G., F.R.S., &c. — On recent Species of Heteropora. Plate 15.

\_H. Neozelanica.'] Journ. Linn. Soc. {Zool.), XIV., pp. 724-6.

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.*
Breitenbach, W. — On the Classification of the Lepidoptera.

Zool, Anzeig., II., pp. 427-8.
Bcckler, W. — Natural History of Dianthcecia Barretti.

Entomol. M. Mag., XVI., pp. 52-5.
Fitch, E. A. — Pea Enemies. Entomol., XII., pp. 194-7.

Fitzwilliam, S. — Economic Entomology {continued). „ „ pp. 197-201.

Omitting lists and descriptions of new species, local fauna, &c.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 793

Fripp, H. E., M.D. — An account of some Experiments on Insect Hearing.

Proc. Brist. Nat. Sue, II., pp. 374-82.

„ „ On the Faculty of Hearing and the Tympanal Organ

of certain Orthoptera. Proc. Brist. Nat. Soc, 11., pp. 351-73.

Fritsch, K. — Annual Period of the Insect-fauna of Austria-Hungary. IV.

Lepidoptera. 1. The Rhopalocera. Plates 1-4.

Denkschr. Akad. Wlss. Wien, XXXIX., pp. 79-142.

Goss, H., F.L.S., &c. — Introductory Papers ou Fossil Entomology. No. 8.

Mcsuzoic time. [On the Insecta of the Crttaceous period and the Animals and

Plants witli which they were correlated.] EntonuA. M. Mag., XVI., pp. 58-60.

Hyatt, J. D.— The Structure of the Tongue of the Honey-Bee. Plate 20.

Am. Q'lart. Micr. Journ., I., pp. 287-93.
Licldenstein, J. — On the Metamorphoses of the Blister-beetle (^Ljtta vesica-
toriii). ( Transl. from ' Comptes Eendus.')

Ann. 4- Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 169-70.
LrBKOCK, Sir J., Burt., M.P., F.R.S., &c. — On the Anatomy of Auts.
Abstract. Jvurn. Linn. Soc. (ZooL), XIV., pp. 738-9.

McLachlan, R., F.R.S., &c. — The recent abundance of Vanessa canlul.

Entomol. M. Mag., XVI.. pp. 49-51.

MosLEY, S. L. — Persistent variation among the British Species of Butterflies

(concluded). Naturalist, V., pp. 4-10.

MtJLLEE, F.— On the Phryganeidse. ZooL Anzeig., H., pp. 405-7.

Oemerod, E. a., F.M.S.— Undescribed Oak-Galls. 3 figs.

Entomol., XII., pp. 193-4.
Osborne, J. A., M.D. — Further Observations on the Pupation of the
Nymphalidse. Entomol. M. Mag., XVI., pp. 55-88.

Patton, \V. H. — Observations on the Genus Macropis.

Am. Journ. Sci. # Arts, XVIIL, pp. 211-4.
Perkins, V. R. — Notes on Spercheus emargiivitus, &c.

Entomol., XII., pp. 214-6.
Saunders, W. — Insect Powder. Am. Nat., XIIL, pp. 572-4.

ScHLECHTENDAL, D. H. R. von, and Dr. O. WtJxscHE. The Insects. 1st part.
267 pp. 7 phxtes. 8vo. Leipzig, 1879.

SwiNTON, A. H.— Audition of the Cicadidse.

Entomol. M. Mag., XVI., pp. 79-82.
TouRNiER, H. — Materials fur a Monograph of the European and Circum-
European Species of the Genus Myllocerus Schh.

Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., XXIL, pp. 109-14.
Wagner, N. — On the Structure of the Cephalic Ganglia of Insects.

Comptes Rendus, LXXXIX., pp. 378-9.
Weston. W. P. -The Tortricos of Surrey, Kent, and Sussex.

Entomol., XII., pp. 186-8, 216-20.

V- Aracbnida.

Becker, L. — AraneiJaj of the Netherlands.

Ann. Soc. E7it. Belg., XXIL, CR., pp. xxsix.-slviii.
„ „ Catalogue of the Arachuida of Belgium. III.

Ann. Soc. Eat. Belg., XXIL, pp. 101-8.
„ „ Diagnoses of new American Araneidse. Plates 1 & 2.

[1 uov, gen., Micariaulax ; 12 nov. sp.]

A7in. Soc. Ent. Belg., XXIL, pp. 77-86.
„ „ Pesume of the Indigenous Spiders.

Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., XXIL, CR., pp. xxxiii.-iv.
Cambridge, 0. P., M.A., C.M.Z.S., &c.— On some new and little-known
Species of Araneidea, with Remarks on the Genus Gasteracantha. Plates i^6 & 27.
\_Gasteracdntha, 23, 19 n. sp. ; Paraplectana, 1.]

Proc. ZooL Soc, 1879, pp. 279-93.
„ „ „ On some new and rare British

Spiders, with Characters of a new Genus. Plate 12.
[1 n. gen., Theridiosoma ; 15 n. sp.]

Ayin. 4- Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 190-215.
Cronebekg, a.— On the Poison-glands of Solpuga. Zod. Anzcij., II., pp. 450 -1 .

794 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Hagen, Trof. Dr. H.— Hole-inhabiting Chelifers of North America.

Z(jol. Amclg., II., pp. 399-400.
Kabsch, Dr. F.— On a New Genus of Laterigradse from Zanzibar.

[Thomisops pupa ; T. 2msi'o.'] Zeitschr. ges. Natunciss.. LII., pp. 374-6.

„ „ West African Arachnida, collected by Dr. Falkenstein.

5 fig3. [52 sp., 29 n. sp., 2 nov. gen., Aetrocantha, Natta.']

Zeitschr. ges. Naturwiss., LII., pp. 329-73.
Simon, E. — Note on the Epeu'idse of the Sub-family of Arcyinae.

Ann. Soc. Eat. Belg., XXII., OR., pp. Iv.-lx.
Taczanowski, L. — The Araneidse of Peru. Plate 4.
[67 sp., 55 n. sp. ; 1 n. gen., Chirothecia.']

Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, LIII., pp. 278-374.
Treat, Mrs. M.— The Habits of a Tarantula. 2 figs.

Am. Nat., XIII., pp. 485-9.
5. Crustacea.

Blanc, H. — On the Asellus from the Deep Zone of the Lake of Geneva.

Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 428-31.
Forrest, H. E.— On a New Entomostracon \_Daphnia Bairdit]. Plate 4.

Midi. Nat., II., p. 217.

Fredericq, L., and G. Vandevelue — Physiology of the Muscles and Nerves

of the Lobster. Bull. Acad. Sci. Belg., XL VII., pp. 771-97.

Giard, ^.— Notes towards the History of the Genus Entoniscus. Plate 10.

[Transl. from ' Journ. Auat. et. Phys.' (Robin).]

Ann. 4- Hag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 137-57.
Graham, W.— F.R.M.S., &c.—Zeptodora hyalina. Plate 5.

Midi. Nat., 11., pp. 225-6.

Haswell, "W. a., &c. — On two new Species of Crabs of tbe Genus Stenorhiju-

chus. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. W., III., pp. 408-9.

Jones, Prof. T. Rf pert, F.R.S., &c. — Notes on the Palreozoic Bivalved Ento-

mostraca. (No. XIII.) Entomis serratostriata and others of the so-called

" Cypridinen " of the Devonian Schists of Germany. Plate 1 1 .

Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 182-7.
KiNGSLEY, J. S.— Notes on American Crustacea. Am. Nat., XIII., pp. 584-5.
Norman, Rev. A. M., M.A. — Remarks on the recent Eryontidse.

Ann. Sf Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 173-82.
Wrzesniowski, Prof. A.— Preliminary Communications on some Amphipoda.
VI. Contributions to the Anatomy of the Amphipoda. (In part.)

Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 447-50, 465-9.
Yung, E. — On the Action of the principal Poisons on Crustacea.

Comptes Bendus, LXXXIX., pp. 183-4.
„ „ Researclies on the Intimate Structure and the Functions of the
Central Nervous System of the Decapod Crustacea {concluded). Plates 27-30.

Arch. Zool. {Lacaze-Didhiers), VII., pp. 449-534.
„ „ Experimental Researches on the Functions of the Nervous System
of Crustacea. (Resume' of preceding with additions.)

Arch. Sci. Phys. ^ Nat., II., pp. 137-74.

Vermes.

Fraisse, Dr. P.— On Spermatopliores in the Earthworms. Plate 4.

Arbeit. Zool.-Zoot. Inst. Wiirzbu7-g, V., pp. 38-55.

Fullager, J.— a New Rotifer. 1 fig. [sp. ?] Sci.-Gossip, No. 177, pp. 200-1.

Greeff, Prof. Dr. R. — Tgphloscolex Mulleri W. Busch. Supplement to his
* On Ptlagic Annelids of the Coasts of the Canary Islands.' Plate 39.

Zeitschr. iriss. Zool., XXXII., pp. 661-671.

Haswell, W. a., M.A., &c.— On six New Species of Annelids belonging to
the Family Amphinomidse. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. W., III., pp. 341-7.

HuBRECHT, Dr. A. A. W. — Preliminary Results of further Researches on the
Nemerteaus. ^'-'ol. Anzeig., II., pp. 474-6.

Hudson, C. T., M.A., LL.D., &c.— On the Rotifers by Dark-field Illumi-
nation. Jotu-n. Que':- Micr. Club, No. 40, pp. 164-6.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA. MICROSCOPYj ETC. 795

Langerhans, Prof. Dr. P. — The Worm Fauna of Madeira. Plates 31-3.

Zeitschr. iciss. ZooL, XXXII., pp. 513-92.

Leuckart, K.— Genera] Natural History of Parasites. 216 pp. 91 figs. 8vo.
Leipzia; and Heidelberg, 1879.

M'Intosh, W. C. LL.D., F.R.S., &c.— On a remarkably branched Syllis,
dredged by H.M.S. ' Challenger." Jouni. Linn. Soc. {ZooL), XIV., pp. 720-4.

ViGfiER, C. — Comparative Anatomy of the Hirudinea : Organization of
Batracobdella (5. Latasti C. Vig.). Comptes Eendus, LXXXIX., pp. 110-12.

I'iguier, C. — On the Organization of BatrachohdcUa (B. Latasti C. Vig.),
(^Transl, of preceding.) Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 250-1.

Echinodermata.

Bell, F. J., B.A. — Observations on the Characters of the Echinoidca. I. On
the Species of the Genus Brissus, and on the allied forms Meoma and Metalia.

Proc. ZooL Soc, 1879, pp. 249-55.

Ltjdwig, Dr. H. — The Oral Skeleton of the Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea. 1 fig.

Zeitschr. wiss. ZooL, XXXII., pp. 672-88.

„ „ Note on the peculiar Organ of the Sea-Urchin described by

Dr. F. C. Noll. ZooL Anzeif/., II., pp. 455-6.

Manzoni, Dr. A. — The Fossil Echinodermata of Bologna. Plates 1 -4.

Dcnkschr. Akod. Wiss. Wien, XXXIX., pp. 149-64.
Taylor, J. E., Ph.D., &c. — Our common British Fossils and where to find
them. No. VIII. 8 figs. {Tn part.) ["Sea-Urchins."]

Sci. -Gossip, No. 176, pp. 179-182.

Coelenterata.

Bedwell, F. a., M.A., &c. — On the Urticating Threads of Actinia parasitica.
Plate 10. Journ. Quek. Micr. Cluh., No. 40, pp. 159-163.

D'AcHiARDi, A. — New Species of Trochocyathus from the Tithonian Limestones
of Monte Primo, near Camerino in the Central Apennines. 3 figs, of Plate 10.

[r. Canavarii.'] Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., V., pp. 139-140.

Haacke, Dr. W.— On the Blastology of the Corals : a morpliological study.
Plate 15. Jen. Zeitschr. Naturwiss., XIII., pp. 269-320.

JouBDAN, E. — On the Malacodermic Zoantharia of the Coast of Marseilles.

Comptes Eendus, LXXXIX., pp. 452-3.
Koch, G. v.— Eemarks on the Skeleton of Corals. Plate 20.

Morph. Jahrb., V., pp. 316-23.
Moscley, H. W., F.B.S.— On the Structure of the Stylasterida; : a Family of
Hydroid Stony Corals. Abstract of his Paper— Croonian Lecture — in the
' Philosophical Transactions.' Nature, XX., pp. 339-41.

Nicholson, Prof. H. A., M.D., &c., and R. Etheridge, jun., F.G.S. — Descrip-
tions of Palseozoic Corals from Northern Queensland, with Observations on the
Genus Stenopora. (In jxirt.) Plate 14. [7 sp., 2 n. sp.]

Ann. 4- Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 216-26.
Eathbun, R. — Brazilian Corals and Coral Reefs. 1 fig.

Am. Nat., XIH., pp. 539-51.
Porifera.
CzERNiAVSKi, W. — Littoral Sponges of the Black and Caspian Seas. Pre-
liminary Investigation. Plates 5-8. [In Russian. 44 sp., 22 n. sp. ; 4 n. gen.,
Protoschmidtia, Tcdaniella, Pellinula, Protesperia.']

BulL Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, LIIL, pp. 375-97.
Mazzetti, G., and A. Manzoni. — The Fossil Sponges of Montese. Plates
8 & 9. ICraticularia, sp., Chenendopora, sp.]

Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., V., pp. 57-66.
ScHULZE, F. E.— Researches on the Structure and Development of Sponges.
Seventh Communication. The Family of the Spongidse. Plates 34-8.

Zeitschr. iciss. ZooL, XXXII., pp. 593-660.
Syen, Rev. H. W., M.A. — The Structure and Distribution of Sponges.

Sci.-Gossip, No. 177, pp. 197-9,

Zittel, K. A.- Studies on Fossil Sponges, V. Calcispongite (continued). {TransL

from ' Abh. Bay. Akad. Mtinchen.') Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist , IV., pp. 120-35.

796 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Protozoa,

Cakpenteb, Dr. W. B., F.R.S., &c.— The Eozoon Canadense.

Nature, XX., pp. 328-9.
Carter, H. J., F.R.S., &c. — On the growth of Stromatopora, including the
Commensalism of Caunopora. Ann. ^ Hag. Nat. Hist,, IV., pp. 101-6.

Dodel-Port, Prof.— See Algae.

Forrest, H. E. — On Carchesium spectabile. Midi. Nat., II., p. 204.

George, F. i .—Eugkna {!) viridis and its bulbed Flagellum. 3 figs.

[ ? Larvae of Hydatina senta.'] Sci.-Gossip, No. 176, pp. 184-5,

Kdntze, 0. — How did Eozoon originate, and is Graphite a Proof of Organic

Beings in the Laurentian Peri(jd? Nature, XX., pp. 425-6,

MoBii s, Prof. K. — Is Eozoon a Fossil Pihizopod or a Mineral ? 31 pp. 21 fio-s.

8vo. Halle, 1879.

„ ,, Principal .J. W. Dawson's Criticism of my Memoir " On

the Structure of Eozoon Canadense compared with that of Foraminifera. 2 figs.

Am. Journ. Sci. ^ Arts, XVII., pp. 177-85.
Schneider, Prof. A. — Mondbia confluens ; New Monera. Plate 31.

Arch. Zool. {Lacaze-Duthiers), VII., pp. 585-8.
Whitney, J. D. — The Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California.
(4 plates and 7 maps and sections.) [The Infusorial Rocks, pp. 220-31.]

Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Cambridge, VI., pp. 1-288.

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology of the
Phanerogamia.

Bakthelemy, Ch. — Note on the Hydrophorous Reservoirs of Dipsacus.

Ann. Sci. Nat. (Dot), VII., pp. 340-6.

Behrens, Dr. W. J. — The Nectaries of Flowers. Anatomical- physiological
Researches {continued). Flora, I.XII., pp. 369-75,

Bonnier, G.— Study of the Anatomy and Physiology of Nectaries.

Bull. Soc. hot. France, XXV., pp. 262-70.

,, „ The Nectaries : Critical, Anatomical, and Physiological Study.

{In part.) Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), VIII., Nos. (1 & 2), pp. 5-128.

BuRGERSTEiN, Dr. A. — Researches on the Relations of the Nutriment to the
Transpiration of Plants. II. SB. Akad. Wien, LXXVIII. (1st Sec), pp. 607-37.

Capus, G. — Anatomy of the Conducting Tissue [of the Stvle] {concluded).
Plates 18-24. Ann. Sci. Nat. {Bot.), VII., pp. 249-91.

Cunningham, D.D., M.B. — On certain effects of Starvation on Vegetable
and Animal Tissue?. 47 pp. 11 figs. 4to. Calcutta, 1879.

Henniger, K. a. — On Hybridization in the Vegetable Kingdom (contin'icd).
Flora. LXII., pp. 321-9; 344-52; 365-8; 3S0-4: 391-6.

Jest, Dr. L. — Botanischer Jabresberieht. Fifth year (1877). 2nd diviaiou.
pp. 321. 8vo. Berlin, 1879.

Macpas, E.— See Zoology A.

Michel, M. — Review of the principal Publications on Vegetable Physiology
in 1878. Arch. Sci. Phi/s. ^ Nat., II., pp. 175-202 ; 257-304.

MoissAN, H. — On the Volumes of Oxygen absorbed and Carbonic Acid
emitted in the Respiration of Plants. Ann. Set. Nat. ( Pot.), VII , pp. 292-339.

Moore, S. Le M. — Mimicry of Seeds and Fruits and the Functions of Siminal
Appendages. Preliminary Notice. Joum. Bot., VIII., pp. 271-4.

Prior, R. C. A., M.U.,"&c.— On the Popular Names of British Plants, being
an exj)lanation of the origin and meaning of the names of our indigenous and
most commonly cultivated species. 3rd edition. 294 pp. 8vo. London, 1879.

Sturtevant, E. X., M.D. — Seed-breeding. (From Report of Secretary of Conn.
Board of Agriculture, 1878.) M. Journ. Sci., I., pp. 531-64.

Vesque, J. — New Researches on the Development of the Embryo-sac of
Angiosperms. ^ot. Zeit.. XXXVII., pp. 505-9.

Wiesner, J.— Heliotropic Phenomena in the Vegetable Kingdom. A Physio-
logical Monograph. Part I. 1 fig.

Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XXXIX. (Sec. 1), pp. 143-209.

INVEETEBKATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 797

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Andersox, Dr. C. L. — Spores with a Spore Glossar}'.

A7n. Quart. Mia: Journ., I., pp. 260-8,
Bagnall, J. E. — The Cryptogamic Flora of Warwickshire. {In part.)

Midi Nat., II., pp. 220-4.
Eyferth, B. — The Simplest Forms of Life {concluded).

{Transl. with additions.) Am. Quart. Micr. Journ., I., pp. 305-10.

Fray, J. P. — List of Phanerogams and Semi-vascular Cryptogams of the
Department of the Ain. 24 pp. 8vo. Bourg, 1879.
Grisebach, a. — Symbolse ad floram Argentinam.

[Cryptogamia, pp. 340- 5.] Abh. A'. Gcscll. Wiss. GiJttingen, XXIV., 346 pp.
Kny, L.— Botanical Wall Charts. Division III. Nos. XXI.-XXX.

[_Feronospora calotheca ; Mucor Mucedo ; Puccinia graminis ; Nemalion multifi-

dum ; Lejolisia Mediterranea ; Dudresnaya coccinea; ffippwis vulgaris;

Elodea Canadensis^ Berlin, 1879.

Rauwenhoff, N. W. p. — On the first Phenomena of Germination in the

Spores of Cryptogams. But. Zcit., XXXVII., pp. 441-8 ; 457-66.

ScHMALHAusEN, J. — Contributions to the Jurassic Flora of Russia.

Bid/. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petershonrg, XXV., pp. 345-8.
Wagner, H. — Cryptogamic Herbarium. Parts 1, 4, 5 and 7. 8vo. Bielefeld,
1879.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.
Clarke, C. B., F.L.S.— Ferns of North India. Abstract.

Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), XVII., pp. 402-4.

Jenman, G. S.— Second Supplement to the Jamaica Ferns recorded in Grise-

bach's ' Flora of the British West Indies.' Journ. Bot., VIII., pp. 257-63.

Prantl, Prof. K.— On the Development of the Prothallium of Salvinia nutans.

Bot. Zeit., XXXVII., pp. 425-32.

Muscineae.
Davies, G. — Brachythccium salehrosum Hoffm. Grevillea, VIII., p. 24.

Mt'LLER, Dr. K. — Musci Africse orientali-tropicse Hildebrandtiani. [9 sp.]

Flora, LXIL, pp. 376-80.
„ „ Musci Fendleriani Venezuelenses. (In part.)

[71 sp. ; 45 n. sp.] Lmmva, XLII., pp. 461-80.

„ „ Prodromus Bryologise Agentinicae. I. {Concluded.) [205 sp.]

Linna;a, XLII., pp. 385-460.
Wesley, J. S., M.B. — List of Mosses occurring near Wetherby in the Vice-
County of Mid-West York. Naturalist, V., pp. 17-19.
Fungi.
Bel, J. A. le. — On Synthetic Methylpropylcarbinol — active Residue of the
Moulds. Comptes Re^idus, LXXXIX., pp. 312-5.
BoiiMER, E., and M. RorssEAU.— Catalogue of the Fungi observed in the
Environs of Brussels. Bull. Soc. Boy. Bot. Belg., XVIIL, pp. 61-219.
BrcKNALL, C, Mus. Bac— The Fungi of the Bristol District. Part 2.

Proc. Brist. Nat. Soc, II., pp. 341-50.
Cochin, D. — On the Non-existence of a Soluble Alcoholic Ferment.

Com2Jtes Bendus, LXXXIX., pp. 315-6.
Cooke, M. C. — New British Fungi {continued). [76 sp.]

Grevillea, VIII., pp. 1-11.
„ „ On Peniophora. Plates 122-6. „ „ pp. 17-21.

„ ,, Fungi Britannici exsiccati. Cent. VII. (List of species.)

Grevillea, VIII., pp. 21-3.
„ „ Undescribed Fungi in the Kew Herbarium. [7 sp.]

Grevillea, VIII., pp. 34-5,
„ „ On Sphceria quercuum, Schwz. „ „ pp. 35-6,

„ „ Spegazzini's Decades Mycologiae Italics.

Grevillea, VIII., pp. 36-7.
Cooke, M. C, and J. B. Ellis, — New Jersey Fungi {continued). [43 sp.]

Grevillea, VIIL, pp. 11-16.
VOL. II. 3 G

798 BIBLIOGBAPHY OF

CkJRNU, M. — No te on two Ustilaginei. [ U. Vaillantii ; Thecaphora affiiiis.']

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., 283-5.
, „ Enumeration of the Peronospora of France.

Bull. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., pp. 293-300.

„ ,, The Smnt of the common Onion (Allium cepa), a new Disease

originating in America, caused by one of the Ustilaginei (tfrocystis ca;pula:

Farlow). Comptes Ecndus, LXXXIX., pp. 51-3.

CoRNU, Max, and Ch. Brogniaet. — Note on an Epidemic on Diptera of the

Genus Syrphics, caused by a Fungus {Entomophthora).

Ann. Soc. Entom. Belg., XXII., CR., pp. xxxvi.-vii.
Eberth, Prof. C. J. — On a new pathogenic Bacillus. Plate 2.

Arch. path. A7iat. ^ Phys. ( Virchow), LXXVIL, pp. 29-34.
Frank, Prof. B. — On the Parasites in the Tuberous Swellings in the Roots
of the PapilionaceEB (concluded). Plate 5. Bot. Zeit., XXXVII., pp. 393-iOO.

Gravis, A. — Schinzia alni Woronine. Anatomical Observations on the Excres-
cences of the Roots of the Alder. Plate 1.

Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belg., XVIII., pp. 50-60.
Harz, C. v. — A New Microooccus-ioxm. in the living Animal. (Sep. imp. from
' Zeitschr. f. Thiermed.') 14 pp. 1 plate. 8vo. Leipzig, 1879.

HowsE, T., F.L.S. — The Oryptogamic Flora of Kent — Fungi (continued).

Journ. Bot., VIII., pp. 236-42.

Kny, L. — On Prof. B. Frank's ' Parasites in the Root-swellings of the

Papilionace*.' Bot. Zeit., XXXVII., pp. 537-44.

Kranch, — . — Contributions to the Knowledge of the unformed Ferments in

the Vegetable Kingdom. (Abstr. from ' Landw. Versuchsst.')

Naturf., XII., p. 296.
MiLLARDET, A.— The " Pourridie' " (rot) of the Vine.

Comptes Rend'(s, LXXXIX., pp. 379-82.
Phillips, W., F.Ij.S. —On Helvella Californica. Abstract.

Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), XVIL, p. 402.

PoETSCH, Dr. J. S. — New Austrian Fungi. [Dcedalea Schulzeri ; D. Poetschii.']

Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., pp. 289-91.

Prazmowski, a. — On the History of Development and Ferment- action of some

Species of Bacteria. Preliminary Communication.

Bot. Zeit., XXXVII., pp. 409-24.
QuELET, Dr. L. — New Fungi of the Jura. [8 sp.] Grevillea, VII., pp. 37-8.
„ „ Some New Species of Fungi. [32 sp.] Plate 3.

Bui. Soc. Bot. France, XXV., pp. 287-92.
Behm, Dr. — Remarks on some Ascomycetes. Hedwigia, XVIII., pp. 113-15.
ScHROETEB, Dr. J. — Protomyces graminicola Saccardo.

Hedwigia, XVIIL, pp. 83-7.

Schulzer, S.— Mycological Notes. Flora, LXIL, pp. 385-91.

Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., pp. 245-6.

Spegazzini, C. — Decades Mycologicse Italicse. Dec. 1, 2, and 3. Milan,

1879.

Tieghem, Ph. van. — Identity of Bacillus Amylobacter and the butyric Vibrion

of M. Pasteur. Comptes Rendus, LXXXIX., pp. 5-8.

., „ On Ascococcus mesenteroides Cienk., and the Transformation

which it causes in Cane Sugar. Btdl. Soc Bot. France, XXV., pp. 271-4.

Waldstein, Dr. L. — A Contribution to the Biology of the Bacteria. Plate 3.

Arch. path. Anat. ^ Phys. (\irchow), LXXVIL, pp. 34-68.

Winter, Dr. G. — Request to all Mycologists.

[For co-operation in an intended ' Fimgus-Flora.']

Hedwigia, XVIIL, pp. 81-2.
ZcKAL, H.— Mycological Notices. Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., pp. 249-50.

Lichenes.
Arnold, Dr. F. — Lichenological Fragments, XXI.

Flora, LXIL, pp. 329-32, 362-5, 396-400.
(Cooke, M. C.)— Preparations of Lichens (Joshua's). Grevillea, VIIL, pp. 31-3.
Ckombie, Rev. J. M., F.L.S. — New British Lichens. [8 sp.]

Grevillea, VIIL, pp. 28-30.

INVERTEBEATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 799

Crojibie, Rev. J. M., F.L.S. — Enumeration of Australian Lichens in Herb.
Robert Brown (Brit. Mus), with Descriptions of New Species.

[75 sp. ; 1 n. gen. ; 12 n. sp.] Jonm. Linn. Soc. {Bot), XVII., pp. 390-401.

„ „ Vitricole Lichens and the Schwendeuerian

Hypotliesis. Grevillea, VIII., pp. 30-1.

Fries, Prof. T. M.— On the Lichens collected during the English Polar

Expedition of 1875-6.

[102 sp. ; 6 n. sp.] Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), XVII., pp. 346-70.

Lindsay, W. L., M.D., &c.— Experiments on the Colorific Properties of

Lichens. Grevillea, VIII., pp. 25-8.

Nylander, W. — Addenda nova ad Lichenographiam Europseam. No. 32.

[20 sp.] Flora, LXII., pp. 353-62.

Alg8B.

(Ck)OKE, M. C.)— Preparations of Algae (Vize's). Grevillea, VIII., pp. 38-9.
Delogne, C. H. — Tryblionella ovata Lagerstedt.

Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., V., pp. 227-9.

Dodel-Port, Prof. — On the Fertilization of Red Seaweeds by Infusoria.

4 figs. {Ahstr.-) Mature, XX., pp. 463-5.

Hauck, F. — Contributions to the Knowledge of the Adriatic Algae. XII.

Plate 4.

[_Myriotrichia ? repens, n. sp. ; Streblonema sphcericum ; Myrionema orhiculare ;
Symploca violacea, n. sp. ; Oscillaria Spongelice.']

Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., pp. 242-5.

KiTTON, F. — The Diatomacese of New Forest. Sci.-Gossip, No. 177, p. 206.

KuNTZE, Dr. O. — On the Relationship of Algse with Phanerogams. {In part.)

Plate 10. Flora, LXII., pp. 401-16.

Maupas, E.—Ou. the Systematic Position of the Volvocinese, and on the

Limits of the Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms. (Transl. from ' Comptes

Rendus.') Ann. <| Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 170-2.

Phipson, T. L. — On the Colouring Matter of Palmella cruenta.

Comptes Rendus, LXXXIX., pp. 316-18.
Reinke, J.— Two parasitic Algge. Plate 6. Bot. Zeit., XXXVII., pp. 473-8.
RiCHTER, P. — Algarura species novae.

\_Hyphcothrix roseola ; Schizogonium salinum.'] Hedwigia, XVIII., pp. 97-8.
WiTTROCK, V. B. — On the Spore-formation of the Mesocarpeae, and especially
of the new Genus Gonatonerna. 18 pp., 1 plate. 8vo. Stockholm, 1879.
TiVKM,, H. — A Case of Parthenogenesis in one of the Conjugatae.

Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., pp. 294-5.

MICROSCOPY, &o.

Alleged Improvements in the Microscope. Am. Joum. Micr., IV., pp. 137-9.
Cox, Hon. J. D. — Microscopical Work. (Letter.)

Am. Journ. Micr., IV., pp. 131-4.
Cutter, E., M.D. — Microphotography with Tolles's ■j^r-i'icli Objective.
2 figs. Am. Journ. Sci. ^ Arts, XVIII., pp. 93-8.

Field, H. — How to make a Compressorium. 3 figs.

Sci.- Gossip, No. 176, p. 185.
FovQrE, F. — The modern Applications of the Microscope to Geology.

Pev. Deux Mondes, XXXIV., pp. 406-31.
Fripp, H. E., M.D. — Is there a Science of Microscopy ?

Proc. Prist. Nat. Soc, II., pp. 301-37.
Hitchcock, Prof. R. — Aperture, Angular and Numerical.

Am. Quart. Micr. Journ., I., pp. 284-7.
Kadyi, Dr. H. — Soap as an imbedding substance for making Microscopic
Sections. Zool, Anzeig., II., pp. 476-9.

Mancestrian, — . — Cells for Dry Objects.

[Ring of shellac on slide, paper placed on it, and cell cut out by turntable.]

Sci.-Gossip, No. 176, p. 184.

800 BIBLIOGBAPHY OF INVERTEBKATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, ETC.

Matthews, J., M.D., &c.— On the " Micro-Megascope."

Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, No. 40, pp. 167-9.
Mayall, J., jun. — Measuring Aperture. Am. Quart. Micr. Journ., I., pp. 283-4.

MiCROMETRIC EULING.

(By Rogers and Fasoldt: 120,000 to 150,000 lines to the inch.")

Am. Nat., XIII., p. 535.

Oppenheimer, L. S.— Contributions from the Microscopical Laboratory of the

University of Louisville. 1 plate. Louisville M. News, p. 306.

EoYSTON-PiGOTT, G. W., M.A., M.D., F.E.S. — Microscopical Researches in

High-power Definition. Abstract. Proe. Boy. Soc, XXIX., pp. 164-6.

Stuarf, E. 5.— The Use of thie Microscope in Pharmacy. (Lecture.) (From

' The Pharmacist and Chemist.') Am. Journ. Micr., IV., pp. 127-30.

T. R. I. — Hints for Young Microscopists. No. 2. 1 fig.

[Arrangement for a dissecting table.] Sci.-Gossip, No. 177, p. 200.

VoGEL, Prof. Dr. J. — The Microscope and the Methods of Microscopic Research
in their difierent Applications. 234 pp., 116 figs., 3rd ed. 8vo. Berlin, 1879.

"Wedl, Prof. Dr. C. — On the Use of the Centrifugal Machine for Histological
.Studies. Arch. path. Anat. ^- Phys. (Virchow^ LXXVIL, pp. 375-7.

Wenham, F. H. — On Prof. H. L. Smith's Apertometer.

Am. Quart. Micr. Journ., I., pp. 280-3.
Woodward, Lieut.-Col. J. J. — Description of a new Apertometer. 1 fig.

Am. Quart. Micr. Journ., I., pp. 272-9.
„ „ The Oblique Illuminator: an Apparatus for

obtaining Oblique Illumination at definite Angles. 2 figs.

Am. Quart. Micr. Journ., I., pp. 268-72.

tT In consequence of the enlargement of the Journal, the price to Non-
Fellows will be 4s. per Number after the present year.

■ • *SW

/^

aS BI-MONTHLY. '^^^

^ Vol. II. No. 7.] DECEMBER, 1879. f "price sT'

Journal

OF THE

Royal
Microscopical Society;

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS.

AND A RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA,
MICROSCOPY, &c.

Edited, under the direction of the Publication Committee, by

FRANK CRISP, LL.B., B.A., F.L.S.,

One of the Secretaries of the Society i

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

T. JEFFERY PARKER, B.Sc, I A. W. BENNETT, M.A., B.Sc,

Lecturer on Biology at Bedford College, London, \ Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital,

AND

F. JEFFREY BELL, B.A..

Professor of Comparative Anatomy in King's College,
FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.

WILLIAMS & NORGATE,

)^ LONDON AND EDINBURGH. M'C

^- — m^

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS,] [STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

JOURNAL

OP THE

ROYAL MICEOSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

VOL. II. No. 7.

CONTENTS.

Pbepaoe.

Tkansactions op the Society — paob

XXXV. On the Morphology op Vegetable Tissues. By
W. H. Gilburt, F.R.M.S. (Plates XXII. and

XXIII.) 801

XXXVI. Note on the Structure op the Scale op a Species

OP THE Genus Mormo. By Joseph Beck, F.R.M.S. 810
XXXVII. On New Methods for Improving Spherical Correc-
tion, APPLIED TO the CONSTRUCTION OP WlDE-

angled Object-glasses. By Professor E. Abbe, of

Jena, Hon. F.Ii.M.S 812

XXXVIII. On the Anatomy op Leptodora hyalina. By H. E.

Forrest. (Plates XXIV. and XXV.) .. .. 825

XXXIX. On a New Species op the Genus Eucampia. By

Henry Stolterfoth, M.D 835

XL. Immersion Stage Illuminator. By Jobn Mayall, Jun.,

F.E.M.S 837

XLI. On a Table op Numerical-Apertures, showing the
Equivalent Angles op Aperture op Dry, Water
Immersion, and Homogeneous Immersion Objec-
tives, WITH their respective Eesolving Powers,
taking the Wave Length of Line E as the
Basis ; a = n sin. w, n = refractive index, and
w = ^ angle of aperture. By J. W. Stephenson,

F.R.A.S., Treas. R.M.S 839

XLII. Aperture Measurements of Immersion Objectives
expressed as "Numerical Aperture." By John
Mayall, Jun., F.E.M.S 842

Record of Current Researches relating to Invertebbata,

Cryptogamia, Microscopy, &c. .. .. .. .. .. 844

Zoology.

Gestation of the Armadillo 844

Vitality of the Spermatozoa of the Trout 844

Experiments on Development ,. • •• 844

Granular Bodiea found in the Ovum 845

BsooRD OF Current Keswarches, &o. — continued.

PAGE

Development of the Ova and the Structure of the Ovary in Man and other

Mammalia 845

Micro-chemical Researches on Cell-nuclei 847

Observations on the Living Cartilage Cell 847

Microcytes {very small Med Blood-corpuscles) in the Blood 847

Terminal Nerve-plexus in the Cornea 848

Earderian Gland of the Duck -. 848

Structure of the " Eye-spots " of some Osseous Fishes 849

Histology of the Cerebellum of Fetromyzon fluvialilis 850

Spinal Ganglia and Dorsal Medulla of Petromyzon 851

Amoeboid Epithelia 852

Effects of Induced Currents 071 the Nervous System 853

Habits of the Octopus 854

Segmentation of the Ovum in Helix aspersa 854

Cutaneous Absorption of Helix pomatia 856

Influence of ^'' Cardiac Poisons" on Helix pomatia 857

Respiratory Apparatus of Ampullaria 857

Doridas of the Northern Seas 859

Glands in the Foot of the Lamellibranchiata 859

Land Shells of Californian and Mexican Islands 861

Pompeian Conchology 861

Method of Obtaining Minute Mollusca 861

Recent Species of Heteropora 862

Cyphonautes 863

Nervous System of Insects 863

Cephalic Ganglia of the Insecta 864

Brain of the Cockroach 864

Nerves of the Proboscis of Diptera 865

Sense-organs of Insects 865

Scales of the Lepidoptera 866

Butterflies with Dissimilar Sexes , 867

Adoptio^i of an Ant-queen 868

Mode of depositing Ant-eggs 868

New Pauropod 869

New Division of the Taruntulida 869

Differences between the Young and the Adult Forms of the Gamasidx . . 870

Pairing of Spiders 870

Observations on the Pycnogonida 870

Structure of the Nervous System of the Decapodous Crustacea 872

Physiology of Muscle and Nerve in the Lobster 872

Action of Electric Currents on the Pincer of the Crayfish 873

Atlantic Stalk-eyed Crustaceans " 873

Some New Cymothoida 874

Trilohites and Limuli 874

New Species of Chirocephalus 874

Reproductive Organs of Non-parasitic Copepoda 875

The NotodelphyidcB , 876

New British Entomostraca 877

Segmentation in Worms and Pulmonates 877

Prizes for Life-histories of Entozoa 878

Development and Metamorphoses of Tsenix 878

Nematodes in the Caves of Carniola 878

Anurxa longi^pina 879

Studies on the Gephyrea 879

Pelagic Annelids from the Canary Islands 883

Annelid Jaws from Scotch and Canadian Palxozoic Rocks 884

Organization of Batrachobdella Latasti, C. Vig 885

New Alciopid 886

Organization and Classification of the Orthonectida 886

New Organs of the Ciduridae 8>>8

Echini of the ' Challenger ' 889

Anal Plates of Echinocidaris 890

Pbylogeny of the Ctenophora 890

Zoantharia malacodermata of the Coasts of Marseilles 892

Blastology of the Corals 892

Ekoobd op Current Ebsearohes, &c. — continued.

FACE

Spongiological Studies 894

Development of Horny Sponges 897

Eeticukirian Bhizopods 897

Structure of Haliphysema Tumanoudczii 898

Observations on New Infusoria, ^ 899

Influence of the different Colours of the Solar Spectrum on Infusoria .. .. 900

Lithamaiba discus, a new Ehizopod 900

JVeic ilfoneron (Plate XXVI.) 901

Eozoon Canadense 902

Botany.

Development of the Emhryo of Phanerogams 902

Development of the Emhryo-sac of Angiosperms 903

Angiosperms and Gymnosperms 905

Nucleus of the Embryo-sac 907

Gymnospermy of Conifers 907

Reproductive Orgayis of Cycadex 908

True Mode of Fecundation of Zostera marina 908

Arrangement and Growth of Cells 908

Various Forms of the Cell-nucleus 909

Conducting Tissue for the passage of Pollen-tubes 910

Seminal Integuments of Gymnosperms 911

Relationship of Interctllular Spaces to Vessels 912

Peculiarities in the Power of Living Parts of Plants to conduct Electricity 912

Influence of Electricity on Vegetation 912

Absorption of Rain and Devi by the Grreen Parts of Plants 913

Decrease of the Power of Absorption in Branches dipped in Water .. .. 913

Water -pores 913

Respiration of Plants 914

Respiration of 3Iarsh and Water Plants 915

Influence of Light, Warmth, and Moisture on the Opening and Closing of

the Anthers of Bulbocodium vernum 915

, Chemical Researches on the Formation of Coal 915

New Carbo-hydrate 916

Calcium phosphate in the Living Cells of Plants 916

Germination of Fern-spores 916

Bilateralness of ProthalUa 917

Development of the Prcthallium of Salvinia 918

New Bryum 919

Structure of Chxtomium 919

Proposed New Genus of Fungi — Peniophora 920

Vine Fungi . . 920

Propagation of Cluster-cups ; 920

Onion-smut, Urocystis Cepulx 921

Lagenidium Rabenhorstii, a 7iew Phycomycete 921

Protomyces graminicola 922

Conidial Fructification in Mucorini 922

Beech Disease, Phytophthora Fagi 923

Berggrenia — New Genus of Discomycetes 923

Microphytes 171 the Blood and their rekition to Disease 924

Crenothrix polyspora, the Cause of the TJnwholesomeness of the Berlin Water 925

Fungi Parasitic on Fungi 926

Poison of Marsh Fever 926

Development of Bacteria 927

Experimental Researches on a Leptothrix 928

Antidote to Bacteria -poisoning in Frogs 928

Sugar-refining Gum, Leuconostoc meseiiteroides 928

Excresr-enses on the Root of the Alder 929

Vitricole Lichens and the Schwendenerian Hypothesis 929

Parasitism of Lichens on Mosses 930

Colorific Properties of Lichens 930

Microgonidia 931

Formation of the Siphm^s and Tetraspores in Polysiphonia 932

Fertilization of Red Algx by the Agency of Infusoria 932

Eecobd op Cubrknt Eeskarohks, &c. — continued.

FAGB

Cell-structure of Griffitlma setacea, and Development of its Antheridia and

Tetrasporea ^^*

Bepr eduction of Cidleria ^^*

Conjugation of Ectocarpus q^^

American (Edogoniaceas ^^^

New Genus of Chroolepidie ^^^

Fossil Algx ielonging to the Verticillate Siphoneai ^^

Influence of Light on the Movements of Desmids ^^

New Diatom ^^

Adulteration of Current Jelly with Diatoms ^^°

Palmelline, the Colouring-maHer of Palmella omenta y^°

Mycoidea parasitica, a new Parasitic Alga ^^°

Two new Parasitic Algie ~^

Method of Oidtivating Volvox globatoT •" •• •• ^^^

Microscopy, &c.

Soap as an Embedding Substance ^*^

Logwood Staining Solution ^*^

Modification of Farranfs Medium ^*^

Staining Fluids for Vegetable Tissues ; ^42

Chloride of Cadmium as a Fluid for Homogeneous Immersion 94d

Scientific Value of Microscopic Preparations ^**

Counting of Blool-corpuscles ^^*

Cheilo-angioscopy _ ^^^

Value of the Microscope in Law and Medicine ^^b

Unit of Micrometry ^jj^

Comparators of Measures of Length '^'t^

Tolles' -^ Objective ^^J

Rezner's Mechanical Finger ^^1

Apparatus for Focussing Dissecting Microscopes 954

Improved Mounting for CumercC Lucidss ^54

Zeiss' Travelling Microscope ^^^

SchobVs Dissecting Microscope 95b

Ward^s Improved Microtome 957

Matthew's Section-cvUing MacMne 957

Zeiss' ^^ Objective 958

Micrometry 958

BiBLIOGEAPHY .. .. .. .. .. •• •• •• 9^9

Pkoceedinqs of the Society .. .. .. .. •• •• 982

HENRY CROUCH'S

FIEST- CLASS MICKOSCOPES

(JACKSON MODEL),

OBJECTIVES, AND ACCESSORIES.

HENRY CROUCH, 66, Barbican, London, E.C.

Agents in America —
JAMES W. QUEEN & CO., 924, Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, U.S.

JOUR. R. MIC. SOC.VOL.II_PL.XXn.

poh

Vr.^.CnUmrt dA

Morpkology of Veaetahle Tissues

JOUR.R.lVlIC. SOC.VOL ii.PL.xxnr.

Wjr Gdhxx.ncUl

1

! I'll

Morpliology of Vegetable Tissue

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DECEMBEK, 1879.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

XXXV. — O71 the Morpliology of Vegetable Tissues.
By W. H. GiLBURT, F.E.M.S.

(Head 8th October, 1879.)
(Plates XXII. and XXIII.)

In the early autumn of last year, while examining some pre-
parations I had been making of the leaf-buds of various trees,
certain appearances were observed, which seemed scarcely to agree
with the views now held, concerning the origin of the cambium
layer in the stems of the woody dicotyledons ; and suggested the
desirability of a further study of the subject.

During the twelvemonth which has since elapsed I have
followed up the inquiry, with results of at least considerable
interest,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXII. AND XXIII.

All figures drawn icith Camera Lucida.

pc6, procambium ; c6, cambium; ?wr, medullary rays; m, medulla; c, cortex;
sv, spiral vessel ; ss, sieve septa ; ry, rudimentary vessels.

Figs. 1, 2.— Sections through procambium of Ci/tisus laburnum, showing earliest
observed appearance of cambium. Fig. 1. Very oblique, radial diameter of cells
much exaggerated.

Figs. 3-5. — Sections through procambium of Lombardy poplar. Fig. 3. Show-
ing first division of procambium cells. Figs. 4, 5. Two stages in development
of cambium.

Figs. 6-8. — Sections of Ficus carica. Fig. 6. Before division of generating
cells (m xylem side. Fig. 7. Enlargement, division, and thickening of cells, pro-
ducing first vessels of medullary sheath. Fig 8. Appearance of cambium septa
in cells dividing thickened cell-forms.

Figs. 9-11. — Tangential sections through cambium of Cytisus laburnum.

Figs. 12, 13. — „ „ Syringa vulgaris. (Figs.

9, 10, 12, 13. Showing cambium cell-groups. Fig. 11. Same after absorption of
transverse septa. Medullary rays in transverse section.)

Fig. 14. — Section through cambium of Salisburia adiantifolia.

Fig. 15. — Development ot vessels in Sambucus nigra; sieve septa indicated by
dotted lines ; transverse septa still remaining.

Fig. 16. — Sieve septa in rudimentary vessels of Ailanthus glandulosus ; very
oblique, and cut through.

VOL. II. 3 H

802 Transactions of the Society.

The doctrine generally held concerning the origin of the
cambium may be briefly stated as follows : —

That after the development from the primary meristem of
the primary cortex and pith, a zone remains Ijetween them,
■which preserves its merismatic character, and is called the pro-
cambium ; the cells of which are similar to each other, and are
combined without intercellular spaces ; that on either side of this
procambium the cells are differentiated into permanent tissue, on
the outer side bast and parenchyma, on the inner side prosen-
chyma and vessels; and that in open bundles a certain portion
remains over between these two tissue systems ; this portion con-
stituting the cambium layer.

Now in the sections through the apices of the stems and
terminal buds of certain trees referred to above, I observed that on
the inner side of the procambium ring or bundles, there were a
greater or less number of cells which appeared in every respect to
agree with those which in older stems separate the sylem from
the phloem; being thin-walled, regular in disposition, without
intercellular spaces, and arranged radially with regard to the axis
of the stem. Examming a section somewhat farther from the
apex, I found that a few of the cells adjoining the pith were
thickened; while in a section nearer to the apex, the procambium
zone was thinner, and the cambium-like series absent.

The thought naturally suggested by these observations was,
that possibly the cambium was not in itself a portion of the pro-
cambium, but a special tissue developed from it. In order to
determine this, I have made many preparations of the terminal
buds of some sixteen species, but owing to the sharply curved
course taken by the procambium at or near the apex, and conse-
quently the line of section being at a more or less acute angle with
its length, the inquiry proved one of considerable difficulty.
Nevertheless, in all cases at a suitable distance from the apex, this
cambium-like tissue was to be found either with or without one or
two thickened cells on its inner surface, while the remainder of
the procambium was undergoing differentiation into hard and soft
bast.

A few species, however, were most instructive, especially the
Laburnum (Oijtisus laburnum), Lombardy poplar (Pojmhis nigra),
and the Fig (Ficus carica) ; and after a careful and prolonged
study of them, there seems but one conclusion possible ; viz. that
the whole of the procambium is differentiated into hard and soft
bast, with the exception of its innermost layer, the cells of which
by means of successive tangential divisions, produce a cambium
tissue ; this new generating tissue preceding in order of develop-
ment the appearance of any thickened cell-forms on the xylem
side.

Mor;pliology of Vegetable Tissues. By W. H. Gilburt. 803

In its earliest condition the procambium can only be distin-
gnislied from the surrounding tissue, when examined in transverse
section, by the comparatively small size of the cells composing it.
This similarity, however, speedily disappears, as most of its cells
divide into two, three, or four; the cell-plates being laid down
indifferently as to order or relative position. This is well shown
in Fig. 3, which represents a portion of the procambium of the
Lombardy poplar. This division of the cells does not take place
simultaneously throughout the whole of the tissue, but commences
at certain spots which correspond with the position to be occupied
by the vascular bundles, whether primary, secondary, or of a
higher order.

In some species the next step in development consists in
certain cells at more or less definite distances, growing most
rapidly, and dividing in a radial direction, that is, with regard to
the axis of the stem ; this being the commencement of the primary
medullary rays. In others, however, these are not to be distin-
guished till much later.

In Figs. 6 and 7, which are from a section of Ftcus carica,
the primary medullary rays are present, and it will be seen that by
them the procambium is separated into well-marked bundles, and
while on their inner side there is no distinct line separating them
from the medulla, yet that on the outside their limits are well
defined.

The next stage is, that the layer of procambium-cells next the
medulla, which have remained unaltered, and which I would call the
generating layer, becomes divided by septa which are invariably
tangential to the circumference of the stem. As the differentiation
of the phloem elements commenced at certain points which agree
with the position and order of the future vascular bundles, so with
the septation of these cells ; commencing at certain definite points
the process continues till we have a closed cambium ring or a
series of bundles separated from each other by the primary
medullary rays. In Fig. 1, which represents a portion of the
procambium of the laburnum, it will be seen that there are three
cells, which show this septation at the earhest stage in which I
have observed it. In each cell there are two septa, the outermost
one of which is the thinnest, and therefore the last laid down.
In Fig. 2 is shown part of a bundle from the same section, of
rather earlier origin, in which we have a radial series of four or
five cambium-cells ; the fact of their origin being from a single cell
is still plainly indicated by the greater thickness of the mother-cell
wall which stiU seems to surround them.

The same process in every important particular holds good in
the Lombardy poplar, three stages in the development of
which are represented in Figs. 3-5. 1 have, however, occasionally

3 H 2

804 Transactions of the Society.

found on the inner side of the cambium in this species, a few cells
of small calibre, which do not appear to have been developed from
it; although I have not been able to trace their origin with
certainty, the probability being that they result from the division
of the outer cells of the medulla. These cells may remain per-
manently thin-walled, or some of them may become thickened — a
difierentiation, however, which is not observed until the cambium is
some three or four cells in thickness.

With regard to the order of development of the cells forming
the cambium, it was just stated that in the earliest stage observed
in the laburnum, there were two tangential septa thrown across the
mother-cell, and that the one nearest the phloem being the thin-
nest, was the youngest. In the consideration of this part of
the question we are greatly helped by a study of what takes place
in Ficus carica. In this species the process of development is
somewhat modified, as a reference to the figures will at once render
apparent. Fig. 6 is a section through the procambium imme-
diately after its difierentiation into phloem elements, and no indica-
tion of either xylem or cambium is seen. In Fig. 7 at a we find
a cell adjoining the medulla, which has enlarged and divided
tangentially into two daughter-cells. At h, h we notice that in two
cells in which this same process commenced earlier the daughter-
cell next the pith has become spirally thickened, while its sister-
cell has grown and divided again in the same direction. Growth
in the two daughter-cells at first takes place equally, so that we find
them both of one size ; but there is this difi'erence in them, that
while one passes over into a permanent form, the other preserves its
generating character ; so that by the time the one has become fully
developed the other is again ready for further division.

It will be observed that the cells we have just been dealing with
are separated from each other by one or two cells of smaller dimen-
sions. In these, growth takes place equally with those already
described, but the divisions arise irregularly, sometimes being tan-
gential, at others radial.

This order of development continues till the condition shown in
Fig. 8 is reached. Here we have, proceeding from the centre of
the stem, a series composed of two or three spiral cells or vessels
preceded by two or three thin- walled cells, the whole of them being
produced in regular succession by division of the cell immediately
adjoining the phloem. Thus far, then, development has taken
place in regular progression, proceeding from the centre outward.
At this stage we notice that tangential septa arise in the cells
which separate these series of thickened cell-forms the one from
the other, and thus a continuous band of cambium is produced in
the bundle.

At first sight it would appear that in this species we have an

Morphology of Vegetable Tissues. By W. H. Gilburt. 805

example which differs in most important particulars from the con-
clusion stated early in this paper. But it must be borne in mind
that the development of these xylem elements commenced by the
enlargement and division of a single cell, and not simply by the
thickening of a cell already existing in the procambium, and that
the tissue intervening between the several series of thickened cell-
forms, is at first produced from the same layer of cells, viz. those
immediately adjoining the pith. This statement is supported by
the fact, that, although the bundle as a whole has increased greatly
in radial diameter, yet the phloem portion of it remains about the
same as at first ; the small amount of apparent growth resulting
probably from the greater size of the individual cells, and not from
their increased number. We must therefore regard the xylem
elements and the cambium, the development of which we have been
tracing, as new tissues resulting from the activity of the generating
layer of cells, that in the other species produces the cambium at
the first.

The progressive development of the cambium-cells described
above appears to hold till the tissue consists of some six or eight
cells in thickness, after which division takes place frequently in the
cells which form its three or four outermost layers, as I have found
thin cell plates between thicker ones, the cells thus cut off being
about half the size of those immediately contiguous.

The species which I have studied, in addition to the three
already referred to, are Eihes nigrum, JEsculus hippocastanea,
Betulus alba, Quercus robur, Quercus ilex, Acer loseudo-platanus,
Fagus sylvatica, Ulmus camfestris, Syringa vulgaris, Castanea
sp., Nerium oleander ; and, while I have not been able in all cases
to carry back the investigations to the earliest divisions of the
generating cells, yet they all agree in this : the cambium tissue is
always to be seen next the medulla before the appearance of any
thickened cell-forms, and that the farther you can carry the inquiry
back, the smaller is the number of cells of which the cambium is

In one species only, viz. Tilia europiea, have I failed to see the
cambium as just described, and that simply from the very sharply
curved course taken by the vascular bundles at the apex, and the
extreme difficulty of getting a section at all favourable for observa-
tion of the earliest stages of development. There is no doubt,
however, judging from what I have seen, that it agrees closely with
the other species examined.

Turning now to a consideration of the structure of the cambium-
layer, I find that it differs in certain important particulars from what
it is generally understood to be.

In studying this tissue, the plan followed has been to make a
series of tangential sections of the region existing between the bast

806 Transactions of the Society.

fibres and the true wood, keeping each section separate and
numbered in its proper order.

Now, the only statement made, concerning the structure of the
cambium, is, that its cells are thin-walled, close-fitting, filled with
protoplasm, and generally prosenchymatous in form.

In this part of my investigations, serial preparations of the fol-
lowing species have been made : —

Fraxinus excelsior . . . . 2, 3 I Larix eiiropa^us 8-10

Prunus lusitanicus .. .. 4-6 i Taxus baccata 6-8

Tilia europsea 4 | Ficus carica 4

Syringa vulgaris 3, 4 [ Cy tisus laburnum . . . . 2

Acer pseudo-platanus . . .. 4 Corylus avellana 6-8

Sambucus nigra 2, 3 i Salix sp 6-8

Cratsegus oxyacantha . . 4,5 j Eucalyptus sp 4

Ilex aquifolia 8, ?* i Juniperus communis . . . . 8

Cornel sp 4 i Wellingtouia gigantea . . ?'

Ailantlius glandulosus . . 4 ' Ceclrus sp ?*

Salisburia adiantifolia .. 12,13 i

In all of them I find the cambium composed not of prosenchy-
matous cells, but of prosenchymatous cell-groups, i. e. of cells so
grouped, that the terminal ones of each group being more or less
pointed at one end, the group is, as a whole, more or less prosen-
chymatous in form.

The number of cells so grouped varies with the species, and also
in some species it varies within certain narrow limits. It may,
however, be taken as true, that the longer the prosenchymatous
elements of the mature wood are, the greater the number of cells
composing the cambium cell-groups will be. Thus the figures
placed to each name in the foregoing list of species, indicate the
number of cells grouped together in the cambium ; and it will be
seen that in the Conifers, which possess the longest prosenchy-
matous wood-cells, there are from six to eight in Taxus, and twelve
to thirteen in Sahsbui'ia ; while in Cytisus, which has the shortest
wood-elements I have seen, there are but two.f

That this is the true character of the cambium is proved from

* In these species, owing to the line of section being somewhat oblique to the
course of the tissue, the numbers could not be counted satisfactorily, as frequently,
owing to the comparatively great length of the group, the whole of it was not pre-
sent.

t Each member of these groups is a complete cell, 1. e. possesses a distinct
nucleus, in which one or more nucleoli are to be seen. After the absorption of
the transverse septa referred to in the next paragraph, the nuclei approach each
other, and are frequently to be seen in a group near the centre of the young wood-
cell. Coalescence of the nuclei appears now to take place. In Laburnum I have
seen, first, a nucleus in each cell ; after absorption, two nuclei partly overlying
eacli other ; and in wood-cells in winch thickening is taking place, only one
nucleus about twice the size of the original ones. The same remarks apply to one
or two other species examined in this regard. In Salisburia fusion of the nuclei
takes place undoubtedly so far as reducing the original number to half, while in
size they are double. These remarks are founded on observations made on tissues
in a state of rest, and since the date of the paper.

MorpJiology of Vegetahle Tissues. By W. H. Gilhurt. 807

the fact, that in cutting a series of sections of the whole region
referred to, it will be found, after leaving the parenchyma and soft
bast, we find nothing but groups of cells as described, until the true
wood is reached. Moreover, on the side next the phloem we find the
cambium passing over to parenchyma by the rounding off or fui-ther
division of the individual cells, and on the xylem side we find the
transverse septa absorbed, not always wholly or at once, for traces
of them are often to be seen on the cell-walls even after thickening
has commenced.

Thus in Cijtisus lahurnum, a species well adapted for study, it
will be seen in Fig. 9, which is taken from a section adjoining the
parenchyma of the bast, the cells are comparatively broad ; that in
Fig. 10, which is from about the centre of the cambium, they are
narrower and proportionately longer, while the two combined cells
are more decidedly spindle-like in form ; and in Fig. 11, they have
been still further modified in the same direction, the dividing trans-
verse septa having disappeared — this figure being taken from a
section nest the xylem.

The same process in every respect is illustrated in Figs. 12 and
13, drawn from sections of Syringa vulgaris. Here the groups
are composed of three and occasionally four cells. The modifica-
tions take place in exactly the same order ; decrease in diameter,
increase in length, and absorption of septa.

If we look at the development of the cambium in the other
direction, or on the phloem side, we should observe m Cytisus that
as a rule each cell divides into two ; and so we sometimes see on
the outside of the tissue, groups with spindle-like ends composed of
four cells ; but growth very speedily obliterates the form, and
intercellular spaces arising, we have a true parenchymatous tissue.*

Such then being the character of the cambium, it follows, that
we can no longer regard prosenchyma as being composed of
differentiated original elementary cells, for we find that they are
like the vessels, but in a much more limited sense, cell-fusions.

This view of the structure of the cambium also involves of
necessity a modification in the account given of the origin of other
elements of the xylem, viz. the wood-parenchyma.

Sachs says t " They arise (i. e. the parenchymatous cell-forms
of the xylem) according to Sanio by transverse division of the
cambium-cells before their thickening commences." From this it
would appear that Sanio saw these cell-groups in the cambium,
but from some cause failed to observe that the whole of the
cambium was composed of them. Sachs also figures these paren-

* With regard to the origin of the fibrous elements of bast, tliey appear to arise
in two ways, viz. the combination and fusion of the cambium cell-groups, and also
by the fusion of vertical series of parenchymatous cells. This point, however, has
not been satisfactorily made out, and is reserved for further observation.

t Sachs' ' Text- Book of Botany,' p. 100, Oxford, 1875.

808 Transactions of the Society.

chymatous cell-forms, in the vfood of Ailanthus,* the details of
which correspond in every particular with my own observations,
and the special elements under consideration also agree in form,
dimensions, and number of cells in combination, with the cell-
groups of the cambium. It is therefore naturally suggested that
wood-parenchyma results simply from the non-absorption of the
transverse dividing septa, and that while spiral or other thickening
has taken place, yet their outward form is the same as it was when
the group occupied its place in the cambium.

In the development of the vessels also there are one or two
points of interest. In the mature vessel, the remains of what has
hitherto been regarded as the original transverse septa, are always
inclined more or less to the course of the vessel. That this should
be so is apparent, if we take into consideration the fact that the
cells from which they are developed are combined in the form now
described ; the septa, the remains of which we see upon the walls
of the vessels, being the terminal ones of the cell-group, and
therefore originally oblique, the intervening ones, which are at
nearly right angles to their length, being wholly absorbed. In
Fig. 15 is shown a portion of a section of Samhvcus nigra, in
which is seen a rudimentary vessel, the dotted lines indicating the
position of the septa, the outer portion of which will remain upon
the wall of the fully developed vessel. The transverse dividing
septa are still present.

Another fact worthy of notice, is, that these oblique septa
become before absorption in all respects like the septa of sieve tubes,
being pierced with minute pores arranged in groups as shown in
Fig. 1(5, drawn from a young vessel in Ailanthus glandulosus, the
septa being very oblique and cut through. These pores gradually
enlarge and coalesce, till either all the central portion is removed,
or the bands which separate the sieve-like plates remain, forming
the scalariform septum.

It would seem that absorption in cell-walls generally, or at
least frequently, commences by this thinning down and piercing of
the wall at minute points ; for in the Coniferae I find in the form-
ing wood immediately adjoining the thickened tissue, similar sieve-
like plates corresponding to the positions eventually to be occupied
by the weU-known coniferous bordered pits, whether it be on the
radial walls of the tracheides, or on the medullary rays. This is
well shown in Salisburia adiantifolia, and quite as certainly
in all others that I have examined, though not always so readily
to be made out.

The results of my observations may now be summed up, and
from them it appears that the cambium -layer is not a portion of
the procambium remaining over after the differentiation of the
* See London Science Class-Book, Botany, Morphology, &c., p. 40.

Morpliology of Vegetable Tissues. By W. 11. Gilhuri. 809

primary phloem and xylem, but a special and new tissue developed
from it ; that it arises in the layer of procambium which is next
adjoining the medulla or pith ; the cells composing the cambium
being developed by septation, in regular sequence, proceeding out-
wardly, till a tissue from sis to eight cells in thickness is formed,
the divisions then taking place in irregular order in those cells
which form the three or four outermost layers.

That the cambium is composed of prosenchymatous cell-groups,
the combined cells varying in number with the species to which
the plant belongs. From the cambium on the phloem side paren-
chyma is produced by the rounding-off, and sometimes by the
further division of the individual cells, and prosenchyma on the
xylem side by the absorption of the transverse septa ; wood-paren-
chyma being simply those cambium cell- groups in which such
absorption has not taken place.

That the vessels arise by the fusion of certain cambium cell-
groups, which are arranged vertically with regard to each other ;
the oblique septa separating the groups being partly absorbed, and
the transverse ones entirely so.

That absorption of the oblique septa appears to commence with
the formation of sieve-plates, the pores of which enlarge and
coalesce till either there is one large circular aperture through the
centre, or the bauds dividing the sieve-plates remain, forming the
scalariform septa of some species.

810 Transactions of the Societij.

XXXVI. — Note 011 the Structure of the Scale of a Species of the
Genus Mormo. By Joseph Beck, F.K.M.S.

iHead 8ih Odoher, 1879.)

There is no subject which has been more freely discussed, and with
such varying conchisions (not even excepting the mnch- vexed
question of the structure of the sihceous valves of the Diatomaceas),
than that of the causes producing the apj^earance of " notes of
exclamation markings " on the scales of several of the Thysanura.

It is not my intention to enter into a resume of the views held
by difierent microscopists, but simply to notice what I regard as a
fresh proof that these so-called " markings " are due to a structure
very dij&erent from what would be assumed were we merely to
judge from the appearances that are apparent under the Microscope.

For some years I have maintained that the " notes of exclama-
tion " markings on the scales of Lepidocyrtis are due to uneven
corrugations in the membranes of which they are composed, and I
have illustrated this before the Society by running moisture up
and down the scale in the furrows between the corrugations or
ridges. In the supplement to Sir John Lubbock's treatise on the
Thysanura, I have used these words in describing the scale of
Lep)iclocyrtis curvicollis, " Irregular striae or corrugations from
pedicle to apex broken up into large, well-defined separate ' notes of
exclamation ' markings ; markings very black, with a light bright
ridge down the centre of each ; appearance due to irregular
corrugations on the outer surface of the under membrane, slight
undulations on the outer surface of the upper membrane, and to
structure between the superposed membranes." I have produced
a similar appearance by rubbing together two scales of Polyom-
matus argus, which scales have straight simple ridges running
from pedicle to apex — when placed over one another at an angle* —
but I have never until now been able to find a moth or butterfly
scale which, in its natural condition, gave under the Microscope the
appearance of " notes of exclamation " markings.

I now desire to caU the attention of the Society to a scale from
a specimen of the genus Mormo from the East Indies (I have been
unable to obtain the exact name, having only the wing), which
shows " notes of exclamation " markings very similar to those
observed on many of the Thysanura. IJnder a low power these
scales present the same watered-silk appearance seen in Lepidocyrtis
curvicollis ; under a ^ they show the " notes of exclamation "
markings ; under a yV ^^^1 ^^^ resolved into distinct ribs from pedicle
to apex, thus showing in one scale how tlie appearances run from

* Sec Carpenter's 'The Microscope and i(s Revelations,' 5th edition (1875),
p. 695.

Structure of Scale of a Species of Mormo. By J. Beck. 811

one into the other, and adding another link in the chain of evidence
in favour of what I have previously maintained, viz. that scales being
expansions of the quill, require something to strengthen them, and
that for this purpose they are all, whether amongst the Lepidoptera
or Thysanura, supphed with ribs running from pedicle to apex,
and that the varied appearances seen under the Microscope are due
to the irregularities of the membranes of which the ribs form a
part.*

* Since commiinicating the above I have, at the suggestion of the President,
examined a large number of the scales of Lepidoptera, and I have invariably found
that the corrugations are on one side only, and tliat side the under side, or the one
nearest the body of the insect. Great care is required lest a mistake should be
made by the moisture running between the scale and the slide, and not on the
exposed surface only.

812 Tramaetio7is of the Society.

XXXVII. — On Neiv Methods for Improving Si^lierical Correction,

aj)plied to the Construction of Wide-angled Object-glasses.

By Professor E. Abbe, of Jena, Hon. F.R.M.S.*

(Bead llfh Jane, 1879).

The correction of spherical aberration, in dioptric systems of all
kinds, is based on the much-applied principle of compensating one
deviation by an opposite deviation of the same kind. The positive
aberration of the collective (convex) lenses of any system is balanced
by the negative aberration of dispersive (concave) lenses. Besides
this method there can be no other, as long as practical optics is
confined to spherical surfaces.

Though this principle might be applied in various ways, one
only has hitherto been adopted, which may be called the method of
allied corrections. Spherical correction is always effected by con-
cave lenses of the higher dispersive material (flint-glass), which
are used for getting rid of the chromatic dispersion of the positive
(crown-glass) lenses. The combmation of a concave flint-lens
with a convex crown-lens (generally cemented together) is the
means of effecting both corrections at the same time, without being
obliged to treat each separately. But of course it is not at all
necessary that those binary lenses should be corrected, even ap-
proximately, in themselves. In the case of compound systems, as
microscopic objectives generally are, one part of the system may be
considerably under-corrected in each respect, provided it is balanced
by an opposite deviation in the other part of the system.

The circumstance mentioned here — the possibility of correcting
both aberrations by the same elements, appears to be a great advan-
tage in the construction of objectives ; and from one point of view
it is in fact so, as it saves the unavoidable complication of separate
concave lenses for spherical correction, in addition to those which
are necessary for achromatism. But, on the other hand, this com-
bination of the two corrections is the origin of a very serious defect,
which becomes especially obvious in wide-angled systems. The
amount of spherical aberration which is introduced by a lens of
definite curvatures depends on its refractive index. Now the re-
fractive index varies with the colour of the rays in both kinds of
lenses, but in the flint the increase of this index, say, from red to
blue, is much greater than in the crown, which is of course necessary
for chromatic correction. In consequence of this the negative
aberration in any optical system increases more rapidly from. red to
blue than the positive, and it is therefore impossible to obtain
simultaneously the correct balance for different colours, _ If the
compensation is got for the red rays, the negative spherical aber-

* The original paper is written by Professor Abbe in English.

Methods for Imp'oving Spherical Correction. By Prof. Ahhe. 813

ration of the flint lenses will be in excess for the blue ; and if it is
got for the blue rays, this negative aberration will be in defect for
the red. The system, therefore, will be either spherically over-
corrected for the blue or under-corrected for the red. Binary lenses
especially increase this discrepancy to a great extent, the negative
aberration in this case arising from the concave surface in which flint
and crown meet together. This negative aberration therefore depends
on the small difierence of the refractive indices of flint and crown,
which difierence must of course vary from red to blue to a much
greater extent than the refractive indices themselves, relatively.

The residual aberration considered here — "chromatic difierence
of spherical aberration" would be the correct name — is readily
observed in any kind of dioptric system, Telescopes or Microscopes.
The visible result of which must be (as may be easily demonstrated),
a characteristic discordance of achromatism for the various zones of
the aperture of any objective ; if the central part of the aperture is
well corrected chromatically, the peripheral zone must be over-
corrected, and if the marginal rays afibrd the best possible achroma-
tism the central rays must be under-corrected. This derivative
defect of colour-correction must rapidly increase with increasing
aperture, as it owes its origin to spherical aberrations (which vary
with the square of the angles), and therefore becomes especially
visible in such wide-angled systems as are used with the Microscope.
Every attentive microscopist and optician will be familiar with
its appearance in microscopic objectives, which always reveal a
considerable difi'erence of achromatism, in their performance with
central and with obHque illumination. If an objective has the best
possible colour-correction in the central part of its aperture (direct
light yielding the secondary colours only), obhque light will show
broad borders of yellow and blue on the outlines of the objects — the
indication of chromatic over-correction of the marginal zone; and
if the primary colours have been obhterated for the marginal pencils
(rose or violet and green remaining only with oblique light), central
illumination will give deep tints of red and blue on sensitive pre-
parations such as organic tissues or the thick ribs of diatoms.*

These results of residual spherical aberration are of great prac-
tical importance. As they cannot be eliminated by the means
hitherto appUed, they represent an universal defect in microscopic
objectives. Owing to this defect the performance of the best
glasses is not equally satisfactory for every kind of work. An
objective which has been corrected chromatically for central hght
will sometimes afibrd a well-defined and colourless image on

* This description will hold good for the central part of the field of vision
only ; for outside the axis the phenomena in question may be totally concealed by
the much coarser chromatic effects arising from difference of amplification for
different colours, which is never absent in wide-angled objectives.

814 Transactions of the Society.

delicate organic tissues or other similar objects, but it will show far
too much colour, and, therefore, a great lack of definition when it
is used on diatoms or other preparations requiring oblique illumi-
nation ; and on the other hand a lens which has been made for the
brilliant exhibition of diatoms may possibly be nearly useless for
histological work.

This divergence would not be of much importance if objectives
of especial excellence could be constructed for the one or for the
other kind of work. But this is not the case, because the operation of
the different zones of aperture is not really separated by difierent
modes of illumination. Though the incident pencil may be either
central or in the marginal zone, deflected and diffracted pencils will
generally engage very different parts of the aperture, except in
certain special preparations. Consequently the only rational plan
for general work must be so to distribute these deviations as to
prevent their accumulation in one joart of the aperture. This is
done by correcting the spherical aberration of the rays of predomi-
nant intensity (the yellow rays for visual performance), and com-
pensating the greater part of the residual aberration of the red and
blue by a moderate amount of chromatic under-correction — the plan
now adopted, consciously or unconsciously, by the best opticians.
But by the best possible distribution of these deviations they cannot
be eliminated, but must always remain in the image, and to a certain
extent debase the general level of the defining power.

In the year 1873 I expressed an opinion that the correction
defect in question is the principal objection to the use of objectives
of moderate focal length with deep eye-pieces, instead of the deeper
lenses now required.*

It is now sixty years since C. F. Gauss, the celebrated mathe-
matician of Gottingen, considered the above-mentioned aberration
defect. He then discussed the problem of a more perfect correction
of objectives, and suggested a plan for getting rid of the residual
aberration in binary lenses made of ordinary crown and flint, for
telescojjic use. Unfortunately, his plan, which is disadvantageous
even for telescopes, is utterly inapplicable to systems having the
large apertures required in Microscopes. His method of correction,
(without considering other difficulties) would need uncemented
concave lenses of curvature so deep that even moderate apertures
would make the angles of incidence approach, or exceed, the limit
of total reflection from glass to air.

My own researches upon the subject, beginning from 1870,
and having special regard to the Microscope, had for a long time a
negative result — as far as the actual conditions of optical work
were considered. From various practical difficulties every i^lan

* ' Beitriige z. Theorie d. Mikruskops.' ' Arohiv mikr. Anat.,' Bd. ix. p. 425.

Methods for Improving Spherical Correction. BijProf.Ahhe. 815

for correcting the residual defects spoken of aiypearecl to be im-
possible, unless the connection between the correction of spherical
and chromatic aberration could be removed.

On this supposition, which I afterwards found to be premature,
I began to investigate the method of independent correction, which
had never been considered before, I discussed the conditions for
correcting the spherical aberrations of the convex lenses, or at
least a part of these aberrations, by such other concave lenses as
produce chromatic correction, and for this pm-pose searched for
the appropriate means in systems not restricted to the low aperture
of telescopic objectives. The general method could be easily indi-
cated, as everything appeared to depend on one essential condition :
viz. concave sm-faces which would introduce negative spherical
aberration, by diftereuce of the refractive index of consecutive
media, as in ordinary binary lenses, but would either exclude
chromatic aberration of perceptible amount, or admit chromatic
aberration of opposite character. The accessory requisites annexed
to this would be somewhat different in the two cases, but would
be accomplished without difficulty. The principal condition, how-
ever, indicated above, would require optical media essentially
different from those hitherto applied. It would be necessary
to dispose of two media which are to some extent unequal in
refractive power, but either approximately equal in dispersion,
or varying in opposite directions. Now, the various kinds of
crown and flint glass differ widely in refractive index and in
dispersive power, but the dispersion always varies with the index,
the greater dispersion being associated with the higher index, and
vice versa, with very slight deviations. An independent correction
of spherical aberration would require at least two kinds of glass,
having optical relations different to those now in use — either low
refractive index combined with high dispersive power, or high
refraction with low dispersion. There is no reason for supposing
the production of such a material an impossibility ; but the makers
of optical glass not having even thought of the problem at the
time, any improvement of optical systems in the way proposed
appeared to be postponed indefinitely.

Notwithstanding these difficulties, the principle thus indicated
of independent correction of both aberrations has been put to a
decisive practical trial. In order to obtain a clear view of the
direction in which further improvement in the dioptric performance
of objectives ought to be made, Mr, C. Zeiss, on my suggestion, under-
took a very interesting and important experiment, not hitherto
pubhcly recorded, by constructing some systems with jiuid lenses,
based on the principle of independent correction. For this purpose
we availed om-selves of the low refractive indices of certain of the
highly dispersive fluids which are to be found among ethereal oils

816 Transactions of the Society.

and artificial chemical preparations, selecting those fluids similar to
crown, or light flint, in respect to refraction and equal to heavy flint
in respect to dispersive power. Substituting a collective (convex) lens
of such a fluid for one of ordinary crown (not a dispersive one for
flint, as has been done for quite another purpose) and combining it
with a concave lens of suitable flint of greater refraction and less
dispersion, the dispersive power of the flint may be balanced by
the dispersion of the fluid and from the difi*erence of the refractive
indices a sufficient amount of negative spherical aberration may
be obtained, the chromatic variation of which is just opposite to
that of ordinary binary lenses. At the same time the rapid
increase of dispersion from red to blue in some of these fluids, if
properly selected, will afibrd a simple and efiective expedient for an
almost perfect compensation of the secondary chromatic defects
arising from the ordinary flint and crown lenses. The fluid
uniting with the crown will make up the deficiency in the relative
dispersion of the blue part of the spectrum of the crown in com-
parison with flint. Owing to this peculiar fact the plan indicated
a degree of refinement of both corrections which, without taking
into consideration the practical difficulties, could not be obtained,
by ordinary means, at the time.*

In 1873 Mr. Zeiss made an objective on the plan in question ;
a dry ^ (6 0 mm. focal-length) with a numerical aperture of
0'83, and another one in 1876, an immersion ^ (S'O mm.) of
1 • 15 aperture, a mixture of oil of cassia and of aniseed being used
in the former, and pure Cinnamyle-hydrogen (C^**H*0") in the
latter. The refractive indices and the partial dispersions of all
the materials having been measured very accurately, the formulae
were computed on the condition of perfect collection of spherical
aberration for the two colours, D and F, and of very approxi-
mate correction of the axial rays for the three colours, B, E,
and G. Both objectives were planned as quadruple systems, the
latter with duplex front. The three anterior lenses are not
essentially difierent from the ordinary construction ; the back lens
was made in each case of two glass lenses, flint and crown, including
between them a fluid meniscus of collective character. Both
objectives — which are still preserved at Mr. Zeiss' workshop —
perform exceedingly well when their fluid contents are kept in good
order. They yield images almost perfectly colourless on every kind
of preparation and with every kind of illumination, with very
superior definition — demonstrating the great improvement in

* Objectives have several times been announced as being free from secondary
colours, owing to the application of three different kinds of glass. Anybody who
has a clear notion of the conditions of achromatism will see at once, that such an
assertion must have been either illusion or deception. For no Idnd of glass
hitherto produced would admit of the collection of three different colours in one
focus, even in a small telescopic objective.

Methods for Improving Spherical Correction. ByProf.Ahhe. 817

dioptric performance which is attainable by a really perfect correc-
tion of spherical and chromatical aberration.

In consequence of the numerous grave drawbacks which
attended objectives of such construction, the result of this trouble-
some and expensive experiment was considered by Mr. Zeiss and
by myself as a matter of theoretical interest only — a glance at the
Microscope of the future. But, as some of the principal difficulties
would be considerably diminished in objectives for
homogeneous immersion, owing to the omission of
the correction setting, I am of opinion, that this
method of independent correction under the new con-
ditions is still capable of successful application in
the improvement of high-power objectives.

In the meantime, however, another way of elimi-
nating the chromatic difference of spherical aberration
has suggested itself to me, reverting to the long-
established system of allied correction.

In a recent investigation suggested by the introduc-
tion of the homogeneous-immersion system and during
the attempts at still further increase of aperture, I
touched once more upon the old problem, and observed
that a device, which I had discussed in theory eight
years ago, had not been then pursued to its legitimate
conclusion, and that the residual defect of spherical
aberration — though not simultaneously the secondary
chromatic difference — could be got rid of by the ordi-
nary means within reach of practical optics.

The general idea of the plan in question is shown
by the diagram.

M N is an objective, 0 and 0* the two con-
jugate foci of object and image; M (represented, for
sake of simplicity, by a single lens in the diagram) the
anterior part of the system considerably MwcZe r-corrected
spherically and chromatically ; and N the posterior
part, over-corrected in both respects, just sufficient for
balancing both aberrations of the anterior part ; N being separated
from M by a relatively considerable distance. The continuous lines
in the figure indicate the path of an oblique red ray, the dotted lines
the path of the corresponding hlue ray, both derived from the same
incident ray 0 P.

The chromatic correction of the entire system being assumed to
be perfect for the axis, red and blue rays of small obliquity starting
from 0 will meet the axis at the same point 0* ; and supposing
the system to be corrected spherically for the red, the red oblique
ray will be collected to the same point 0*. These two conditions
can obviously be fulfilled in every system ; but then in the ordinary

VOL. II. 3 I

818 Transactions of the Society.

case the blue oblique ray would not meet the axis at 0* but in a
more distant point (not indicated in the diagram), owing to the
spherical over-correction of the more refractive rays.

Consider now the action of the under-corrected anterior part of
the system and the effect arising from the supposed distance between
M and N. Owing to chromatic under-correction, the axial pencil
emanating from 0 will have two different virtual foci E and B
for red and blue after its passage through M ; and owing to spherical
under-correction of the anterior system, the oblique pencils O P
after their passage will yield two other virtual foci R' and B' at
a greater distance from 0 and from each other than E and B.
The intervals EE' and BB' will indicate the linear amount of
spherical aberration for the extreme colours, introduced by the front
system M.

Owing to the positions of these four points the pencil of blue
rays emanating from M will be confined to a smaller divergence
than the red, and the sectional diameter of this pencil will be
diminished, in comparison with the other, more and more from M
to N. If now both pencils reach the concave surface of the cor-
recting flint lens in the posterior system N, every blue ray will
meet this surface at a smaller distance from the axis than the corre-
sponding red ray, and therefore with a smaller angle of incidence ;
the difference increasing as the distance from M to N is increased.
Owing to this difference the negative spherical aberration arising
from the concave surface will be of less amount in the blue pencil
than in the red, the action of this surface on the blue rays being
somewhat similar to the action of a surface of less curvature ; and
thus the increase of negative aberration for the blue which at the
same time arises from the greater difference of the refractive indices
between flint and crown, may be exactly balanced. The whole
pencil of blue rays will then be gathered to the same point 0*
where the red rays are collected.

As will be understood, this demonstration does not pretend
to prove that the method here considered will attain the object in
view within practicable limits in respect to the necessary amount of
under- and over-correction, and the necessary distance between both
parts of the system. This could only be done after an exhaustive
mathematical analysis of the problem. The foregoing discussion is
intended only to afford a clear idea of the method in general and to
estabhsh the principal direction in which the computations must be
made in devising an objective according to this plan. This direction
is readily expressed by the rule : combine a strongly under-corrected
anterior system with an over-corrected posterior at such a distance
that the chromatic difference of spherical aberration may be over-
come— all other conditions of optical performance being taken in the
ordinary way.

Methods for Improving Sphe7'ical Correction. By Prof. Abbe. 819

As is obvious from a glance at the diagram, this plan is con-
nected with a peculiar difference of the image-forming pencils.
Owing to the effect of the distance M N, the blue pencil must
pass to the image with less angular convergence than the red one.
According to the general theorem, established by Lagrange, this
difference indicates a different amplification of the blue and
the red image (the blue larger than the red), notwithstanding
their identical position on the axis, or, expressed in another way,
a chromatic difference of focal length, coexisting with identical
position of the conjugate foci for different colours. The practical
result of this deviation must be a defect of achromatism outside the
axis. The images of different colours coinciding on the axis, the
centre of the field will appear perfectly achromatic ; but the blue
image overlapping more and more the red one, coloured outlines
will appear outside the centre, increasing with the distance from the
axis.

Achromatic defects of this kind are of subordinate importance,
as they do not injure the definition in the central part of the field.
They are to be found in all objectives of somewhat considerable
aperture, and are generally overlooked by microscopists, though the
difference of amplification in such object-glasses exceeds 1 per cent,
(the more brilliant rays of the red and blue considered only), and
much more still in systems with duplex front. But such defects
of amplification, if they become too obvious, may be easily corrected
either by specially constructed eye-pieces or by a separate cor-
recting lens added to the ordinary eye-piece. Hence the fact above
noticed, though not of course advantageous, is no serious objection
to the plan here considered.

On the other hand this mode of construction much facilitates
the correction of another kind of amplificatory defect of still greater
importance, which cannot be overcome by the eye-pieces or similar
means, but must always be corrected in the objective. "What is
generally called by microscopists " curvature of field," is in fact
in its principal part the result of different amplification by different
zones of the apirture, — the axial pencil yielding a dift'erent linear
amplification of the image to those of the various oblique pencils ;
and for correcting these anomalies, which are a grave difficulty in
the construction of wide-angled systems, the elements of a separated
posterior lens can be readily made available.

Eespecting the practical application of this plan of correction,
it can be used in both telescopic and microscopic objectives. But in
telescopes of small and moderate focal length the residual spherical
aberration is not of any practical importance ; and in large objec-
tives, where it has an injurious influence, there are much greater
aberrations arising from the disproportional dispersive powers of
crown and flint (secondary colours). As long as these exist the

a I 2

820 Transactions of the Society.

advantages of a more perfect spherical correction are inappreciable,
and the suhject in question will have no practical interest for tele-
scopes, unless the manufacturer of optical glass makes considerable
progress towards a better conformity in the dispersive powers of
crown and flint.

In microscopic object-glasses the secondary dispersion, though
also perceptible, and the removal of which would be a consider-
able improvement, is not nearly so injurious as residual spherical
aberration, because the latter increases so rapidly with increase of
aperture. There can be no doubt therefore that objectives, even of
moderate aperture, would, by the correction of the chromatic dif-
ference of spherical aberration, attain a much higher standard of
defining power than has been hitherto obtained ; and if there be
microscopists who appreciate a luxurious exhibition of optical art,
they will, I hope, be gratified by seeing opticians apply this plan of
correction to objectives of various powers. But the practical advan-
tages of more complicated and more expensive constructions will
remain somewhat questionable in the case of those moderate aper-
tures, the full performance of which can be obtained (without
inconvenience from too short a focal length), with good ordinary
objectives. For a moderate aperture needs only a moderate ampli-
fication for the full exhibition of the minutest details accessible
to the aperture. Such an amplification may be obtained by an
objective of relatively long focal length, if the dioptric refinement
admits of a large increase of amplification by means of deep
eye-pieces ; in the other case it must be got by an objective of
shorter focal length, requiring low eye-pieces only for the same
amplification. Though from the purely optical point of view the
former is the more perfect instrument, the latter will be prac-
tically the same, as long as a moderately short focal length is
still sufficient for the aperture. Now even the largest aperture
attainable by dry lenses will need no higher amplification for perfect
exhaustion of the microscopic image than may readily be obtained by
a good g- of the ordinary construction combined with rather low eye-
pieces ; at all events no observation of any scientific value has ever
been made by any dry lens, which could not have been made just as
well with an §- ; and there is no practical inconvenience in the
case of such a glass, if it be properly made, which would not occur
to the same extent with a more accomplished |, fit for replacing
it by means of deeper eye-pieces. The more substantial advantages
will, therefore, be derived from the removal of residuary aberrations
for the higher apertures alone, which are obtained by the immersion
system, and especially in the case of homogeneous immersion ; for
in these cases higher amplification is needed than can be efiectively
obtained by an ^ with the ordinary mode of correction. Kaising
the level of dioptric performance in those objectives will remove

Methods for Imj^roving Spherical Correction. By Prof. Ahhe. 821

the very short focal lengths, which are so inconvenient in use and
scarcely less difficult in workmanship.

According to this consideration, the plan in question has been
applied practically to the production of an objective of very large
aperture on the homogeneous immersion system. The formula has
been computed on the condition of equal spherical correction for
two different colours (D and F) for a focal length of 3-0 mm.
(~), and an aperture of 1'40 numerical = 138^ balsam angle —
the widest angle, probably, which has been hitherto attained, as
it already exceeds by several per cent, the utmost aperture for
water immersion, and approaches within 7 per cent, the possible
maximum, which is consistent with balsam-embedding and crown-
glass covers. The system is planned on the duplex-front con-
struction. In order to use a moderate curvature (shortest radius
1"30 mm.) the front has been tasked in an unusual way: it has
been made active up to 6^ beyond the equator of the sphere, a
surface exceeding the hemisphere by about ^^ o^ ^^"^ radius thus
being applied as a clear lens.* The angles of incidence of the rays
increase up to 44^ on the air side of the front lens, but do not
exceed this amount at the anterior surface of the second lens. The
anterior part of the system (corresponding to the lens M of the
diagram) is made as a quadruple system, two binary lenses above
the duplex front ; the over-corrected posterior part (N) of rela-
tively great focal length is a triple lens, the flint cemented between
two crown lenses, and the distance between the opposite surfaces
of both parts is approximately three times the focal length of
the entire system. Though it would have been possible in this
case to make shift with three separate lenses in the front part, I
preferred to take four, in order to deal with lower curvatures ; the
good success of the quadruple systems having practically proved
that the slight loss of light and the slight increase of difiused light
by one lens were more than counterbalanced by the advantage of
surfaces of lower curvature. The computation of the formula was
based on the supposition of an immersion fluid of a refraction
exactly identical with that of the covering glass, 1 • 518 to 1 • 520 for
the D ray.

* As a hyper-hemispherical lens cannot be set into tlie brasswork in the
ordinary way, it was necessary to fix it by means of a parallel plate cementefl on,
fixing the slightly prominent edge of this plate — a device applied already by
Mr. R. B. Tofles, as I am told. Avoiding the difficulties connected with this
unusual shape of the front lens, would have needed a much stronger curvature of
this front for obtaining a focal length of 3 mm. But then its focal length would
have been considerably less than the focal length of the entire system, and the
objective would have been siiuilar to a much stronger one in all practical respects.
The advantage of a lower power depending only on the greater focal length of
the front leus, the aim must be to keep this focal length as great as possible.
By the construction considered above it is obtained only slightly less than the
focal length of tlie entire objective.

822 Transactions of the Society.

The leDses having been ground and set in the brass work with
all possible care, according to the formula, the two made at the
workshop of Mr. Zeiss were perfectly corrected by a very slight
alteration (some hundredths of a millimetre) of the distance
between the second and the third lens of the front part. The
apertures of both objectives, observed with the light of a soda
flame, was found 1'40 to 1'41 by means of an apertometer with
flint-glass disk and the same by an independent micrometric method.
Notwithstanding the various delicate and novel manipulations
which were necessary for exact polishing and setting of a front
lens of this peculiar kind, the performance of the two objectives
was perfectly satisfactory. The resolving power gave evidence of
the increased aperture. Ordinary specimens of Amphiiyleura i^el-
lucicla are rather coarse test-objects with an aperture of this amount,
as they are resolvable by a moderately oblique pencil. There is
no doubt that on balsam-mounted preparations, striations up to
5000 lines per millimetre (125,000 per inch) would be readily
resolved by an incident pencil of the utmost obliquity, and still
finer photographically. The difference of chromatic correction
between the central and the marginal zone of the aperture is in
fact imperceptible ; the middle of the field yields nearly white
images, with central light, and secondary colours only, with light
of extreme obliquity. The definition with the deeper eye-pieces
proves decidedly superior to the objectives of similar focal length,
made for homogeneous immersion on the ordinary plan of correc-
tion ; and as the other circumstances connected with this con-
struction are somewhat less favourable, there can be no doubt that
the improvement is due solely to the removal of the residuary
spherical aberration.

As was anticipated from the formula, the chromatic difierence
of amplification appeared much more perceptible than with other
objectives. I added therefore a correcting lens below the eye-
piece— a convex flint- and a concave crown-lens cemented to-
gether, calculated for neutralizing one another in respect to the
middle rays of the spectrum, but with exceeding chromatism of the
flint. This lens therefore performs like a plane parallel i^late for
the middle rays, as a collective lens for the blue, and as a dis-
persive lens for the red rays. Inserted at the end of the tube by a
suitable adapter at a short distance from the field-glass of the
ocular, it introduces— owing to its position — no perceptible aberra-
tion, neither chromatic nor spherical ; but it corrects the path of
the coloured pencils outside the axis by continuously increasing
prismatic deflections. This device performs quite satisfactorily
with all eye-pieces, except very low ones.

For photographic performance an objective of this construction

Methods for Improving Spherical Correction. By Prof. Ahhe. 823

would not need a separate correcting leng, as this could be com-
bined with the concave " amplifier " introduced by Dr. Woodward
for preserving the right position of the conjugate foci, while the
image is projected to a considerable distance. This amplifier may
be readily made use of for correcting every difference of amplifica-
tion, provided it be not made achromatic, but rather over-corrected
chromatically to a proper degree.

Some difficulties, arising from the nature of the immersion
fluid, which at first occasionally interfered with the satisfactory
performance of the objectives in a rather vexatious manner may now
be considered as overcome. As the difierence in the refractive
index between oil of cedar- wood and the covering glass seemed to
me too great for the increased aperture and as the stronger oils or
mixtures of oils are of too great dispersive power, I was obhged to
abandon these liquids. The solution of anhydrous chloride of zinc,
which can be easily concentrated up to the refraction of covering
glass, by using a refractometer or a test-bottle with a crown-glass
prism of 1-518, at first appeared to be the best substitute. But
it was found that in the high concentration needed here the solution
is subject to sudden changes unless it is perfectly free from the
ordinary hydrous salt. This may be obtained by very careful
preparation, and the liquid then performs very well — pro^dded it be
preserved in a tight bottle and prolonged observation with the same
drop be avoided, but I prefer now a solution of chloride of cad-
mium, or of sulpho-carbolate of zinc, in strong glycerine, which can
be brought to the right refraction. They are rather sticky it is
true, and in this respect less convenient for use ; but as they are
not nearly so hygroscopic as the chloride of zinc, they can be
applied with much more ease. With sufficient cleanliness none of
these liquids, not even the chloride of zinc, will do any injury to
the lenses or to the stands. The application of strictly homo-
geneous immersion has, therefore, no serious drawback, even if
a more convenient liquid should not be hereafter discovered, as may
still be hoped.*

As the result of the practical trial here recorded, I consider
the three following facts as sufiiciently established : —

1. The chromatic difference of spherical aberration may be
overcome even in wide-angled systems by means of the ordinary
methods hitherto applied in optical construction.

2. By the removal of this defect of spherical correction in

* Microscopists who are connected with chemical matters are kindly requested
to promote the homogeneous immersion method by looking out for such less
known liquids as afford some hope of being useful for the purpose, and I shall be
glad to investigate every sample which may be sent to me tor trial. A few drops
only, is quite sufficient for exact measurement, by means of the refractometer, of
the refractive and dispersive indices.

824 Transactions of the Society.

microscopic objectives a useful improvement of the dioptric per-
formance (definition) is obtained even when the defect of secondary
chromatism cannot be removed.

3. The homogeneous immersion system admits of a useful
increase of aperture closely approaching the ultimate limit which
is imposed by the optical qualities of the materials hitherto available
for microscopic preparations.

JOUR . R . MIC . S O C. VOL . 11. PllDOV.

U)-'

^^-

,\l

^

Wf/.

..^^^

'\-

\.k;

Anatoyn_y of Leptodora. Ixyalnia,

JO UR . R . Mr C , S 0 C , VOL .11. PL XXV.

H.E Forrest del.

IvtuatexjrtBro^ unp-

Aiiatomy o£ Leptodora hysdina.

( 825 )

XXXVIII. — On the Anatomy of Leptodora hyalina.
By H. E. Forrest.

{Bead 12th JSfovemher, 1879.)

Plates XXIV. and XXV.

Leptodora hyalina is a very interesting Entomostracon, which
has only recently been added to the British fauna. It was dis-
covered in this country on the 19th July, 1879, in Olton reservoir,
near Birmingham, by Mr. J. Levick, who with several fellow-
members was on an excursion of the Birmingham Natural History
and Microscopical Society. Sir John Lubbock read a paper on it
at the meeting of the British Association at Sheffield, and a short
description of it is given in the * Midland Naturalist ' for Sep-
tember, by Mr. W. Graham. Up to the present time, however,
nothing has been published in England upon the anatomy of the
animal, and it is hoped that the following remarks may be useful
both to those who have seen it, and those who have not had an
opportunity of doing so.

I will describe first its external structure, next the digestive
apparatus, then the nervous or sensory organs, and lastly the
reproductive organs, and differences between the sexes.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXIV. AND XXV.

Fig. 1. — Lateral view of male Lcptodora hyalina, to the first abdominal somite.
„ 2. — Dorsal view of the entire male animal, a, eye. 6, cerebrum, or brain
ganglia, c, antennules. d, commissure, e, cephalostegite, or head shield. /,
antennae. ^, 1 to 6, legs. A, upper lip. i, lower lip. j, mandible, k, thorax.
/, heart, m, omostegite, thoracic shield, or carapace, n, kidneys, o, 1 to 4,
abdomen, p, oesophagus, q, pharynx surrounded by salivary glands, r, stomach.
s, rectum, t, anus, u, terminal hooks of the abdomen, v, ligaments, to the
ends of which the muscles of the antennas are attached, w, ditto for muscles of
the six pair of legs, x, (Esophageal collar, t/, testis.

Fig. 3.— Antenna viewed from beneath, a, muscles. 6, nerves.
„ 4. — Seta from branch of antenna, a, nerve entering from below, and
terminating on diaphragm between the joints.

Fig. 5. — Carapace (omostegite) of female, with ova arranged round it, and
showing the opening which fits over the abdomen.

Fig. 6. — Ideal section of ditto, showing the incurved edges and ovum in situ,
one on each side.

Fig. 7. — Side view of terminal abdominal hooks.
„ 8. — Antennule of male, showing the nerve entering from below and
traversing the whole length, giving off branches to each of the truncated setaa.

Fig. 9.— Ditto of female.
„ 10. — Mandible, showing teeth on point.

„ 11. — Head of female, a, outer membrane of eye. 6, crystalline tubes,
c, pigment mass, d, muscles of the eye. e, f, right and left ganglia of braiu.
g, nerves of the antennules. h, commissure connecting the brain with the thoracic
ganglia. », dark oval bodies, j, basal ganglion.

Fig. 12. — Dorsal view of the heart, showing only the surface muscles.

826 Transactions of the Society.

I. External Structure.

The general appearance of Leptodora is shown in Fig. 2.
The body, which is long and straight, is of nearly the same
width thronghout. It measures from J inch to ^ inch in
length and about oV inch in greatest breadth. The division
into head, thorax, and abdomen is well marked. The head
(Fig. 1, a-h) is apparently of one piece, having no traces of seg-
mentation. In shape it is a rounded column, gradually expanding
towards the base, and slightly flattened on the ventral side. On
each side of the eye there is an antennule ( = the superior antennae
of Baird\ which is long and tapering in the male (Fig. 8),
but short and claviform in the female (Fig. 9). Just above
its junction with the thorax the head is covered, dorsally, by
a saddle-shaped shield (= cephalostegite of Huxley), beautifully
constructed of flat polygonal cells, each with a raised dot in the
centre of it (Fig. 1, e). Almost opposite this, on the ventral
surface, is the mouth, one of the most extraordinary I have ever
seen. In the Crustacea we are accustomed to find a complicated
arrangement of maxillae, palpi, and other hard structures. In
Leptodora we find, however, simply an upper and lower lip, soft
and mobile, the upper fitting over the lower like the two halves
of a duck's beak. When the animal requires to open its mouth
it calls into play a set of muscles which cause the upper hp to
wrinkle and curl upward in a manner which cannot fail to strike
the observer as comical. The lower lip, which is the same shape
as the upper, possesses little or no mobility ; it almost rests on a
kind of platform, formed by the top of the thorax (Fig. 1, h, upper
lip ; i, lower lip).

On each side of the body, between the cephalostegite and the
thorax, are attached the antennae (= inferior antennae of Baird),
joined to the body by several wrinkled folds of the integument (Figs. 1
and 2,/). Each antenna consists of a large, broad, and slightly
flattened arm, divided at the end into two branches (see Fig. 3) of
four joints each. The arm is not setose, but the three distal joints
of the one branch bear nine, six, and nine setae respectively, and
the four joints of the other branch bear four, nine, five, and six
setae respectively. These are the usual numbers, but they vary
slightly in difierent individuals. Each seta (Fig. 4) is divided into
two, and occasionally three joints, and tapers ofi" to a very fine
point. The sides are delicately fringed with hairs of extreme
tenuity, so closely set that the whole forms a kind of oar almost
impervious to water; presenting, perhaps, the largest possible
surface, at the smallest expenditure of material. The antennae are
used solely as organs of locomotion, i.e. as swimming organs.
Their motion is chiefly perpendicularly up and down. Though

On the Anatomy of Lejotodora hyalina. By H. E. Forrest. 827

at the same time the animal progresses forivard. This forward
motion is no doubt due in part to a shghtly backward direction of
the down stroke, but I think that it is also largely due to the
structure of the antenna.

As I have pointed out, the flattened oar-like end of this organ
is jointed, and therefore flexile. At each downward stroke it bends
upwards, at each upward stroke it bends downwards. The setae
all taper to the point, so that the base is stronger than the point,
and the weakness mcreases gradually upwards: consequently
although the normal position is straight, the force of the impact of
the water causes it to yield and bend, and this yielding is greater
towards the point than at the base, and since they are all united
so to speak, into a compact plate by the fringes on each side, and
are all acted upon at once, the whole surface of the oar assumes a
curved form, and strikes the water obKquely, instead of flatly, and
the animal is in consequence driven forward. My meaning will
probably be clearer, if I say that the principle which causes the oar
of Leptodora to glide forward, is exactly the same as that which
causes a rower's oar to glide dowmvards when he dips it into the
water obliquely and "catches a crab." At each stroke of the
antennae the direction of the slope is reversed, so that both the
upward and downward stroke drive it forward. The direction of
the hairs which fringe the setae (Fig. 4), is also such that it is
easier for the water to pass over than between them.

The thorax (Fig. 1, h) is that part of the body which bears the
legs. It consists of seven somites which have anastomosed so
thoroughly as to leave no traces of the original segments, and
indeed we can only guess their number from the number of pau-s
of appendages. Six pairs of these (Fig. 1, g^-g^) take the form
of legs, and are placed in a semicircle around a kind of platform
formed by the top of the thorax. Although they vary immensely
in length, they are all constructed exactly alike, each consisting of
four rounded joints provided with setae. The smallest pair
(Fig. 1, g^) is in the middle of the semicircle, and each succeed-
ing pair is longer than the last, the sixth being so long that they
meet far above the head (Fig. 4). The three smaller pairs are
curved upwards and towards the mouth, the three larger ones in
the opposite direction towards the last three.

The flexure of the limbs naturally leads to the supposition that
they are used for capturing prey, and their arrangement round the
mouth is such that no animal once within their pale could well
escape running the gauntlet between those ferocious-looking organs
of destruction, the mandibles (Fig. 1, /). These last are the
seventh pair of thoracic appendages, modified for manducatory
purposes. It is remarkable that none of the limbs are converted
into branchiae such as we find in the Daphniadae. The dorsal side

828 Transactions of the Society.

of the thorax below the limbs is expanded into a hoodlike carapace
( = omostegite of Huxley), which is small and attached all ronnd to
the body in the male (Fig. 1, m), but large and open below in the
female (Figs. 5 and 6 in section). The abdomen (Fig. 1, o),
(Fig. 2, 0 1-4), consists of four somites of unequal length, but
nearly the same width ; the terminal one is divided at the end into
two long sickle-shaped hooks (Figs. 7 and 4, u) covered with short
flat spines, a row of larger ones along the inner edge.

II. The Digestive and Circulatory System.

The alimentary apparatus of Lejotodora is very simple. The
mouth I have already described. The bases of the mandibles
(Fig. 1, ji") are embedded in a muscular bulb in the thorax, but the
points are free and project into the mouth, one on each side, at the
junction of the upper and lower hps. Their points are armed
with three or four projecting teeth (Fig. 10). Whenever the
mouth opens these mandibles begin to work towards each other
across the opening of the oesophagus, tearing the food as it passes
between them. The food consists chiefly of small water insects
and other living things. The pharynx (Fig. 1, </) is not always
open, and I have seen it opening and shutting as if it were closed
by a sphincter muscle. It passes straight backwards as far as the
roots of the mandibles, and is surrounded by a number of cells,
which are probably salivary glands. It passes between the man-
dibles and then curves suddenly downwards, and enters the oeso-
phagus, a long tube traversing the centre of the abdomen as far as
the last somite but one, where it is expanded into a stomach the
walls of which are corrugated interiorly. The anus is situated be-
tween the terminal hooks, at the end of a short rectum (Fig. 2, s).

On each side of the heart there is a long dark vessel (Figs. 1
and 2, n), which is probably a kidney. It is bathed all round
with the blood, and would no doubt secrete the urine from it as it
passes. It is divided at the end into two lobes, one of which is of
a darker colour than the other. A long duct leads from it
upwards into the centre of the thorax, where it gets lost in the mass
of muscles and nerves which crowd this part, so that I have not
been able to trace them any further. I think, however, that the
ducts enter the oesophagus, and their contents then find their way
out through the same opening as the other faecal matters.

There is no trace of a hver, but probably the walls of the
stomach secrete some fluid analogous to the gastric juice. The
circulatory system is also very rudimentary. The heart (Fig. 1, /,
Fig. 2, ly and Fig. 12) is a perfectly transparent sac encircled with
numerous muscles, situated in the centre of the thorax, to the sides

On the Anatomy of LeiAodora hyalina. By H. E. Forrest. 829

of which it is attached by slender hgaments of connective tissue.
Fig. 12 is a dorsal view of the heart showing the arrangement of
the muscles. It pulsates very rapidly, pumping the blood along
just like a pair of bellows. Leptodora cannot be said to have any
true arteries or veins, the blood merely courses along the interstices
between the organs of the body. The corpuscles are amcsboid,
colourless, nucleated, and remarkably few and far between. At
each contraction of the heart the blood is driven forward through
an opening at the end nearest the head, where there is a valve
which prevents its return when the heart re-expands. The blood
then enters at the opposite end, to be in its turn driven forward,
and so on ad Jibitum. It is very remarkable that Leptodora
hyalina has no organs set apart for respiration. In the other
Cladocera we always find some of the limbs flattened and otherwise
modified so as to serve the purpose of gills, but in Leptodora the
whole body wall is so thin, and consequently the whole body so
thoroughly exposed to the oxygenizing influences of the water,
that the specialization of any parts for breathing organs is
unnecessary.

III. Nervous System and Sensory Organs.

The nervous system is more highly developed than might be
expected from the otherwise low organization of the animal. It
shows a degree of concentration almost equal to that of the spider
crabs (Maia). There is a large brain mass or cerebrum in the front
part of the head, and the eye rests immediately upon it (Fig. 1 , a
and h). The cerebrum is indistinctly divided into three parts. Two
upper right and left parts (Fig. 11, e and /), and one basal part
(Fig. 11, j), probably the remains of three ganglia which have
coalesced. The basal part gives off a large nerve (y) to each of
the two antennules. Each nerve gives off branches to the setae
with which these organs are studded, and it is remarkable
that they differ materially from the setae found on other parts
of the body, being truncate instead of pointed (Fig. 8, male ; 9,
female). Hence the end of each nerve is exposed almost naked
to the water, making the antennules most delicate sensory organs.

What their precise function is, is a moot point, some authors
say they are for hearing, others for smelling. Sir John Lubbock in
his recent paper read before the British Association fully discusses
this question, and concludes that the latter is the most probable,
because the antennules are much more developed in the males than
in the females. If one sex attracts the other by sound, both sexes
would have the ear developed, for the attracted sex must be able to
distinguish the sound, and the singing sex must have a good ear

830 Transactions of the Societtj.

to regulate the sound. In such a case there would not be much
difference between the organs of hearing in the male and female.
But if one sex attracts the other by smell, it is not necessary that
the attractive sex (female in this case) should have well developed
organs of smell. If the antennules were hearing organs, I still
do not see how they would be available for bringing the sexes
together, for the assumption that the male can produce any sound
is pure hypothesis, and so soft are the parts of its body that I
doubt whether such a thing is possible ; indeed the whole evidence
is so strongly in its favour that Sir John Lubbock's conclusion is
evidently the right one.

The eye is a most beautiful organ. If viewed laterally (Fig 1, a)
it appears globular, but is not really so. Seen from beneath (Fig. 11)
it is found to be reniform, composed of a series of cuneiform
crystalline tubes (Fig. 11, Z^) with rounded extremities, but not so
closely appressed as to become hexagonal. These are enclosed in a
very transparent membrane (Fig. 11, a), and radiate from a dark-
coloured pigment mass (c) in which their inner ends are embedded.
This eye is remarkable for exhibiting a distinct tendency to become
two eyes as in the higher Crustacea. Down the centre of it
(Fig. 11) there is drawn a faint line, which in the lower half
widens into a considerable gap, where there are no crystalline tubes,
the right and left halves thus formed corresponding to the right
and left cerebral ganglia (Fig. 11, e and /). In some specimens
this gap is much more distinct than in the one figured. We see the
same thing in the larva (Zoea) of the prawn, which has one eye,
but later on two eyes. The eye of Leptodora too, is much in
advance of that of the other Cladocera, in which it consists of a
pigment mass with a few irregular crystalline sacs attached to it.
Between the upper and lower ganglia of the brain there are several
dark oval bodies (Fig. 11, i), whose function I cannot guess.
The basal ganglion gives off a large commissure {h), which
bifurcates, in some specimens close to, in others at a considerable
distance from its origin ; the two halves being very much thickened
as they pass one on each side of the oesophagus to form the
oesophageal collar (Fig. 2, x). They meet on the opposite side, in
a large nerve mass formed by the coalescence of all the nerve
centres of the thorax and abdomen into one. This mass is situated
between the bases of the six pairs of legs and the mandibles, and
gives off nerves, one to each leg, one to each side of the abdomen,
and one larger than the others to each antenna. These nerves of
course give off smaller branches innumerable, but I need not
describe them further than to say that every individual seta is
provided with one. In the large setae on the antennary branches
(Fig. 4, a) the nerve terminates on the diaphragm between the
two joints.

On the Anatomy of Lei^dora hyalina. By H. E. Forrest. 831

IV. Muscles.

Probably in no otter animal is muscular action and structure
displayed more beautifully than in Leptodora, for on account of its
transparency the muscles may all be seen in situ without any dis-
section. The most powerfully developed are those of the antennae,
which are shown from a dorsal aspect in Fig. 2, /, and from beneath
in the larger drawing (Fig, 3, a). The immense power of these
muscles requires that the point of attachment should be very
firm, but the body wall of the thorax is much too soft to bear
the strain, so instead of being attached to it, they are fastened
(Fig. 2, v) to the ends of two ligaments which pass right
through the thorax, and are only fastened to the body wall by
threads of connective tissue. Thus the two opposite antenna-
muscles actually pull against one another, and the whole strain is
borne by the ligament between them. The six pairs of legs are
each provided with a muscle, and their ends too are attached to
ligaments between their bases (Fig. 2, w), and the right and left
sides pull against one another. A large flat muscle runs down each
side of the body, and is attached to each somite, the final attach-
ment being to the sides of the terminal somite, almost at the end of
the stomach (Fig. 2, r). The rectum (s) is opened and closed by
a set of sphincter muscles, and so is the pharynx, as I have already
mentioned. The muscles which move the lips are attached at one
end to the lips, at the other to the ventral or dorsal sides of the
head (see Fig. 1). The eye has six muscles fastened to it at six
diiferent points, about equal distances from one another (Fig. 11, d).
These are constantly m motion, causing the eye to perform a
quarter of a revolution in one direction, then to revolve the same
distance in the opposite direction, and this movement does not
seem to be under the control of the animal, as it is as incessant,
though not so regular as the beating of the heart. The muscles
which encircle this last-named organ are distinctly striate (Fig. 12),
and distributed over its surface in irregular loops.

V. Sexual Differences.
In Leptodora, as in most of the Cladocera, the female is larger
than the male. In August, when I first began to collect them,
the females were much more numerous than the males ; but later
on the males appeared in goodly numbers, and finally, in October,
there were as many males as females, if not more. Now (No-
vember) both sexes have entirely disappeared, and I much regret
that I am not able to give a drawing of the ovaries, as I neglected
to mount a female specimen, supposing I should be able to procure
them alive at any time. I have seen them, however, yerj often,
so am not at a loss how to describe them. They are elongated

832 Transactions of the Society.

dark-coloured organs, fastened by one end to the inside of the wall
of the abdomen, close to the junction of the first and second
somites. The inner ends are free, the right-hand ovary projecting
into the abdomen downwards; the left upwards. When much
distended with eggs they sometimes nearly fill the abdomen. My
friend Mr. W. P. Marshall informs me that he saw one female
with a row of eggs the whole length of the abdomen, but I did not
see the specimen myself. The oviducts open on to the surface
between the second and third somites. The eggs, after extrusion,
are carried about in the carapace of the mother until hatched.
The way in which they are kept in their places is very remarkable.
The carapace (omostegite) is much larger in the female than in
the male (Fig. 5, female, and 1, m, male), shaped like the bowl of a
spoon, with the edges produced and curled over inwards. It is
this incurvature of the edges which prevents the eggs from
tumbling out of the carapace, as shown in Fig. 6, which is an ideal
section of the carapace and abdomen showing two eggs, and the
way in which the opening is closed below by the top of the
abdomen. The eggs are always arranged round the carapace,
never in the middle, and the greatest number I have seen within it
at one time is six. I am indebted to Mr. J. Levick for a specimen
showing the structure of the female carapace very clearly.

Tlie testes (Fig. 2, ?/) occupy the same position in the male as
the ovaries of the female. They each consist of an elongated,
transparent sac, pointed above and below, and connected together
by a saddle-like band. They are filled with sperm vesicles, most
thickly congregated towards the upper end. As my paper only
treats of the anatomy of the animal, I cannot enter into the subject
of its development, although it is highly interesting.

VI. Zoological Position.

Le^toclora hyalina was placed by Lilljeborg in the Branchio-
poda. Order Cladocera, and Family Daphniadas, and his placing
has since been admitted by other naturalists without demur ; but,
during the last two months. I have had the animal under close
observation, and the more I study it the more the conviction grows
upon me, that its departure from the type is so great that one of
two things must happen. Either the diagnosis of Cladocera and
Daphniadee must be altered in order to admit the species, or else
Leiitodora must be placed in a separate order and family. The
following is Baird's description of the order Cladocera, condensed.

Body, except the head, enclosed in a bivalve carapace hinged at
back. Feet four to six pair, articulations chiefly branchiform, not
adapted for locomotion. Eye single, large. Antennae two ])airs,
inferior branched, large, and adapted for swimming. Mandibles
without palpi.

On the Anatomy of Leptodora hyalina. By R. E. Forrest. 833

In the ' Micrographic Dictionary,' the first part of the diagnosis
which speaks of the body being enclosed in the carapace is omitted,
but even in this revised form it will not admit Leptodora.

I don't understand why Lilljeborg placed Leptodora in the
family Daphniadae, which is defined thus : " Superior antennae very
small, inferior large with two branches. Legs five or six pairs all
enclosed within the carapace." As the carapace of Leptodora is so
small that it does not completely cover one somite of the abdomen,
much less any part of the legs.

The probable explanation is that Baird's arrangement was
founded only on those British Entomostraca with which he was ac-
quainted, and under these circumstances it will, I suggest, be best
to place Leptodora in a family by itself, and to modify the Cladocera
as defined in the ' Micrographic Dictionary,' by the alteration of
a single word.

Order, Cladocera. Legs four to six pairs, generally branchial ;
eye single, and very large, antennae two pairs, inferior large,
branched, and adapted for swimming.

Family I. Daphniadae ; Family II, Polyphemidte ; Family III.
Leptodoridas. Inferior antennae very large, two branched, both
four-jointed. Legs six pairs, none of them branchiform. Carapace
very small, not enclosing the body. Young passing through a
metamorphosis from the winter egg.

VII. History.

Leptodora hyalina was first discovered by Dr. Focke, who
found it in the moat of the city of Bremen in 1844, and exhibited
it at a meeting of the Natural History Society of that place. It
did not however receive any name until 1860, when it was described
in the ' Transactions ' of the Swedish Academy by Lilljeborg, who
had found it in the Swedish lakes. His treatise is written in
Swedish, but he gives a long Latin diagnosis. Miiller was the
first to find the male in the Lakes of Constance, Geneva, and
Denmark. Nicolaus Wagner discovered it in 1868 in Russia, in a
lake near Kasan, and not knowing that Lilljeborg had already
described and named it, he gave a description and four plates of it
under the name ot Eyalosoma dux. In 1873, Sars published some
notes on the development of the winter eggs. In 1874, Dr. August
Weismann published a very elaborate and careful paper on its
anatomy, with six plates, in the ' Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliehe
Zoologie,' vol. xxiv. Through the kindness of Mr. Crisp, I have
been able to examine this laper, which was translated for me by a
lady friend, and I find that there are one or two points on which my
observations do not agree with his. He draws all the setae on the
branches of the antennae equal in length, which in my view is not

VOL. H, 3 K

834 'Transactions of the Society.

correct. He does not appear to have noticed the incurved edges
of the female carapace by which the eggs are held, as he figures it
merely as spoon-shaped, and states that the eggs are held in their
places by transparent threads. I have not been able to detect
these threads, but would not venture to deny their existence. He
also states that the dots on the cephalostegite are the openings of
glands ; if so, they would open inwards, but they appear to me
raised spots on the outer surface, and not openings at all. I do
not know whether he observed the polygonal markings on this
shield, but he does not figure them. He also contradicts Wagner's
assertion that bristles occur on this part of the body, and considers
that what Wagner took for bristles were parasitic fungi. I have
noticed that almost all my specimens had the cephalostegite and
sometimes other parts of the body covered Avith the frustules of a
diatom {Synedra), which at a casual glance might easily be
mistaken for bristles. Probably this was the cause of Wagner's
error.

Two things would tend to prevent the earlier discovery of
Leftodora in Britain : first, its extreme transparency ; and second,
its habit of frequenting open and deep water, lor it is usually found
at a depth of three or four feet. A naturalist hunting for Ento-
mostraca, would probably only dip for them in the weedy shallows
where they mostly congregate, and would thus come away without
procuring a single Leptodora, even in a pool where they abounded.
Swimming in open water, the animal is of course exposed to the
attacks of fishes, and no doubt its transparency is then a great
protection to it. It would also serve to conceal it from any prey
on which it is stealing.

Since its discovery at Olton reservoir, Leptodora has been
found in great abundance at Edgbaston Pool, another large sheet
of water in the neighbourhood of Birmingham, and in both pools
it was associated with Hyalodajphnia Kahlbergensis, also a new
discovery in this country.

( 835 )

XXXIX. — On a Neic Species of the Genus Eucamjna.
By Henry Stolterfoth, M.D.

(Read 8th October, 1879.)
The genus Eucamina was defined by Ehrenberg, and placed by
him amongst the Desmidiaceae. In Smith's ' British Diatomaceae,'
vol. ii. p. 25, it is rightly placed amongst the Diatomaceae. Only
two species are recognized by Smith, E. Zocliacus and E. Britannica,
and neither of these had been seen by him in the living state.
Both these species I have taken living by means of the tow-net in
the estuary of the Dee, Chester. There is QXiot]xev Eucampia known,
in the Hong Kong gatherings made by Dr. Palmer, as nodosa ;
this latter is, I believe, identical with E. Zocliacus, and only repre-
sents a stronger growth in a hotter climate.

In the year 1875 my attention was called by A. 0. Walker,
Esq., Chester, to some circular rings taken in the tow-net.
These were, however, very few, and I then took them to be some
kind of unknown Confervae. The rings I have since continually
seen, but never in sufficient abundance to make out their silicious

a. — Eucampia striata n. sp. X 350.

6. — A single frustule, showing spines.

c. — Eucampia striata, n. sp. var. maxima.

d.— The common appearance of the frustule when seen on a burnt slide.

On July 14th, 1879, I obtained a nearly pure gathering of
this form and was able to make a careful examination of it both
living, burnt on the cover glass, and preserved in fluid.

O K ^

836 Transactions of the Society.

The definition of tlie genus Eucampia Ehr. as given in ' Sm.
Brit. Diat.' vol. ii. p. 25, is —

" Friistides cuneate, quadrangular or oblong, united into a
spii-al filament ; valves dotted, elliptical."

This definition slightly extended, so as to include my new
form, obviates the necessity of creating a new genus : —

Frustiiles cuneate, quadrangular or oljloug, united into a spiral
filament ; valves dotted or costate, elliptical or circular.

Eucamjna striata n. sp. Breadth of the whole plant circle
about '01 of an inch. Valves hyaline. Side view, circular, "002."
Front view, trapezoidal, and about four or five times longer than
broad. Marked with fine costte extending across, 14 to the •001".
A small spine at the angles terminating the convex border, and
situated at the edge of the circular side view. Endochrome green.

Habitat, marine ; estuary of the Dee, Chester, July 14th,
1879, and Hong Kong Harbour (Dr. Palmer).

In the same gathering I found another form, which I take to
be a variety — Eucampia striata n. sj>. var. maxima. 1 have never
seen a complete circle of the whole plant, only five or six frustules
together forming a curve. Valves hyaline. Side view, circular,
• 004". Front view nearly square, marked with costse 7 or 8 to the
•001". No spine. Endochrome green. In the dry state the ends
of the valves fold over, as seen in d.

Habitat, marine ; estuary of the Dee, Chester. July 14th,
1879, and Hong Kong Harbour (Dr. Palmer).

The variety maxima may only be a stage of growth, but it is
constant in its appearance, and I do not find intermediate states
of growth.

I have added the locality Hong Kong on the authority of my
friend, Laurence Hardman, Esq., who pointed out to me the exact
similarity between my form and that found in the Hong Kong
gatherings, and which he believes has never yet been described
owing to the want of fresh material.

^ 837 )

XL. — Immersion Stage Illuminator.
By John Mayall, jun., F.E.M.S.

iRead 12th Novemher, 1879.)

The illuminating device here described was obviously suggested by
Professor Abbe's Apertometer disk.

It is evident that every apparatus fit for observing the aperture
of a high-angled object-glass must likewise be capable of being
used for illuminating the marginal zone of such an objective.

The apertometer-disk itself was found to require modifications
as to size, shape, &c., to render it more practical as an illuminator,
especially for lamp-light. The modifications here detailed have
been designed specially with a view to using the illuminator on the
Continental stands provided with concentric rotating stage, many of
which do not conveniently admit the use of very obliquely incident
light from beneath.

Diagram f scale.

The plate of glass A is held on to the foot-plate C by means
of vertical spring clips from which it can be removed for cleaning ;
the back edge is cut to an angle of 45 ^ as in the apertometer-disk,
for total reflection of illuminating rays ; the peripheral margin,
admitting the rays, is ground spherically instead of cylindrically,
which adds to the illumination ; it is supported by a brass semi-
cylinder d which forms part of the foot-plate C. A brass object-
plate D, carrying clips for the object-slide, is made to rotate on the
upper surface of A round the circular glass plate a which is slightly
below the surface of D and ground conical and cemented on to A
and acts as a pivot to D, smooth rotation being obtained by means
of a film of glycerine interposed.

The illuminator is to be secured firmly on the rotating stage by
clamps on the projecting edges of the foot-plate after the centre of
a has been centred with the optical system. The lamp and
condensing lens to be suitably adjusted so that the reflected image

838 Transactions of the Society.

of the flame is seen nearly in the plane of the object. The object-
slide is placed in immersion contact with the plate a under the
clips ; the brass plate D will now rotate the object-slide to the
required position with reference to the incident light, while the
rotation of the Microscope stage (carrying the illuminator) will
give every range of obliquity from central light to dark-field with
any objective, the lamp and condenser remaining stationary.

It would doubtless be possible to dispense with a rotatory stage
by inserting the glass plate A into a rotating plate in the foot-
plate C, but there would be difficulty in making the rotation exactly
concentrical to the rotation of the brass object-plate D.

My acknowledgments are due to Professor Abbe for the interest
he has shown in the practical development of the plan : without
his assistance even this experimental device would probably not
have been made.

( 839 }

XLI. — On a Table of Numerical- Apertures, showing! the Equivalent
Angles of Aperture of Dry, Water Immersion, and Homogeneous
Immersion Objectives, with their respective Resolving Powers,
taking the Wave Length of Line Eas the Basis ; a = n sin. to,
n = refractive ificlex, and tv = ^ angle of aperture.
By J. W. Stephenson, F.R.A.S., Treas. E.M.S.

(Bead 12th Nov., 1879.)
As considerable misapprehension appears to exist, not only in this
country but also in the United States, as to the special advantage
of the " Numerical-Aperture " of Professor Abbe, I have thought it
would be useful to construct the subjoined Table. It cannot be
too strongly impressed upon microscopists, that the expression
angle of aperture of objectives furnishes in itself no intelligible
measure of the actual resolving powers, which, as will be seen by
the Table, bear no relation whatever to the angles.

The resolving powers are, however, exactly proportional (cseteris
paribus) to the numerical apertures, and the expressions for the
latter will therefore allow the resolving powers of different objec-
tives to be at once compared, not only if the medium (air, water,
oil, &c.) is the same in each case, but also if it is different.

Thus, to say that a dry objective has an angle of 60'^, a water-
immersion 53°, and a homogeneous immersion 48°, conveys no
idea (without calculation) of their relative resolving powers, but
when we are told that the three objectives are of 0 • 50, 0 " 60, and
0 • 62 numerical aperture, the comparison is obvious.

The Table shows, moreover, how little increase in resolving
power may be gained by a considerable increase in the angle.
Thus two dry objectives whose angles are 180° and 157° respec-
tively, differ in resolving power by only 2 per cent.

Maximum aperture of
homogeneous immer-
sion objectives, with
crown-Klass cover . .

Zeiss' homogeneous |th~
(1879) ,

Numerical

Angle of

Aperture

Aperture

=..

in Air.

1-52

1-50

■•

1-48

..

1-46

1-44

1-42

1-40

1-38

1 36

Water

Angle.

Theoretical
Resolving

J'ower,

in Lines to

an Inch.

(A.=0- 5269/01

line K.)

180°
161°
153°
147°
142°
138°
134°
13U°
126°

123° 40'

146,528
144,600
142,672
140,744
138.816
136,888
134,960
133,032
131,104
129,176

840

Transactions of the Society.

Theoretic'il

Resolving

Numerical

Angle of

Water
Angle.

Homogeneous

Power,

Aperture

Aperture

(or Balsam)

In Lines to

= a.

in Air.

Angle.

an Inch.

(A=0-5269/oi

=line E.)

Maximum aperture of

wuter-immersion ob-

1-33

180° 0'

122° 6'

128,212

jectives

1-32

165° 56'

120° 33'

127,248

Powell and Lealand's

1-30

155° 38'

117° 34'

125,320

homogeneous \ ..

1-28

148° 28'

114° 44'

123,392

Zeiss' homogeneous |, )

1-26

142° 39'

111° 59'

121,464

t!5,^V(1878) .. ..(

1-24

137° 36'

109° 20'

119,536

Powell and Lealand's |

1-22

133° 4'

106° 45'

117,608

ditto yV '

1-20

128° 55'

104° 15'

115,680

Nobert's 19th band=\
113,000 /

118

125° 3'

101° 50'

113,752

116

121° 26'

99° 29'

111,824

114

118° 00'

97° 11'

109,896

Powell and Lealand's)
water immersion i y^ 1

112

114° 44'

94° 56'

107,968

110

111° 36'

92° 43'

106,040

T ••

108

108° 36'

90° 33'

104.112

106

105° 42'

88° 26'

102.184

104

102° 53'

86° 21'

100,256

102

100° 10'

84° 18'

98,328

Maximum aperture of|
dry objectives . . . • J

10

180° 0'

97° 31'

82° 17'

96.400

098

157° 2'

94° 56'

80° 17'

94,472

Amphipleura pelhicida — \
92,000 to 95.000 ../

0-96

147° 29'

92° 24'

78° 20'

92,544

0-94

140° 6'

89° 56'

76° 24'

90,616

0-92

133° 51'

87° 32'

74° 30'

88,688

0-90

128° 19'

85° 10'

72° 36'

86,760

0-88

123° 17'

82° 51'

70° 44'

84,832

0-86

118° 38'

S0° 34'

68° 54'

82,904

Navicnla crassinervis =\
78,000 to 87,000 ../

0-84

114° 17'

78° 20'

67° 6'

80,976

0-82

110° 10'

76° 8'

65° 18'

79.048

0-80

10G° 16'

73° 58'

63° 31'

77.120

0-78

102° 31'

71° 49'

61° 45'

75,192

0-76

98° 76'

69° 42'

60° 0'

73,264

0-74

95° 28'

67° 36'

583 16'

71,336

0-72

92° 6'

65° 32'

56° 32'

69,408

S'trircUa qemma = 64,000 1
to 69,000 1

0-70

88° 51'

63° 31'

54° 50'

67,480

0-68

85° 41'

61° 30'

53° 9'

65,552

0-66

82° 36'

59° 30'

51° 28'

63,624

0-64

79° 35'

57° 31'

49° 48'

61.696

0-62

76° 38'

55° 34'

48° 9'

59,768

Plenrosiqma fasciola = \
55,000 to 58,000 ../

0-60

73° 44'

53° 38'

46° 30'

57,840

0-58

70° 54'

51° 42'

44° 51'

55.912

0-56

68° 6'

49° 48'

43° 14'

53,984

0-54

65° 22-

47° 54'

41° 37'

52,056

0-52

62° 40'

46° 2'

40° 0'

50,128

Pleurosigma angulatHm\
= 44,000 to 49,000../

0-50

60° 0'

44° 10'

38° 24'

48,200

0-48

57° 22'

42° 18'

36° 49'

46,272

0-46

54° 46'

40° 28'

35° 14'

45.344

0-44

52° 12'

38° 38'

33° 39'

42,416

0-42

49° 40'

36° 49'

32° 5'

40.488

0-40

47° 9'

35° 0'

30 31'

38,560

Plenrosiqma Balticum \
= 33,000 to 37,000 /

0-38

44° 40'

33° 12'

28° 57'

36.632

Note. — The -wave length assumed in the above Table is, as
stated, 0'5269 fi, but it is not unimportant to observe, that if the

On a Table of Numerical Apertures. By J. W. Stephenson. 8tl

point taken had been, as nearly as may be, midway between E and
r, i. e. = 0'508 fji, the numerical aperture would itselfhoNe been
the true measure of resolving power, being exactly equal to the
number of hundred-thousands of lines in an inch ; tlius giving
100,000 lines as the maximum of a dry lens, 133,000 as that of
a water-immersion, and 152.000 as the ideal maximum of a homo-
geneous-immersion objective with crown-glass covers.

As the resolution by the same objective is affected by the
intensity of the illuminating beam, by the colour of the object, and
other circumstances, it is not possible to assign an absolute measure
— using the line D (= 0'5889yu-), for instance, in the computation,
the resolving power would be found to be 10^ per cent, less than
the tabular results: on the contrary, if the line F (= 0* 4861 /a)
were selected, the resolving power would be 8 • 4 per cent, greater,
or taking the line = 0-40/^ (near Hi), as probably sufficient for
photographic resolution, the maximum number of lines which could
be delineated by a dry lens would be 127,000, by a water immer-
sion 168,910, or, by a homogeneous immersion objective (under
present conditions) 193,040, although, if flint-glass covers with
suitable homogeneous fluid were adopted, the ultimate limit might,
on this hypothesis, be extended to, say, 200,000; and on the as-
sumption that the space between each of these lines was equal to
the lines themselves, it follows that the width of each line would
be ^^)^^o„Q of an inch, but it by no means hence follows that this
would be the ultimate photographic limit for a single line.

(03^ There is no loss of aperture on objects mounted in balsam,
or any more highly refractive medium (as was formerly supposed
by many, myself included), under either of the systems, in fact
the full resolving power (with transmitted light) can be attained
only if the object is mounted in a medium whose refractive index
is equal to, or greater than, the numerical aperture of the objec-
tive, so that if ever homogeneous objectives are constructed for
flint-glass covers, some more highly refractive medium than balsam
must be used for mounting the objects, such as bisulphide of
carbon or oil of cassia.

842

Transactions of the Society.

XLII. — AiJerture Measurements of Immersion Objectives ex
as " Numerical Aperture."

By John Mayall, jun., F.E.M.S.

CBead 12th November, 1879.)

As it is probable that apertures will be expressed, in future scientific
discussions, by the nomenclature suggested by Professor E. Abbe,
i. e. '* Numerical Aperture," the following list of actual measurements
may be interesting to microscopists : —

Zeiss's homogeneous immersion (Abbe's formula,)

1879} J

Tolles"s oil immersion (1879)

„ water immersion (1876)
Zeiss's homogeneous immersion (1878)
Tolles's water immersion (1877)
Zeiss's homogeneous immersion (1878)

Tolles's water immersion (1875)

(187(3) .. ..
Powell and Lealand's oil immersion (1879)
Tolles's water „ (1874)

Powell and Lealand's „ „ new! ,

formula (1875) / *

Tolles's „ „ (1874) be-1 ,

longing to Mr. Crisp J '

Powell and Lealand's „ „ new^ ,

formula (1875) j '^

,. ., (1874) .. J^

„ „ „ „ new"! J

formula (1876) j '^

Tolles's „ „ (1876) .. J,

Powell and Lealand's

formula (1876) ..
Prazmowski's

Zeiss's

"Numerical Aperture

i

. .. 1-40

tV

. .. 1-30 +

To

. .. 1-30 +

tV*

. .. 1-28 +

tV

. .. 1-25 +

t\t

. .. 1-20 +

-h ■

. .. 1-20 +

s

. .. 1-20 +

i •

. .. 1-20 +

i

. .. 1-20

i

. .. 1-20

tV •

. .. 1-20

. .. 1-20

i ■

. .. 1-20

i

. .. 118

Nobert's
Hartnack'i

Prazmowski's
Giindlach's

(1874) No. 8
(1875) ..

(1867) .. J^
„ No. 12 = J^
,, No. 9 = ,v

(1874) .. .

15 +

15 +

15

15

12
10

* I am indebted to Professor E. Keith (of U.S.A.) for this measurement. He
measured the balsam angle to be 115° (the highest aperture attained at that date),
which would be about 1'28 of "numerical aperture." The other measurements
were made by myself, and several were verified by Professor E. Abbe.

Aperture Measurements. By John Mayall, Jun. 843

" Numerical Aperture.'

Spencer's

water

immersion (1878) ..

Y

.. .. 1-00 +

„

„

„

„

i

.. .. I'OO +

Boss's

„

„

(1879) .. ..

T^o

.. .. 1-00 +

Merz's

„

„

(1868) .. ..

tV

Beck's

;;

;;

(1869) .. ..
(1875?) .. ..

tV

slightly less than
1-00

Prazmowski's

„

„

(1875) .. ..

l\s

Puwell and Lealand

s water

immersion (1879)

r'o

The above list does not include those immersion objectives, by various makers,
which yielded measurements of balsam angle notably less than 82° (= I'OO num.
ap.). The signs + indicate in which direction the measurement tended.

( 844 )
PtECOED

OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

INVEETEBEATA, CEYPTOGAMIA, MICEOSCOPY, &c.
including Embryology and Histology generally.

ZOOLOGY.

A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology
of the Vertebrata.

Gestation of the Armadillo.* — Mx-. Milne-Edwards refers to the
presence f>f four foetal (nine-banded) armadilloes in a common
chorion ; the phenomenon may, he thinks, be explained either (Ij by
a number of ovules having been enclosed in the Graafian follicle,
inasmuch as these ovules might also be enclosed in a common
granular layer, and this layer would, on accompanying them into the
oviduct and thence into the uterus, be converted into a common
chorion ; or (2) the effect may have been produced by the disappearance
of the granular layer of each ovule and by the subsequent investment
of the four fecundated ovules by a layer formed by the walls of the
oviduct or uterus ; — but this could not happen unless the secondary
(amniotic) chorion had been absorbed, or had never been formed ; or,
(3) the four amniotic chorions might have fused at their points of
contact and have undergone absorption at all but their peripheral
portions.

Vitality of the Spermatozoa of the Trout. f— The details of M.
Henneguy's experiments will be seen by the following table, which
shows the number of ova that became developed after they (having
been impregnated), were subjected to the following agents : —

(1) Pure water 62 eggs .. .. 50 developed.

(2) Water with 5 per cent, alcohol .. 91 „ .. .. 7i „

(3) „ „ 10 „ „ .. 59 ., .. .. 50

(4) „ „ 5 „ ether .. 51 „ .. .. 42

(5) „ saturated with chloroform 32 ,, .. .. 19 „

The fishes produced exhibited no difference to those developed
from ova which had been fecundated in the ordinary manner ; and it
is concluded that doses of alcohol, &c., which are suificient to kill
Infusoria for instance, have no effect on the spermatozoa.

Experiments on Development.^ — MM. Pouchet and Beauregard
describe some experiments in which they removed from eggs a small
quantity of their liquid albumen and replaced it by a certain quantity
(half a gramme) of sugar ; and then reclosed the eggs in the manner
they have already described. Experiments were made on eighty
eggs, and of these twenty-eight were opened during the first thirteen

* ' Comptes Eendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) No. 9.
t ' CR. Soc. Biol.' for 1877 (1879), p. 274. J Ibid., p. 338.

RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES, ETC. 845

days of incubation ; fifteen were found to be undergoing tbe normal
processes of development, and thirteen, though partly developed,
were found to be dead. No observations were made on eggs more
than thirteen days old ; in no case did the cane-sugar seem to have
been converted into glucose, but the authors are unable to rejjly to
the question they themselves propose : Has the sugar remained
unaltered in the albumen or has it been absorbed by the embryo ?
They draw, however, attention to what they were enabled to observe
in those eggs which underwent no development at all ; part of the
vitellus presented a milky-white colour, the albumen, especially near
the yolk, was opaque, and the egg, wheu opened, had the odour of a
substance in which lactic fermentation was going on.

M. Pouchet has also made some experiments on the eggs of birds,
with the view of seeing whether the form of the egg has any
influence on tlie direction in which the embryo is developed, and
found that if he seized a chalaza and turned it round in the yolk, and
then allowed development to proceed, the embryo was itself altered
in jjosition.

Granular Bodies found in the Ovum. * — M. Dareste reaffirms
the presence of amyloid granules iu the yellow of the egg ; he sho«s
the presence of starch by the action of chemical reagents, and points
out that the fact of these granules not being composed of lecithin is
shown by their insolubility in alcohol or ether; he has not, how-
ever, been able to isolate these graniiles from the rest of the mass.

M. Dastre, however, is of opinion that the granulations are
phosphates of fatty bodies (of lecithin), and asserts that they contain
no starch ; he draws attention to the difficulty of finding starch, which
gives a blue reaction to the iodine test (as found by Dareste), and
points out that it is only vegetable starch which does this, and that
animal starch reddens under the action of iodine.

Development of the Ova and the Structure of the Ovary in
Man and other Mammalia,| — The history of these structm-es has
been lately dealt with by Mr. Balfour in the ' Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science,'^ and to this paper Dr. Foulis refers in one
by himself in Humphry's ' Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.'

The principal results arrived at by Dr. Foidis are that all the
ova are derived from the germ epithelial cells. In the develoj)ment
of the ovary small and large groups of the germ epithelial cells
become gradually embedded in the ever-advancing stroma. Germ
epithelial cells do not grow downwards into the substance of the
ovary. The ovarian stroma constantly grows outwards, surrounding
and embedding certain of the germ epithelial cells. As these latter
increase in size, and as the stroma thickens around them, the whole
ovary becomes enlarged. Pfliiger's tubes in the kitten's ovary have
no existence as such, but are appearances produced by long groups

* ' Comptes Rtudus,' Ixsxviii. (1879) Nos. 11 aud 14 ; see ' Rev. Sci. Nat.,' i.
(1879) p. 91.

t ' Journ. Anat. and Phye.' (Humphry), xiii. (1879) p. 353.
X ' Quart. Jouru. Micr. Sci.,' xviii. (1878).

846 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of embedded germ epithelial cells, many of which groups are not
completely cut off from the germ eiiithelial layer by the young
ovarian stroma. Such groups of germ epithelial cells, in various
forms, are met with in all ovaries, but have no importance what-
ever as tubular structures. In the human child's ovary numerous
furrows, or clefts between irregularities of the general surface, are met
with. Sections through these furrows and clefts produce the appear-
ance of the germ epithelium (pseudo-epithelium, Balfour) having passed
downwards into the ovary in the form of tubular open jiits, as was
described by Waldeyer and his predecessors. No real tubular struc-
tures from which Graafian follicles are formed exist in the mam-
malian ovary at any stage of its development. Graafian follicles are
formed only in one way from the beginning of the ovary to the end
of its existence.

The youngest connective tissue of the stroma, in the form of
offshoots of jelly-like protoplasm, surrounds and embeds large and
small groups of germ epithelial cells. A single germ epithelial cell
may be completely surrounded by this young connective tissue.
"When this takes place the germ epithelial cell rapidly grows and
becomes a primordial ovum. Each individual cell in a group of
epithelial cells, surrounded by the young ovarian stroma, shows a
similar tendency to become a primordial ovum. All the grouj)s of
develoi)ing germ-cells or cell-nests in the ovary are broken up into
still smaller cell-nests by the ever advancing young connective tissue,
until, at last, individual cells in the cell-nests become comj^letely
surrounded by the youngest connective tissue. When an individual
germ-cell becomes surrounded by the young connective tissi;e, at the
same time, and as part of the j^rocess, the Graafian follicle begins to
be formed. Whenever the young jelly-like connective tissue appears,
in its substance nuclei, generally fusiform at first, make their appear-
ance. These nuclei may be always seen in contact with the yolk
substances of the primordial ova. The follicle cells are derived from
the nuclei which lie in contact with the protoplasm or yolk substance
of the developing ova. This takes place in all parts of the ovary
wherever cell-nests are formed. The follicle cells thus originate
from the cells of the ovarian stroma, and not from the germ epithelial
cells. In the mammalian ovary at birth the most advanced ova are
met with deep in the ovary, and not in passing from without inwards,
as described by some observers. In a ripe Graafian follicle the
stroma cells outside the membrana propria folliculi become converted
into cells exactly similar to the true follicle cells, and it is possible to
trace the oi'dinary stroma cells outside the follicle through all stages
of development into cells resembling the follicle cells, the observation
affording a most conclusive proof of the origin of the follicle cells
from the ordinary cells of the stroma.

With these results it will be interesting to compare those of
Mr. Balfour ; he, likewise, says " The whole egg-containing part of
the ovary is really the thickened germinal epithelium." " Pfliiger's
egg-tubes are merely trabeculae of germinal epithelium, and have no
such importance as has been attributed to them." So again, as

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 847

regards the " cell-nests," Mr. Balfour observes that he noted " the
fusion of several ova into a syncytium, the subsequent increase in the
number of nuclei in the syncytium, the atrophy and absorption of a
portion of the nuclei, and the development of the remainder into the
germinal vesicles of ova."

Micro-chemical Researches on Cell-miclei.* — Dr. Brandt has
been making some observations, from a micro-chemical point of view,
on cytods and cells. The researches of Miescher have shown that the
cell-nucleus consists of a special substance, nuclein, which is distin-
guished by the possession of phosphorus. Brandt treated some
Protamoebce with ten per cent, salt solution, and found that they broke
up altogether ; where nuclein is present a precipitate is left, and this,
which was found where Protozoa proper (that is, nucleated forms, and
not Protista or cytod forms) were acted on by the reagent, is regarded
by Brandt as being a carbo-hydrate allied to cellulose. We have
here therefore a valuable method to be applied in all cases where
the i^resence of a nucleus is disputed.

Observations on the Living Cartilage Cell.f — W. Schleicher,
•whose paper on the division of cartilage cells has been already
noticed,! now investigates more fully the movements observed in
these cells and in their nuclei.

The nucleus moves as a whole, vibrating (ballotter) from side to
side, either quite irregularly, or, if it is in contact with the edge of
the cell, regularly from right to left, and vice versa. The action is
caused by the solid elements in the protoplasm of the cell, which are
in constant vibration, communicating the movement to the nucleus.
The slight changes in form undergone by the surface of the latter are
due to the same cause. The solid elements within the nucleus (rods,
filaments, &c.), are, like those of the cell itself, in constant motion, by
virtue of which they cause slight changes of form in the nucleus,
which, from being spherical, may present slight tuberosities. The
movements may be augmented in intensity by raising the temperature
to 20°-25° C.

Schleicher objects to the term "reticular" as applied to the refrac-
tile elements of the nucleus. He says that just as the cell-proto-
plasm is composed of two different substances, an almost liquid and
homogeneous matrix, and solid contractile elements, floating freely in
this liquid, so the nucleus consists of a nuclear fluid, and of solid con-
tractile elements like those of the cell-body, but separated from them
in the quiescent state of the cell by the nuclear membrane.

Microcytes (very small Red Blood-corpuscles) in the Blood. § —
MM. Lepine and Germont state that in the blood of a patient suffering
from carcinoma of the stomach, they observed a considerable propor-
tion of globules varying in diameter from 2 to 5-lOOOths of a mm.
These bodies were spherical and by no means biconcave, but their
coloration was so slight that it was with some difficulty that they

* ' Zeitschr. gesammt. Naturwiss.' (Giebel), lii. (1879) p. 120.

t ' Bull. Acad. Koy. Sci. Belg.,' xlvii. (1879) p. 811.

i This Journal, ante, p. 273.

§ 'CR. Soc. Biol.' for 1877 (1879), p. 164.

848 BECORD OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

were observed to be red ; these globules or microcytes were observed
on only one occasion, aud after their appearance the patient in whom
they were found, exhibited a considerable, though unfortunately only
temporary, improvement.

Two hypotheses present themselves in exj^lanation of the phe-
nomena: either the microcytes owed their origin to the secondary
formation of a number of new red corpuscles, which would require
a certain time to attain the normal size, or they were due to
tJie breaking up of a number of red corpuscles. The former
hypothesis is supported by the explanation oifered by several histolo-
gists as to the presence of the small red corpuscles which measure
from 6 to 6 • 5 micromillimetres in diameter ; while the second, which
seems to be the more satisfactory, would be sujiported by the cachectic
state in which the patient was found jjrevious to their appearance, aud
by the a priori supposition that it is more natural to regard them as
fragments of corpuscles, which have only become spherical owing to
the action of the fluid blood. The authors point out that the best
way to solve the question is to apply the colorimetric test and to dis-
cover whether the amount of hfemoglobin is increased, in which case
the former hypothesis would be shown to be the correct one, or
whether the haimoglobin is not increased in quantity, in which case
the presumption would be in favour of the second, and they promise
to i>erform experiments in this directiom

Terminal Nerve-plexus in the Cornea.*— M. Eanvier, in an intro-
duction to an account of some experiments on the function of this
plexus, points out that in the rabbit the largest nerves are the deejjest,
and the smallest the most superficial ; that they all divide and sub-
divide dichotomously ; that they take a course towards the surface,
where they unite to form a large plexus.

The results of his experiments go to show that (1) The view
of Snellen, in which the presence of trophic nerves in the cornea
was denied, is correct, inasmuch as nutrition is still regularly
effected after all the nerves which supply this region, are cut ;
(2) The nerve-filaments pass very rapidly into the jjlexus and always
retain their physiological and anatomical individuality — in other
words they merely form a 'plexus and not a network ; (3) This
plexiform arrangement of the nerves of the cornea does not seem
to have any sjiccial physiological duty, but to be due to the necessity
of an ai'rangement which shall not disturb the homogeneous cha-
racter of the membrane; (4) The nerves have only a general
sensibility, and yet their presence is not absolutely necessary; it is
" une fonction de luxe," inasmuch as the insensitive cornea may be
well protected by the sensitive conjunctiva and eyelids.

Harderian Gland of the Duck.t — Dr. Jules MacLeod in a paper
on the histology of this gland says that it is a compound tubular gland,
being made up of glandular tubules disposed in a verticillate manner
around common canals, so as to form secondary tubules.

* 'Comptes Eendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 1087.

t 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Sci. Belgique,' xlvii, (1879) p. 797.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOQAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 849

The form of the primary, and the disposition of the secondary
tubules, allows of the division of the organ into two parts ; a superior,
in which the primary tubules are contorted, the secondary few and
incompletely separated ; and an inferior, in which the primary tubules
are straight, the secondary numerous and completely separated by
sei^ta.

In the primary tubule, two regions may be distinguished, differ-
ing according to the character of the glandular cells.

The Harderian gland of birds resembles in structure that of
reptiles, but differs wholly from that of mammals, which is a racemose
gland.

There are certain glands which form a transition between the
gland in question and the simple tubular gland on the one hand, and
the racemose gland on the other.

Structure of the " Eye-spots " of some Osseous Fishes.*— Dr. M.
Ussow points out that the structure of these organs, the presence of
which has been noted by a number of zoologists, has never been
investigated by any anatomist other than Leuckart (1^64) ; the author
himself has ah-eady published some observations on the subject, in
which he has demonstrated the metameric character of these organs, and
has shown that they are formed on the type of the so-called compound
eye, and are provided with simple cornefe. The structures may be
arranged in two series ; in one they are accessory eyes, and in the
other they form pigmented glands ; the genera ChauUodus, Astro-
nesthes, and Stomias present examples of the former, as do Scopelus,
Gonostoma, and Mauroliciis of the latter. The organs in question
are found on either side of the ventral median line, where they form
one or two parallel rows extending from the caudal fin to the first ray
of the thoracic fin ; they are placed just below the scales, and they
have the form of small pigmented spots, varying in number from
sixteen to forty-eight.

After describing in detail their character and position in a
number of forms, Dr. Ussow passes to an account of their structure.
Most simple in Astronesthes, they have the form of a biconvex
lens, which projects somewhat beyond the surface of the body,
and they exhibit the following points: (1) a thin investment of
connective tissue which completely envelopes the eye ; (2) a thicker
pigment layer, formed by six-sided dark brown cells ; (3) in this
there is a circular orifice, which is merely covered by the transparent
envelope ; then (4) there is a lens-shaped body which resembles in
structure the lens of many Vertebrata ; (5) in the subjacent layer we
find transparent hexagonal plates, altogether devoid of pigment, not
exhibiting nuclei, but showing a longitudinal striation of their
component protoplasm. These cells are arranged concentrically, and
the whole of the internal cavity is filled ■ndth a transi^arent watery
fluid, which easily coagulates under the influence of reagents. The
organs in question appear to be supplied by the rami ventrales, which
send fine nerve-filaments to them. We have no space to follow the

* 'Bull. Soc. Imp Nut. Moscou,' liv. (1879) p. 79.
VOL. II. 3 L

850 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

author into his accounts of the eye-spots of Stomias and Chcmliodus,
which appear to be formed on the same type.

In Gonostoma, Maurolicus, and Argyropelecus, the structure is
altogether different ; they have distinctly the character of glandular
organs. Taking for description the first-named of these genera, we
find that the form of the organs is oval, and that they consist of a
number of radially arranged cones, the tips of which point to a central
cavity ; each constituent cone is ordinarily sharply sei>arated from the
rest by a thin investment derived from the general investing capsule ;
in their more intimate structure they consist of a number of pyriform
cells, set concentrically around a central cavity, and there are also
two other envelopes, one of which is pigmented, while the other
consists of connective tissue ; the pigmented layer is of a dark-brown
colour, and resembles generally the pigmented layer found in Chau-
liodus ; the characters of this form, as well as the general structure
and regular disposition of the parts under discussion, point, in
TJssow's opinion, to the common origin of these glands and of the
eyes found in the other sets of forms. As before, we must refer our
readers to the original for a description of the similar organs in the
other genera above mentioned.

In dealing with the morphology of these organs, the atithor com-
mences by pointing out that the arrangements seen in such Inverte-
brata as My sis and Pulyophthalmus prevent our associating the special
organs of sense with the region of the cerebral ganglia only, and he
then insists on the value which the position of the eyes in the Asterida
and various Myriapods and Rotatoria has, as comj)ared with the eye-
like organs of these fishes ; as may be supposed, therefore, the struc-
tures just described are regarded by the Eussian investigator as
proper accessory optic organs; as to the gland-like organs of the
second series, he points out that no orifice can be observed in them,
and he compares them with those special end-organs which are to be
found in so many fishes. In conclusion, it is to be noted that the
metameric or segmental arrangement of these parts is a point of con-
siderable importance.

Two tables and four plates illustrate the details of the paper.

Histology of the Cerebellum of Petromyzon fluviatilis.*— The
cerebellum of Petromyzon, which, in most of its morphological cha-
racters, resembles that of the frog, has been lately subjected to a
histological examination by A. Jeleneff. Forming a vertical interpo-
sition between the cerebral hemispheres and the medulla oblongata,
it is nothing more than a thin plate, and is only separated from the
former by a small pit, while the corpora geminata of the frog are not
developed in this fish. The necessary process of hardening the cere-
bellum was etfected in the following way ; it was first placed for from
seven to nine days in a solution of bichromate of potash, and was
then exposed for four days to a one or two per cent, solution of
chromic acid. After careful washing with distilled water, it was
placed in alcohol of 60^ ; the preparations were stained with carmine,

* ' Bull. Acad. Imp. St. Pe'tersbourg,' xxv. (1879) p. 334,

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 851

eosin, or a weak solution of hfematoxyliu ; aud, in some cases, with
chloride of gold.

The cerebellum of the Vertebrata is ordinarily regarded as con-
sisting of four layers — fibrous, nuclear, cellular, and molecular. In
Petromi/zon, however, only three layers were found, inasmuch as the
fibrous layer is not distinctly developed. Lining the fourth ventricle
is an investment of epithelial cells, which have the general characters
of cylinder-epithelium ; their free surface is flattened, while their
sides form a cone which projects some way inwards, but does not seem
to be connected with the nervous elements ; towards the upper
surface, these epithelial cells become flattened and altogether lose
their characteristic form. Below the epithelium there is a layer of
nerve-fibres with small rounded cells, which are so closely packed
that the fibres are with difficulty detected ; it is in consequence of
this arrangement that it is impossible to assert the presence of a
fibrous, distinct from the nucleated, layer. The nerve-fibres ordi-
narily run parallel to the surface, and a few only pass into the mass
of the cerebellum to become connected with the processes of the
deeper lying cells. The author does not find himself able to support
the view of Golgi that the fibres come into connection with the
peripheral ganglionic cells. Three sets of fibres were distinguished :
(1) medullary nerve-fibres ; (2) non-medullated fibres ; and (3) fibres,
in which the axis-cylinder was only partially covered by medullary
substance.

The nuclear-substance is composed of cells, which are rounded in
form, and have in the centre a highly refractive portion ; the view of
V. Baer, that they are arranged in groups rather than, as Denissenko
states, in regular rows, is stated to be the more correct ; the so-called
" nuclei " give off fine processes, which enter into various connections ;
but much of what follows is concerned with a criticism of Denissenko's
statements, into which it is impossible for us to enter. In the midst
of the cells there are to be found a number of nerve-fibres, which
surround the cells and are partly connected with thera by processes,
and the connection is so close that the author is inclined to speak of
a nucleo-fibrous layer.

As to the cellular layer, the only differences between Petromyzon
and the frog lie in quantitative characters ; there is a series of large
pyriform cells — the cells of Purkinje, which are provided with two
processes, and have their greater portion occupied by a large nucleus ;
these cells are invested by a membrane of a character somewhat
difficult to distinguish in its continuations on to the processes of the
cell ; the plasma surrounding the nucleus is traversed by primitive
fibrillfe, which are collected together at the process into which they pass.

The " molecular layer " is almost completely made up of the
branches of the peripheral processes of the cells of Purkinje, and
these cells though they vary greatly in direction never pass into the
nerve-fibres.

Spinal Ganglia and Dorsal Medulla of Petromyzon.* — An ac-
count of his examination of these structures is given by Herr Freud.
* 'SB. Akad. Witu,' Ixxviii. (1879) p. 81.

3 L 2

852 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The difficulty of the investigation was ouhanccfl by tlic smallncss of the
spinal ganglia ; making use of fresh specimens, which were separated
into small pieces in consequence of the fact that gold chloride does not
infiltrate through any great depth of tissue, and choosing especially the
caudal end where the muscular layer is thin, and the mass of fatty cells
feebly developed, or carefully separating off the muscular portions, or,
still better, by removing the nervous portions by dissection of the
animal, the author placed them in solutions of gold chloride J per cent.
or ^ per cent, strong ; 1 per cent, solutions were also used, but the
best results were obtained with tlie ^ per cent, solution. Thenco
the specimens were removed to Pritchard's reducing fluid, formed
of one -pavt of formic acid with one of amyl-alcohol and 100 of
water, where they remained for twenty-four hours exposed to the
light. The preparation, which would be now of a dark purple-red
colour, was removed to Konigstein's macerating fluid, containing 50
parts fuming hydrochloric acid and 35 i^arts water and 15 parts glyce-
rine. Twenty-four hours' maceration made the jireparation much
darker and separated it into small pieces ; removed to glycerine to be
rendered transparent, these were, after twenty-four hours, fit for
inspection.

Dealing with the " essential " characters in the structure of the
spinal ganglia, Herr Freud points out that the cells of these structures
become arranged in two distinct layers, of which one belongs to the
dorsal and one to the ventral branch, and it is in the latter that we
find a smaller number of larger cells as a general rule. Varying in
arrangement and in compactness as they ajipear to do at first sight,
we soon learn that the spinal ganglia always present certain types, and
that these types reappear at definite points, so that the spinal ganglion
of a certain segment has the same " physiognomy " in all animals.
There are but two essential elements in a spinal ganglion — nerve-cells
and nerve-fibres ; the former vary in number from eight to twenty-
three, but from ten to sixteen is the most common nximber ; they are
of three sizes, but the medium forms are the most usual ; their form
is spherical or ellipsoidal, and their contours are well marked ; they
are, with scarcely an exception, bipolar, for those which are ordinarily
regarded as unipolar are merely modifications of the others. It is
interesting to compare this observation with that of Dr. Beale, whose
knowledge of this subject is probably unequalled—" There are no
apolar cells and no unipolar cells in any part of any nervous
system."

The author deals in detail with the fibres of the ganglion, which
are found to vary greatly in size, and passes on to " Details of the
Structure of the Spinal Ganglia," " Remarks on the Relation of the
Spinal Ganglia to the Dorsal Medulla," " On the Origin of the
Roots of the Nerves and on the Dorsal Medulla and pia mater."
The paper, which is illustrated by four jjlatcs, extends over eighty
pages.

AmcBboid Epithelia.* — Professor Graber, of Czernowitz, adds
another to the list of cases in which amoeboid movements have been
* ' Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 277.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 853

observed in the cells of the higher animals. He finds that the
blastoderm cells in Chironomiis send out well-marked pscudopodia
(some straight, some bent, others branched) into the space between the
egg and its membrane. They are best seen at the upj)er pole of the
egg, opposite the polar cells. Their movements are often so rapid as
to be with difficulty figured with the camera lucida. Sometimes, too,
cells of the blastoderm become detached, and form true wandering-
cells, but probably these are subsequently reabsorbed.

EflFects of Induced Currents on the Nervous System.* — The
contribution of M. Schiff on this subject opens up quite a new field of
physiological research, which promises to be of extreme importance.
He was led to undertake his experiments by having observed the
results of M, Charcot's researches on hysteric patients. This eminent
physician has demonstrated that on the application of metallic plates
to the extremities of hysteric persons, in whom one side of the body
appeared more or less completely insensible, sensibility was in a few
minutes entirely restored, for a time ; during the operation the oppo-
site side was completely insensible, so that it is clear that we have not
to do with any general augmentation of the faculties of the organism ;
with a magnet similar results can be obtained when it is held at the
distance of one or two centimetres from the patient, but in this case
the results are more remarkable, inasmuch as it is, of course, possible
to affect the patient with the magnet, while he remains totally ignorant
of its nearness to him.

Led by these experiments M. Schiff has lately devoted himself to
a series of researches on animals by the aid of an induction coilj
the object in view has been to see whether these agents can modify the
functions of the nervous system, and if they can, by producing
hysterical conditions, reveal to us some method by which these phe-
nomena can bo analyzed ; the following are brief indications of some
of the results :—

(1) When the skin of the leg of a frog was touched by the termi-
nations of rheophores connected with a very feeble battery the
sensibility of the digits to contact was augmented ; this augmentation,
which was tested by the reflex movements of a j^ithed frog, was not
exhibited until after a latent period of from eight to twenty-five
minutes.

(2) Similar results were obtained with motor nerves.

(3) The modifications in the functions of the nerves were expressed
by modifications in their electrical properties ; thus, if the lower por-
tion of the extremity of a frog was submitted for twenty minutes to a
feeble induced current, no electric current was to be observed in the
sciatic nerve itself.

(4) When the sciatic nerve was placed between the two poles of a
very powerful electro-magnet, the latent period which always inter-
venes between the moment of irritating the sciatic plexus and the
contraction of the gastrocnemius muscle was slightly increased.

A series of experiments was also made on dogs, with a view to sec
what were the etfects on the nerve-centres of magnetic stimulation.
* ' Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat.,' i. (1879) p. 226.

854 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Scliiffs late experiments on the so-called motor centres of the brain
have led him to believe that it is possible to destroy or to weaken the
tactile sensations or the sensations of pressure and of pain by eflfcctiug
a lesion of the cerebral substance ; what happens when, after such an
experiment, an extremity has its superior portion brought under the
influence of the magnetic coil ? When the circuit remains open the
effect is nil, but when the circuit is closed then there is seen a very
evident increase in the sensibility of the parts, without, however, any
consciousness ; the reflex activity is merely more energetic in some
portion of the centre which lies inferiorly to that in which stimulation
of nerve-centres leads to consciousness. The paper concludes with
the following observation : — In hysterical patients, and in the case
of those who are suffering from certain other cerebral affections,
there is not, so far as any evidence shows, any organ wanting ; at
the same time we may admit that there is in them a greater resist-
ance than ordinary to the transmission of stimuli to the centre.
When the impulse becomes greater it may overcome the resistance
and force a transmission of the stimulus. In the dogs experimented on
this " forced transmission " may obtain also, but in them it has no
effect, inasmuch as it is stopped by the cicatrix of the previously
effected lesion.

M. Schiff promises to continue his observations on the effect of
magnetization.

Mollusca.

Habits of the Octopus.* — This creature, M. Fredericq tells us,
lives alone under large stones, in a kind of hole, the entrance to
which is paved with smaller pieces of rock. Its habit of casting
all around its retreat what it has left of its repasts betrays its habi-
tation, so that when we meet with scattered fragments of crustacean
carapaces and molluscan shells, still retaining their ligament, we may
be almost certain that an octopus is near. When its home has been
discovered it must be withdrawn from it by force; at the moment it is
seized it often emits an inky stream of water, but there is not much
danger of being bitten ; M. Fredericq in all his experience having
been only bitten once, and then quite slightly. If they are well
supplied with water and placed in a sufiiciently large aquarium they
retain perfect health ; they do not seem to mind captivity, and do not
attempt to escape.

Segmentation of the Ovum in Helix aspersa.f— Professor Perez
points out that a large number of observers have agreed with Semper
in stating that the follicles of the hermaphrodite gland, previous to
the period of functional activity, are clothed with a " vibratile epi-
thelium," of which some cells become, later on, converted into ova and
others into spermatic cells, and he further shows that Ludwig has
correlated the contradictory statements as to the presence or absence
of a vitelline membrane, by pointing out that there are in various
Pulmonate Gasteropoda all degrees of transition between a superficial

* ' Arch. Zool. Exper.' (Lacaze-Duthiers), vii. (1878) p. 536.
t ' Joui-D. Anat. et Phys.' (Robiu), xv. (1879) p. 329.

INVEKTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 855

and merely condensed layer and a distinct membrane. Helix aspersa
was always observed to be provided with a true membrane by M.
Perez ; it is seen most easily in the earlier stages, when it is easily
distended by water; in the mature egg, however, it is difficult to
demonstrate its presence, but observations of diiferent ova will pro-
bably satisfy the observer as to its existence.

Turning to the next succeeding phenomena, Perez states that the
first sign is a series of changes in the germinal spot, and the sub-
sequent appearance of two small nucleoli ; these changes consist in the
apj)earance of pale and indistinctly separated granulations, in the
midst of which two small nucleoli may be seen ; the germinal vesicle
loses its distinct contour and its membrane folds in just like a
bladder does when its contents are being expressed ; suddenly it dis-
apj)ears and leaves no trace of its existence.

The clear space thus left is rapidly surrounded by yolk-spheres and
two " centres of attraction " dominate over the substance ; in other
words, the two nucleoli are developed at the expense of the substance
of the germinal spot. As to the connecting " fusiform body," it is
supposed that it has nothing in common with a modified nucleus, but
that it is due to purely physical causes, which comjDcl the connecting
lines of molecules to form arcs between the two nucleolar centres.
Experiments by the aid of pressure led the author to the conclusion
that the two nucleoli of the germinal spot, rendered free by the disso-
lution of the nucleus, become surrounded by rays in conseqiience of
the attraction which they exercise on the surrounding protoplasm.

As to the " polar globule," the author gives the following account,
which is of extreme interest. In his view what happens is this:
when the nucleoli have attained a certain size, they become provided
with a membrane, the presence of which is the cause of the cessation
of the movements of molecules around the nucleolus ; the fluidity of
the substance which has undergone cohesion increases as the attrac-
tive power of the nucleoli disappears ; and the fusiform system tends
towards disaggregation ; on the other side there is the vitelline mass,
which exerts a certain amount of contraction on the system, which is
thereby forced towards the surface of the egg, from which it is finally
expressed in a spherical form in consequence of the forces exerted
by the molecules of the ifluid. The fusiform radiating substance is
expressed in two drops.

There now remain the two nucleoli (nuclei) without any fusiform
connecting mass. They increase greatly in size, and their projier
nucleoli are continually subdivided, until at last they form mere
granulations; the succeeding stages the author has not been able
to observe, but he is not inclined to think that they become fused,
but that, rather, one is totally destroyed while the other, persisting,
develops two nucleoli, which become the centres of a new system
of radially arranged molecules, and which, by aftecting the whole of
the vitelline mass, effect its segmentation. He points out that the
presence of the two primary nuclei (after the formation of the polar
bodies), both of which have had a common origin, is an excellent
argument against regarding one of them as being a spermatic nucleus ;

856 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and he congratulates liimself on having shown the direct descent of the
nucleus of segmentation from the germinal spot. Although the ger-
minal vesicle disappears the sjiot gives rise directly to two new
nucleoli ; and the theory of Haeckel, which requires the presence of, at
some stage, a cytod, or non-nucleated cell (ovum), must be conse-
quently modified. Earlier observers have, however, stated that the
ovum is always nucleated ; and it is to be hoped therefore that some
observer will, as M. Perez suggests, submit his observations to an
" infallible criterion " — the examination of ova which are developed
parthenogenetically.

Cutaneous Absorption of Helix pomatia.*— M. Mcr has made
some experiments on the curious faculty possessed by the snail of
absorbing a large quantity of water; first noted by Spallanzani, it
was cited by the eminent physicist Dutrochet as a remarkable example
of the power of osmotic forces.

1. A Helix pomatia, entirely immersed in water, absorbed it not
only by its integument, but also by the walls of its pulmonary sac and
of its digestive tube. If a healthy example is nuder observation, the
experiment may be continued for three days, but the quantity absorbed,
though exceeding in weight the snail itself, is not taken in regularly ;
absorption, very rapid at first, continually decreases, though without
altogether ceasing, until the moment of death.

2. So too with regard to the expulsion of the absorbed water ;
when the animal is removed to air, the water is at first got rid of with
great rapidity, and the excretion becomes gradually less.

3. The period of excretion is longer than that of absorption, but
even then all that has been absorbed is not excreted, owing to the fact
that, previous to the experiment, the tissues of the animal did not
contain all the water which they were capable of holding.

4. In correlation with this it is to be observed that if a snail
is removed from the water after a period of immersion lasting only
for two or three hours, it takes a considerable time to rid itself of the
fluid which it has so rapidly absorbed.

5. The amount of water absorbed depends on the state of con-
traction of the muscles around the blood sinuses.

6. If left in water after death, the tissues free themselves from the
liquid.

7. The penetration of water ai:)pcars to have no effect on the con-
stituent elements of the body, and death appears to be due to the
resistance offered by the water to the active circulation of the blood.

8. Although all parts of the body are able to absorb water, the
walls of the jjulmonary sac ajjjjcar to be most capable.

Treated with such colouring agents as carmine, aniline blue, or
rosaniline, the snail exhibits, with weak solutions, no other phenomena
than those observed with water ; but it is to be observed that the
colouring matters did not, in any appreciable quantity at any rate,
pass into the blood. Experiments with stronger solutions are de-
scribed in detail, and the author comes finally to the consideration
of the question, Is the penetration of fluids effected by passages
* ' CR. Soc. Biol.' for 1877 (1870), p. 186.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSGOPY, ETC. 857

between tlie epitliclial cells, or does the fluid penetrate the cells
themselves ? The second method seems to be that adopted, inasmuch
as (1) the canals are present in certain aquatic molluscs, e. g. Cyclas
cornea, which do not swell up in water ; (2) colouring matters have
been observed in the cells themselves ; (3) the phenomena appear
to be rather those of dialysis than of endosmosis ; and (4) the
ejjithelial cells have a great affinity for water.

Influence of " Cardiac Poisons" on Helix pomatia.* — The ex-
periments of Hajckel on the effects of strychnine on the Gasteropoda
have led M. Vulpian to repeat some experiments, which he described
in his course of lectures of 18G4, when he showed that Upas anfiar,
which acts so freely on the heart of the frog, has no such influence on
the heart of the mollusc. Dealing with an alcoholic extract of inee
{Strophanthus Idspklus DC), which has, on the frog, the effect of stopping
the ventricle in the systole, and the auricles in the diastole, he finds
very similar results with the Helix. As the effect of the injection of
the poison there is a cessation of locomotor movements on the part of
the animal, the movements of the heart become irregular, and there
appear i)eriods of arrest in its activity ; at the end of two or three
minutes the auricle is found to be distended, while the ventricle is
very markedly contracted. "When the heart has a drop of the solution
placed on it, the results are very far less marked. A solution of mus-
carin was found to bo much more feeble, the movements of the
heart became much slower, and occasionally ceased, but the arrest
never continued for more than five or six minutes ; atropine was foimd
to have an antagonistic effect; and, in fine, with regard to these two
poisons, their influence is very much the same on the snail as on the
frog ; and from this M. Vulpian infers that there is a certain analogy
between the innervation of the hearts of the snail, the frog, and the
mammal. Neither muscarin nor inee seem to have any influence on
the heart of the crayfish.

Respiratory Apparatus of AmpuUaria.t — M. A. Sabatier, referring
to M. Jourdan's description | of the double resjuratory apparatus of
the Ampullarim, consisting both of a branchia and a lung, says that he
is able to give some new facts which had previously escaped obser-
vation.

The venous blood, returning from the different parts of the body,
divides into three parts : — one passes to the right into a cavernous
sinus, which accompanies the terminal intestine ; this is the rectal
sinus, which is a diverticulum of the general cavity of the body ; the
second comes from the anterior region of the body (head, pharynx,
stomach, anterior margin of the palatine arch) and forms on the right
the proper afferent vessel of the lung, which it circumscribes to the
left and in front ; this vessel presents a double series of orifices for
the afferent branches of the roof and of the floor of the pulmonary
chamber ; the third part, which is far more important, comes together

* 'Coraptes Ecndus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 1293.

t Ibid., p. 1325 ; ' Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' iv. (1879) p. 323.

X This Journal, ante, p. 706.

858 EECORD OF CCJKRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

in a large deep vessel with muscular walls, which soon ramifies on
the lower surface and on the thickness of the large gland, already
alluded to. From this network the efferent vessels take their origin,
the greater part of which reunite in a large trunk with muscular walls
which carries the blood to the renal organ : this is the deep afferent
vessel of the renal organ, peculiar to the Ampullarim. The other
vessels which originate from the large gland discharge themselves
successively into a superficial vessel of no great size, placed on the
posterior margin of the renal organ, and which is its superficial afferent
vessel, corresponding in all respects to the single afferent vessel of the
other Pectinibranchiata. Hence the blood which has traversed the
large gland in a true jiortal system is not, as M. Jourdan thinks,
mingled with the blood returning from the organs of respiration, to
be immediately poured into the heart, but it does not reach the latter
until after it has traversed the renal organ first and the respiratory
organs afterwards.

From the anterior margin of the renal organ there originates, by
successive roots, an efferent vessel of the renal organ, which, after
having anastomosed with the afferent vessel of the same organ, con-
tinues forward on the right margin of the principal branchia, of
which it constitutes the afferent vessel. This vessel receives, in
passing, some affluents from the rectal sinus.

On the left margin of the branchia, between the latter and the
lung, is a large trunk which terminates at the auricle, and which is
not simply, as M. Jourdan thinks, an efferent vessel of the branchia
and of the lung. This vessel contains, in fact, a series of fissure-like
orifices, which pour into it the blood from the branchia, and two series
of circular orifices, of which the upper part are the efferent orifices of
the pulmonary arch, and the lower are the afferent orifices of the floor
of the lung. On this floor, in fact, the vessels which originate from
these orifices, ramify in a network of which the efierent branches con-
verge into a large trunk, overlooked by M. Jourdan, and which,
collecting the blood of the whole of the floor of the lung, empties
itself directly into the auricle.

From this results the fact, entirely exceptional in the Pectini-
branchiata, that the auricle receives two totally distinct afferent veins.
The one is branchial and pulmonary, the other exclusively pulmonary.
This is a remarkable peculiarity of the anatomy of the Ampullarice,
which is in connection with the double respiration of these animals,
and with the alternations in function of the double respiratory appa-
ratus.

The afferent vessel of the branchia and the proper afferent vessel
of the hmg meet in front in such a manner as to form an anterior
arch. The intermediate trunk meets this arcade very obliquely and
imder a very sharp angle open to the left. There is thus formed
between the two vessels a valvular spur, which plays an important
part in several respects. When, during sojourn in the water, the
pulmonary respiration and circulation are suspended by the want of
air and the collapse of the lung, the blood of the proper afferent
vessel of the lung, being unable to traverse the pulmonary network,

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 859

arrives in abundance at the level of tlae mouth of the intermediary
trunk, to which it applies the valvule aud which it thus stojis. It is
thus obliged to pass entirely into the afferent vessel of tlie branchia,
and, consequently, into the branchia, of which the activity is thus
greatly increased. When, on the contrary, during sojourn in the air,
the collapsed branchia does not act, the blood of the afferent vessel of
the branchia, arriving en masse on the edge of the spur, there divides
into two currents, one of which penetrates into the in-oper afferent
vessel of the lung, and the other into the intermediary trunk, of which
it augments the tension, and which distributes a part of it to the floor
of the lung, and reconducts the rest to the heart. By this means the
activity of the pulmonary circulation is increased during the repose
of the branchia. Hence results this interesting fact, that the Ampul-
larice, which are Pectinibranchiata in which j)ulmonary respiration
has made its appearance, have the respiratory vessels disposed in such
a manner that, when this newly-introduced function suspends its
activity, all the blood which should have traversed the pulmonary
network, is constrained to traverse the branchial system, where its
hfematosis is assured. This curious arrangement may suffice to ex-
plain the preservation of the branchia in Gasteropoda, in which the
lung has attained so remarkable a development, and which might have
become pm*ely pulmonary animals.

The distribution of the vessels in the pulmonary walls merits
special mention. They form a double system of portal veins ; that is
to say, the vessels form on their journey two successive networks
separated by intermediary trunks. This arrangement, a little less
accentuated on the floor than on the roof, added to the presence of a
fine vibratile epithelium on the course of the pulmonary vessels, proves
the active part of this apparatus as an organ of haematosis.

Doridse of the Northern Seas.* — Dr. E. Bergh has a technical
paper on this group ; in his introduction he points out how few are
the species — not more than twenty-two — that are known ; he further
states that Alder and Hancock, although they have brought into
relief a number of anatomical difi'erences, still recognize only three
genera, Doris, Lamellidoris, and Acantliodoris. The author considers
that there are a larger number of genera, and that these may be
divided into two groups— to which he applies the names of Crypto-
branchiatfe and Eleutherobranchiatfe, according as the gills are or are
not retractile ; the former grouj) appears to be somewhat cosmo-
politan and contains the genera Archidoris, Biaulula, Cadlina,
Joorunna, Aldisa, and Bostanga ; the latter is confined, so far as we
know, to the colder regions, and contains Acantliodoris, Adalaria,
Lamellidoris, Goniodoris, and Doridunculus.

Glands in the Foot of the Lamellibrancliiata. j — M. Justus
Carriere gives a short sketch of the very difierent views which have
been held as to the characters of the byssus-gland, noting that
Eeaumur regarded the byssus as being formed by the glutinous

* 'Arch, fiir Naturg.,' xlv. (1879) p. 340.

t ' Arbeit. Zool.-Zoot. Inst. Wiirzburg,' v. (1879) p. 56.

860 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

matter secreted by the muscles, while Poll looked upon the muscular
" languct " as being quite secondary. Blainville and others have
regarded the byssus threads as being dried muscular fibres, and Leydig
as being formed of chitiuized fibres. The first correct account is
due to A. Miiller, who described the acinous glandula hyssijjara in
the groove of the foot of Mytilus ; Siebold (1848) agreed in the
main with A. Miiller, and suggested that the byssus threads were
formed at the base of the byssal pit by lamellfe in very much the
same fashion as the human nail is developed on the fingers. In
1877, Tycho Tnllberg returned to the subject, and investigated
the characters of the byssus in Mytilis edulis ; he observed the
presence of two glandular masses, one whitish and one greenish in
colour ; he found that the latter was j)laced towards the tip of the
foot and opened by ramified tubes into the semilunar cleft, while the
whitish gland was placed on either side of the groove and poured its
secretion directly into it.

M. Carriere finds that in the anterior portion of the tongue-shaped
and comparatively freely movable foot there is a large hyssus-gland,
which opens into a gland more or less semilunar in shape; this
groove is directly connected with the cleft which extends along the
margin of the foot, but it may, by the closure of its walls, form a
somewhat semilunar canal. Behind the gland there is placed the
" second characteristic organ," the byssus-cavity, which is occupied
by fan-shaped processes, between which are placed the byssal lamellae,
which form the byssus proper.

As to the epithelium which covers these processes, it is to be
noted that there is no ciliated epithelium, but only cylindi'ieal cells,
in those in which — e.g. Mytilus, Dreissena— the byssus is best
developed ; in those in which — e. g. Pecten, Lithodomus — the byssus
has a less complete function of attachment, the processes are some-
what atrojihied, and the non-functional regions are covered with
ciliated epithelium ; while in others — e. g. Lima — in which the byssus
merely forms, with other substances, a kind of bed, the whole of
the byssus-cavity is invested with ciliated epithelium.

It is, of course, impossible to follow the author through his
extended observations on some twenty-five species; those of our
readers who want his results in short will find on pp. 80-82 a list
of the Siphoniate and Asiphoniate Lamellibranchs as to which
M. Carriere is able to give any information. The author is of opinion
that the byssus-lamellaj are secreted by the byssus " fans " or rather
by the epithelium of these processes ; while as to a more general
result we may add this : the byssus-gland was primitively possessed
by all the Lamellibranchiata, some of which have, in the course of
time, lost it as a functional organ, but its presence is constantly
indicated by the possession of rudimentary byssus-organs in the
shape of glands, sacs, or clefts. The author also thinks that the
orifices and clefts found in the foot only serve for the exit of
the glandular secretions, and that they have no communications
with the vessels or with the lacunro of the body (in consequence
of their unbroken investment of epithelium) ; if this view be cor-

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIAj MICROSCOPY, ETC. 861

rect it is clear that water cannot enter by them into the organ of
Bojauus.*

Land Shells of Californian and Mexican Islands.f — Mr. W. G.
Binney gives an important contribution to the geographical distribu-
tion of land shells.

The Mexican island of Guadelupe, 220 miles from San Diego, off
the west coast of Lower California, has been visited by Dr. E. Palmer,
and he found numerous fragments of snail-shells which had been
devoured by a species of mouse, the only land mammal on the island.
These appeared to belong to Arionta BowelU (Newcomb), found in
Lower California. A. facta occurred, a variety with open umbilicus,
like that found fossil on San Nicolas Island, California. Living
specimens of Binneya notahilis were brought from Guadelupe, found
also on the Californian island of Santa Barbara; it is very nearly
allied to if not synonymous with the Mexican genus Xanthonyx.
Thus it is supposed to have been first distributed from Mexico, then
to Guadelupe, thence to Santa Barbara.

Pompeian Conchology. J — Dr. N. Tiberi gives a list of forty-four
species of shells found at Pompeii, and which had served for food or
been used by the Pompeians for ornament and other purposes, with
particulars of their relative abundance as well as of their distribution
and economy.

Some were of eatable kinds as the oyster and mussel, Pecten
jacobcBUS, Venus ckione, Tapes decussatus, and several species of Helix.
Others adorned fountains, as Haliotis tuherculata, Murex truncidus, and
M. hrandaris, and were all of species still common in the Bay of
Naples. The Oriental pearl-shell (3Ieleagrina margaritifera) was
represented by only a single valve. The Pompeian ladies seem to
have attached considerable value to the Cijprcea or Cowry as amulets
against sterility, and among these shells were some of species from
the Ked Sea and Persian Gulf. A single specimen of the exotic
shell Conus ttxtilis must have been kept for its beauty as an object of
curiosity.

Method of Obtaining Minute Mollusca.§— The Marquis de Folin
describes the following method : — Specimens of the ooze from various
shores, bays, and dredgings having been obtained, they should be
washed with fresh water in a fine sieve, and then left to dry; if
diatoms are being sought for, the results of the filtrations should be
preserved, the water decanted, and the deposit left to dry. When
dried, the objects should be placed in a box thus formed : the base
should be formed of a piece of glass a decimetre square, provided
with walls about one centimetre in height which should be fixed to
the glass; it will then be possible, as the Marquis points out, to
shake the deposit about with safety, while searching for objects of

* This Journal, ante, p. 551.

t ' Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.,' 1879, p. 16; see 'Nature,' xx. (1879) p. 535.
+ 'Tiberi, N., ' Le Conchiglie Porapeiane,' Napoli, 1879; see 'Nature,' xx.
p. 624.

§ ' Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou,' Iv. (1879) p. 202.

862 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

interest. Similar means may be applied to the deposits left by-
streams of fresb water after any considerable increase in tbeir
height.

It is also possible to obtain a large number of minnte species by
carefully removing the mossy earth which is so frequently found near
running water; when the water has been washed away and the mass
carefully dried, a number of specimens will almost certainly be
found. The author reminds his i-eaders that siJccimcns of distant
fresh-water MoUusca can by this means be as easily obtained as can
those marine specimens which are to be found in the bottom of bays
or sea-washed shores.

Molluscoida.

Recent Species of Heteropora.* — Mr. Geo. Busk, referring to
Mr. Waters's paper j on Heteropora pelliculata (from Japan), and H.
cervicornis (from Adelaide), says that the occurrence of these two
forms, belonging to a genus of which we had previously no species
more recent than the Crag, and extending back to the Cretaceous
period, is of particular interest, and he is induced therefore to
indicate the existence of what may probably be a third species of
the genus — one from New Zealand, which in most respects appears
to bear a very strong resemblance to the Japanese form, if not
specifically the same ; there are one or two points in which they do
not quite agree.

In the absence of more complete acquaintance with Mr. Waters's
form, Mr. Busk provisionally designates the species,

Heteropora neozelanica, n. sp. ? Zoarium erect, comj)osed of short
divergent branches, springing from a short thick stem, and soon
dividing once or twice dichotomously, and terminating in blunt rounded
extremities. The diameter of the primary branches is about • 2 inch,
and of the terminal ones about • 1 to 'IS inch. The surface presents
orifices of two kinds, though scarcely distinguishable in size. The
larger ones in the older parts of the growth, have a slightly raised
peristome and are quite circular ; the others (cancelli) disposed more
or less regularly round these, generally to the number of seven or
eight, are more or less angular, and the border of the opening is never
raised.

In the perfect state the surface, as in most Polyzoa, is covered with
a thin chitinous pellicle, by which the cellular openings are more or
less closed. This epithecal coat does not seem to become calcified or
thickened, as in H. pelliculata, but always retains a delicate membra-
naceous character, and it is easily removed by caustic soda. Nor has
he been able consequently to perceive the minute openings in the
covering of the cancellar orifices described by Mr. Waters.

In sections the walls of the zooecia and of the intermediate barren
tubes or cancelli are perforated, as figured by Mr. Waters, by numerous
infundibular pores, by which, as it would seem, facilities exist for the
permeation of fluids throughout the entire zoarium. These pores and

* ' Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.),' xiv. (1879) p. 724.
t This Journal, ante, p. 390.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 863-

pore-caBuls are lined, like the zooecia and cancelli, with a thin animal
substance, which is readily dyed by any aniline colour, &c., by which
means the pore-canals are rendered beautifully distinct in thin
sections.

The chief points of difference between the New Zealand and
Japanese forms would seem to consist (1) in the difference of habit
— the branches in H. pelliculata appearing to be longer and more
terete and to be occasionally connate, whilst in H. neozelanica they
are short and not terete, expanding and never joined together ; and
(2) in the absence in H. neozelanica of the calcareous pellicle or
epitheca, left after incineration in H. pelliculnta.

Cyphonautes.* — Herr Eepiachoff has some notes on this very
interesting Polyzoan larva. He states that, by the aid of reagents, he
has been able to show that the oesophagus (Schneider) passes gradually
into a " vestibule " which is pretty sharply marked off from the next
succeeding portion of the enteric tract. The " foot " (Claparede) or
" bud " (Hatschek) is shown to be made up of two portions ; a sucker-
like thickening of the external epithelium, which is fringed by cilia,
and a superiorly lying aggregation of cells, which occupies a similar
position to the so-called " endodermal bud " of the larvte of the allied
forms Pedicellina and Tendra. The creature is, further, stated to be
provided with distinctly striated muscular fibres. The retractile foot
is regarded as being homologous with the " oral groove " of other
Cheilostomatous larvae, while their so-called " sucker " seems to be
completely atrophied.

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Nervous System of Insects. f — The results of M. Brandt's
researches on 1032 species taken from most of the families of the
Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, show that : — •

i. In some forms, as Stijlops, the suboesophageal ganglion fuses
with the next posterior one. ii. The "convolutions" of the brain
occur in all. iii. The convolutions vary in different individuals of
the same species, and notably are less developed in males of the social
Hymenoptera than in the females and workers, iv. A connection is
apparent between the development of the instincts and that of the
brain hemispheres, — not of the whole brain, v. The upper lip nerves
rise from the oesophageal nerve-ring. vi. Where two thoracic ganglia
exist, the first corresponds either to the first larval ganglion or to the
first two ; the second of the adult corresponds to one or two thoracic
and one or two abdominal ganglia, vii. The number of ganglia may
vary in different individuals of the same species — e. g. in the bee
and in the wasp. viii. The penultimate abdominal ganglion may
be complex, instead of the ultimate one. ix. Bomhus and Tenthredo
have a thoracic sympathetic system constructed like that of the
abdomen. x. Two types of transformation occur in the nervous
system ; one, the inverse of that usual in insects, being the resolution

* ' Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 517.

t ' Comptes Rendus,' Ixxxix. (1879) p. 475.

864 KECOKD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of a single larval ganglion into a number in tlie adult, as in Voliicella.
xi. In cases of a single thoracic ganglion in Hemiptera, tliis cor-
responds to the two last thoracic and all the abdominal ganglia,
xii. Lepidoptera have four abdominal, and either two or three
thoracic ganglia.

Cephalic Ganglia of the Insecta.* — M. N. Wagner points out the
supra-oesophageal ganglia are the seat of almost all the functions
which are performed by the cerebral hemispheres of the Vertebrata —
they contain the organs of perception, of memory, and of intelligence.
In correlation with this they present a more complicated histo-
logical structure than the rest of the ganglia of the insect's body,
although they are formed on the same general plan. The nerve-cells
occupy the periphery, and the bundles of nerve-fibres the central
portion ; towards the centre of the ganglion there are to be found
three groups of small cells, set one above the other, and connected by
a large number of fibres. The most peripheral group may be con-
sidered as having the most intimate connection with the horse-shoe-
shaped convolutions, which are particularly well developed in the
social Hymenoptera, which are the most intelligent of all the insects ;
and it is to be noted that the degree of development of this region is
to be correlated with the development of the intellectual powers ; for
example, if we take the bee, we find these parts to bo better developed
in the workers than in the queen-mother, while in the males they are
quite rudimentary, M. AVagner concludes that the sexual life, and
above all the production of ova and sperm, is opposed to the develop-
ment of these organs.

The crossing of the nerve-fibres which pass to the eyes is not to
be compared with the " ojitic chiasma " of the Vertebrata, as it only
applies to the constituent parts of the lateral compound eyes ; at the
same time this crossing of the fibres probably produces a complete
coincidence in each part of the composite eye.

The prejDarations studied were previously hardened in Betz's
liquid, made of equal parts of sulphuric ether and chloroform.

Brain of the Cockroach. t — Mr. E. T. Newton gives an account
of his researches on the minute structure of the brain of Periplaneta
orientalis.

After an abstract of previous work on the subject, Mr. Newton
describes the external anatomy of the brain as made out by sections,
and the nerves proceeding from it. Of these he gives a very exact
and detailed description, many of the nerves having been observed by
him for the first time.

The section of the paper treating of the internal structure of the
brain cannot readily be abstracted, and we must refer the reader to
the original source, where the description is by no means long. Mr.
Newton deserves the thanks of comparative anatomists for proposing a
consistent nomenclature for the various structures, hitherto only
known by Flogel's vernacular terms. That author's " Balk

* ' Comptes Kenchis,' Ixxxix. (1879) p. 378.
t 'Quart. Jouru. Micr. Sci.,' xix. (1879) p. 340.

icn

INVEKTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 865

called the trahecula, the " Vorderhorn " becomes the cauliculus, the
"Hinterast" (Pilztheil, Dielt), the peduncle, the "mushroom body"
of authors the corpus fungi for me, its trough-like portions — " Becher "
of Flogel — the iimer and outer calices, and the " Centralkorper " the
corpus centrale.

The most successful sections were prepared from a specimen
hardened in osmic acid.

Nerves of the Proboscis of Diptera.* — M. Jules Kiinckel has
examined into the terminations of the nerves in the proboscis of the
Diptera, He remarks that the proboscis terminates in two valves,
which, in repose, are laid against each other, but during suction are
aj^plied to the surface attacked so as to constitute a regular sucking
cup. These valves represent the labial palpi. Their internal struc-
ture presents a peculiarity well known to microscopists ; they contain
a large tube, from which issue numerous branches in a digitate form, and
all these parts present an ajipearance like that of tracheae. The name
of false trachece which has been given to them is perfectly justified,
as they have no communication with the true tracheal apparatus,
their principal function being to support the integuments of the
palpi, whilst a true trachea ramifies in these organs. Parallel to the
large trunk of the false tracheae the labial nerve may be traced, of
comparatively large size. It speedily divides into two parts, and
emits a multitude of ramifications to the periphery and inner surface
of the valves. Those nervous filaments which run to the periphery
go to the numerous and greatly developed hairs with which the
margin of the valve is furnished ; those which go to the inner surface,
on the contrary, terminate at rudimentary hairs, reduced to a minute
ehitinous cylinder.

On examining the nervous terminations which run to the marginal
hairs, it will be found that a filament separates from the ganglionic
inflation, and goes to the hair, as has been already described and
figured by M. Jobert, but that it terminates in the interior of the
hair at the point where the latter is joined to the integument by a
membranous part. On the other hand, in the case of the terminations
which go to the rudimentary hairs, the filament will be seen to tra-
verse the little cylinder and project outside in the form of any fine
and delicate rounded point. There are thus in the proboscides of the
Diptera (Muscidfe and Syrphidfe) two kinds of nervous terminations
— one set connected with well-developed hairs, which are no doubt
tactile in function ; the other, with rudimentary hairs of peculiar
form, which are probably gustative.

Sense-organs of Insects.f — With regard to the results announced
by Professor Graber,J as to the presence of an otocyst in the antenng©
of certain Diptera, Dr. Mayer declares that independent investigations
made by himself on the same species show that the organ in question
is open to the exterior, and therefore not otocystic. Further, he

* ' CE. Assoc. Fran^. Avancem. Sci.,' 1878 (1879) p. 771 ; see ' Pop. Sci. Eev.,
iii. (1879) p. 444.

t 'Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 182.

J ' Arch. Mikr. Anat.,' xvi. (1878) p. 36 ; see this Journal, ante, p. 45.
VOL. II. 3 M

866 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

states that in Sicus and Erislalis additional organs of this kind — and
in Musca vomitoria as many as fifty of them — occnr in the same ter-
minal segment of the antenna. From their structure and innervation
he would still regard them as sensory, but leaves the question of their
exact function to be settled by physiological experiment.

Dr. H. Krauss identifies the fly-larva in which Professor Graber
claimed * to find an otocyst, as that of Tahanus autumnalis Linn.,
a species remarkable in its genus for its aquatic habits in its earlier
stages. The organ referred to is found also in the perfect insect.

Scales of the Lepidoptera. — In his ' Physical Description of the
Argentine Eepublic,'t Dr. H. Burmeister devotes a chapter to a
special examination of the scales of the Lepidoptera.

After remarking that the whole life of a special observer would not
be sufficient to recognize the innumerable variations in the scales of
even a single species, and describing the general structure of the
scales. Dr. Burmeister comes to the question of the markings on their
surface, and states that notwithstanding the trouble that the question
has already given to naturalists, he considers himself able to say, as
the result of his own researches, that any difficulty is now cleared up.
The scales which he studied were those of different species of the
genus Casfnia, which has the largest of any insect.

According to his observations the scales do not enclose any third
membrane, but are empty, the two membranes of which they are
composed not touching each other, but leaving a certain space between
them, a construction which is plain in the white and transparent
scales. Those which are coloured, contain a fluid colouring matter at
the commencement of the formation of the scale, which dries little by
little by the influence of the air, and leaves a deposit on the inner
surface of the two membranes, the fluid being finally replaced by the
air entering through the membranes, which remain soft for a short
time after the formation of the scale. The colouring matter seems to
be principally attached to the upper membrane, rendering it opaque,
whilst the lower one receives less of the deposit, and remains, con-
sequently, somewhat more transparent, and even without any deposit
in many insects.

Dr. Burmeister's researches have proved to him that the fine
longitudinal strife belong entirely to the upper membrane of the
scales, and are wanting in the lower.

The longitudinal stride are very regularly distributed with equal
intervals, though somewhat different in different scales. The breadth
of the spaces between the lines is always greater than that of the
lines themselves, while the lines are in general of equal breadth,
though there are some scales where coarse lines alternate with finer
ones. This distinction of coarse and fine lines the author has seen
plainly in scales with an indented terminal margin, and found that the
coarse lines correspond to the teeth of the margin, whilst the others
correspond to the intervals between them.

* Loc. cit.

t 'Description Physique de la Re'publique Argentine,' vol. v. " Lepiiloptores,"
part i. p. 21, 8vo, Buenos-Ayres, Paris, and Halle, 1878.

INVEETEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 86/

There is no doubt that these markings are due to filaments which
are elevated on the inner side of the upper membrane, and appear from
the exterior as fine stria3. In the large scales of Costnia it can be seen
very clearly that they do not entirely traverse the interior of the
scale, but terminate free, leaving an interval between them and the
lower membrane.

The latter presents internally a completely difierent structure.
There are a great number of small, irregular, transverse lines (some-
what similar to those on the palm of the hand), showing none of tho
regular arrangement of those on the upper membrane.

According to M. Deschamps and other observers, the intervals
between the longitudinal lines are divided regularly by transverse
ones, thus forming small squares, giving the scales a trellised appear-
ance, and originating many errors in regard to their true structure.
Exact observations, however, on scales in which the two membranes
were dissected apart, have shown that this is a deception, and that the
appearance is produced by the lower set of striaB showing through the
upper transparent membrane.

Dr. Burmeister's views are, we need hardly say, opposed to those of
Mr. Beck,* and would appear to bo disproved by his well-known
experiment of running moisture up and down in the furrows between
the " corrugations " on the under surface of the scales.

Butterflies with Dissimilar Sexes-t — Mr. Meldola has an inter-
esting review of Fritz Miiller's paper in ' Kosmos,' on this subject,
the phenomena of which have been well described by Mr. S. H.
Scudder, under the name of " Antigeny." The princijial object of
the author is to show that in some cases the male, and not the female,
is the selecting partner. Dealing with Epicalia acontius, of which the
sexes are so separate that they have been placed by some systematic
zoologists in even difierent genera, while Fabricius applied the
specific name of AntiocJius to the male and of Medea to the female ;
the author shows what is the extent of the dilference by describing
what obtains in the two sexes ; in both sexes the general ground colour
of the wings is black, the male has a broad oblique bar of a bright
orange colour extending from about the middle of the inner margin
of, to about the middle of the fore-wing in the direction of the apex ;
as there is a corresponding blotch near the middle of the hind-wing,
the whole furms, when the wings are extended, one oblique orange
bar ; now, the female has two oblique rows of pale yellow spots across
the fore-wings, which run nearly parallel with the costal margin,
and there are two similar rows across the hind-wings, and these, with
extended wings, give rise to the appearance of three straight parallel
rows (which are continued on to the body by spots of the same colour).

It is to be noted that the hindmost row of spots " have been dis-
torted so as to form a straight bar parallel with the other rows ; this
results from the displacement of the spots, each of which, although
situated in one wing-cell, does not appear on the corresponding place
in each cell ; were this the case, the row would be curved instead of
straight. That it was the sense of beauty of a critical eye, which
* See ante, p. 810. t 'Nature,' xix. (1879) p. 586.

3 M 2

868 RECORD OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Btraiglitoned the original curved row of spots to a straight bar, is
strikingly shown by the two foremost sijots of the row, which are
imsymmetrical with regard to the corresponding row on the front
wings, and which really form the commencement of a curved bar —
hut these are hidden by the overlapping of the front wings." It is
supposed that the critical eye was the eye of the male.

Adoption of an Ant-queen.*— The Eev. H. C. McCook reports
the following case of the adoption of a fertile queen of Crematogaster
lineolata, a small black ant, by a colony of the same species. The
queen was taken on April 16th, and on May 14th was introduced to
workers of a nest taken the same day. The queen was alone within
an artificial glass formicary, and several workers were introduced.
One of these soon found the queen, exhibited much excitement, but no
hostility, and immediately ran to her sister workers, all of whom were
presently clustered upon the queen. As other workers were gradually
introduced they joined their comrades until the body of the queen
(who is much larger than the workers) was nearly covered with them.
They appeared to be holding on by their mandibles to the delicate
hairs upon the female's body, and continually moved their antennfe
caressingly. This sort of attention continued until the queen, es-
corted by workers, disappeared in one of the galleries. She was
entirely adopted, and thereafter was often seen moving freely, or
attended by guards, about the nest, at times engaged in attending
the larvfe and nymphs which had been introduced with the workers
of the strange colony. The workers were fresh from their own na-
tural home, and the queen had been in an artificial home for a month.
As among ants the workers of different nests are usually hostile to
each other, this adoption of an alien queen is an example of the strong
instinct which controls for preservation of the species.

Mode of depositing Ant-eggs. f — Mr. McCook also states that a
queen of the black carpenter ant, Camponotus Pennsylvanicus, which
had long been kept in an artificial nest, had once been seen in the act
of depositing an egg. The queen was at the time clinging to the side
of a hollow in the surface of the earth, almost in a vertical position.
The usual body-guard of workers quite surrounded her, continually
touching her with their antennae. The egg was a white cylindrical
object, about one-eighth of an inch in length. It was about two
minutes in escaping from the body, and as soon as dropped was carried
below within the galleries by a worker. The queen was never left by
her body-guard, who sought to control her movements by pressing
around her, blocking up the path which she wished to take. Frequently
more vigorous persuasions were used, an antenna or leg being grasped
by a worker, and the queen thus pulled backward. She made no
attacks upon her guard, but often stubbornly held her own way ;
though commonly yielding more or less graciously to her attendants.
This colony had been received from the Allegheny Mountains in
December, within their formicary in an oak bough, in which they
were hibernating, being quite stiff with cold. They immediately re-
vived in the warmth, and were healthy and active during the following
* 'Proc, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,' 1879, p. 137. t Il^id., p. 140.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 869

spiiug. The queen survived until September following, and would
doubtless have lived longer had she not been neglected during a pro-
longed absence in summer. She outlived all her subjects, and was
certainly more than a year old.

j3. Myriapoda.

New Pauropod.* — Mr, J. A. Eyder describes a new Myriapod,
which is nearly allied to the form first described by Sir John Lubbock
under the name of Puuropus, in reference to the fewness of its feet.
The specimens obtained are ten in number, and have but six segments,
fewer than any other known member of the group, whilst the number
of pairs of legs is nine, the same as in Pauropus, which is very strong
evidence that the specimens are adults. The following characteriza-
tion of the genus and species is proposed : —

Eurijixmropus spinosus, gen. et sp. nov. Body segments six in
number, sixth exceedingly rudimentary ; antennas five-jointed ; legs in
nine pairs, equidis^tant ; tergal sclerites laterally expanded so as to
conceal the legs almost entirely when the animal is viewed from above,
and covered with fine tubercles which are joined to each other by
raised lines; appressed curved spines are also scattered over their
surface in less number, and also fringe their margins, being disposed
at regular intervals ; the spines and lines give the dorsal surface of
the little creature a slightly silky lustre when viewed with reflected
light. Colour a delicate light brown. Mouth-organs the same as in
the first-described genus. No evidence of eyes could be detected.
Length v.U of an inch ; width about yL of an inch. Habitat in Fair-
mount Park, Philadelphia, east and west of Schuylkill, in moist
situations under sticks and decaying vegetable matter.

The tergal sclerites are much thicker than in Pauropus, having
the characteristic brown colour of chitin when viewed with transmitted
light. The antennfe have the terminal globular hyaline body with a
long pedicle as in Pauropus pedunculatus. The type is the most
distinct form discovered since the detection of the first known repre-
sentatives in England in 1866, and also extends the geographical
range of the family, and does much towards fully establishing the
Pauropoda as a distinct order of Myriapods.
y- Araclinicla.

New Division of the Tarantulida.f — Dr. Karsch proposes the
following division of the Tarantulida : —

1. All the six true legs are formed in the samo way (i. e. the
fourth pair has no tibial joint).

Phrynichus : — type sp. P. reniformis Linn.

2. The legs of the fourth pair have each a single tibial joint.
Damon (C. L. Koch) : — type sp. D. medius Herbst.

3. The legs of the fourth pair have two tibial joints, and tho
anterior one is the shorter.

Tarantula Fabr. : — type sp. T. pumilio (C. L. Koch).

4. There are three tibial joints.

Charon : — type sp. Charon Grayi Gervais.
* ' Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,' 1879, p. 139, and 'Am. Nat.,' xiii. (1879) p. 60
t 'Arch. Natiu-g./ xlv. (1879) p. 189.

870 RECORD OF CUKRENX RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Differences between the Young and the Adult Forms of the
Gamasidse.* — Dr. Kramer's paper on this subject deals especially
with the criticisms of M. Megnin, who stated (1) that the abseoce of
the holding lobes from the anterior pair of feet was peculiar to females
and nymph-forms, (2) that the dorsal shield was only cleft in nymphs,
and (3) that the margin differs in form in nymphs and in the different
sexes. Kramer, however, is by no means satisfied as to the accuracy
of these views, and he states that he has only observed in a single
species the absence of the holding lobes, that he has had under
observation adult females of species of Gamasus in which the dorsal
shield has been divided, while as to the characters of the margin,
howsoever they vary, the variation is not such as to render their
specific characters obscure.

Pairing of Spiders."]" — The Eev. H. C. McCook describes minutely
the pairing of a male and female of Linypliia marginata which he
witnessed in June, 1878. The observation is too long for our space,
but it may be mentioned that the pair were in union for 2 hours
and 55^ minutes, dui-ing which period they were separated nineteen
times in consequence of various interr aptions, some of which could be
accounted for, but others were apparently without any extraneous
cause. Twice the male ran to one side of the dome, made a web
attachment to a bit of leaf hanging in the snare, drew out a thread
about 2^ inches long, which he overlaid a couple of times, and then
made the following motion : First, the body was placed erect, i. e.
back upward, and was moved backwards and forwards along the line,
rubbing the points or " nippers " of the palps at the same time ; then
the spider swung over until the body made an angle of about 45° with
the line, and while holding on thus the palps were rubbed back and
forth alternately along the lino as before. The process was repeated
during another of the intermissions. It was conjectured that the
purpose of this movement might be the distribution of the seminal
fluid into the palpal bulbs. This is takeu up by the sacs, by the
inflation and contraction of whose membranous coats it is forced into
the spermathecae of the female.

Observations on the Pycnogonida.J — Nearly ten years ago Dr.
Dohrn published in the ' Jenaische Zeitschrift ' an essay on the
structure and development of the Pycnogonida, which he was led to
place with the Arachnida, rather than with the Crustacea, on account
of the presence of seven pairs of appendages ; the three pairs found
in the larva were seen to be converted into the maxillary palpi,
antennfe, and accessory or ovigerous feet ; as to the last it was shown
that they were formed at the same time as the first pair of true legs,
and that therefore there could be no relation between them, in the
way of one being developed from the other.

Professor Semper has lately been investigating the history of the
same group, and has come to certain conclusions § with which we will

* ' Arch. Naturg.,' xlv. (1879) p. 238.
t 'Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,' 1879, p. 150.
j • Mitth. Zool. Stat. Noapel,' i. (1878) p. 28.
§ ' Arbeit. Zool.-zoot. Inst. Wiirzburg, i. p. 264.

INVERTEBRATA, ORYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 871

deal, after having, with Dohrn, directed attention to the fact that the
investigations of the Wlirzburg professor seem to set at rest a
question which has been differently answered by different observers.
The genus PhoxicMlidimn, which has been lately subjected to examina-
tion, is, in its larval stages, parasitic on Hydractinia ; according to
Gegeubaur, the parent lays its eggs in the polyp, whereas Hodge and
others state that the larvfe enter the polyp so soon as they leave the
egg ; among the latter is Claus, and that he was right in his view is
shown by Semper's detailed account.

Turning to the points on which Semper and Dohrn are at
variance, between PhoxicMlidimn, as described by the former, and
Achelia, as described by Dohrn, there is this difference, that in the
former the ovigerous appendages are a later development and are
not represented in the larva, so that the Pycnogonida apparently
have not as Dohrn imagines seven, but only six pairs of true appen-
dages. So far as this bears on the relationship of the Pycnogonida
with the Arachnida, which as Professor Semper thinks is rendered
doubtful by their i)ossession of only six pairs of legs, Dohrn remarks
that " the homologies of the aj)pendages will only be proved when
the blood-relationship of the separate orders of the Arthropoda has
been demonstrated by some other method." In addition to this
" theoretical " consideration Dohrn asserts that Semper is wrong in
his facts. The great and important point is the character of the
nervous system : with regard to the first ventral ganglion, it gives off
three pairs of nerves ; the first, which is not noticed by Semper,
supplies the rostrum and its musculature, its sensory hairs and com-
plicated lips ; the second pair supplies the so-called tentacles, or
those appendages which are intercalated between the rostrum and the
ovigerous appendages : the third pair pass to the ovigerous appen-
dages and present the same morphological relations as the second
pair.

In the larva, the first pair of legs are sujiplied by a nerve given
off from the supra-oesophageal ganglion and the two hinder pairs by
two distinct nerves, which arise from two incomjjletely separated ventral
ganglia ; from this it is clear that these two larval extremities are not
equivalent to the appendages of one segment, but are two " homodyna-
mous structures." The larva is therefore provided with three pairs of
appendages, and as four other pairs are developed later on, Dohrn's
original view that there are seven pairs of appendages in the Pycno-
gonida is true for all cases in which the larval legs persist ; and even
when the third pair disajipear, as Semper has shown them to do in the
case of Phoxickilidium, the nerve still retains its old morphological
relations, and supplies the horseshoe-shaped ridge which is the final
remnant of the ovigerous appendages. From the point of view then
of development and of nervous relations the " typical " character of
the ovigerous legs (the third pair in the larva) as true appendages
appears to be well established.

Professor Semper has, however, yet another argument ; he asserts
that in all Pycnogonida ca^cal gastric sacs are " typically" continued
into the appendages : of the third of these sacs he states that it

872 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

goes to tliat segment of the body whicli in the larva bears the third
pair of hirval legs and in the adult the first pair of true legs.
But Dohru asks how these sacs are made out to be typical rather
than the generative cfecal sacs of which only four pairs are developed ;
in fact they cannot be in any sense regarded as typical, inas-
much as in some genera there are no ctecal sacs for the palp or the
ovigerous appendages ; while in others there are two pairs, and yet
again in others only one. Semper asserts that there are only six paired
ganglionic masses in the body, while Dohrn states there are eight.

The statement of Cavanna that the egg-i>ouches arc found only on
the male is supported ; and the blood-corpuscles are stated to be
enormously large. Dr. Dohrn announces that he is preparing an
account of the Pycnogonida of the Gulf of Naples,

S. Crustacea.

Structure of the Nervous System of the Decapodous Crustacea.*
— In the summary of his results M. Yung enters into somewhat
greater detail than he did in the ' Comptes Rendus,f and we are able
to add one or two points of importance.

The author points out that the absence of a differentiation of
myelin and of the axis-cylinder which is to be observed in the
central nervous system of Vertebrates, together with the form and
composition of the cells, brings the central nervous system of the
Crustacea into very close affinity with the sympathetic system of the
Vertebrata, the only difference between them being one of size.

The thoracic ganglia of the Macrura have a similar structure to
the abdominal ganglia, and the slight differences between them may
be seen to be due to the concrescence of several ganglionic masses ;
this is best and most strikingly seen in the Brachyura, where there is
only a single thoracic ganglion. As already stated, the brain seems to
be formed of three ganglia, and it is possible, we may add, to distinguish
anterior, lateral, and posterior protuberances ; these are formed by a
comjjact medullary mass, which is finely dotted, and is divided into a
number of more or less cubical portions by fine lamella of connective
tissue, and distinguished histologically by being more deeply coloured
by osmic acid than is the rest of the nervous substance ; the medullary
mass is covered by a layer of nuclei, but it is not possible to dis-
tinguish any cellular investment ; the nerves of special sense have their
origin in the superficial cells of the protuberances, but it is not easy
to say exactly whence any particular nerve arises.

It is interesting to observe that the studies of M. Yung confirm
the theoretical views, long ago propounded by M. Milne-Edwards, as
to the presence of three pairs of ganglia in the brain.

Physiology of Muscle and Nerve in the Lobster.t— MM. Fredericq
and Vandevelde have contributed a paper on this subject to the Belgian
Academy. Their conclusions are as follows : —

* ' Arcla. Zool. Exp.' (Lacaze-Duthiers), vii. (1878) p. 449.

t See this Journal, ante, p. 419.

X 'Bull. Acad. Eoy. Sci. Belgiaue,' xlvii. (1879) p. 477.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 873

1. There appears to be complete ideutity of properties between
tbe muscles of the lobster and those of the frog.

2. The motor nerves of the lobster present, from a physiological
point of view, strong points of resemblance with those of the frog.
The most characteristic difference consists in the slowness with
which the motor excitation travels along the lobster's motor
nerves (6 metres a second in the lobster, 27 metres in the frog).
The propagation of the motor excitation undergoes, in the lobster, a
considerable retardation in the muscular terminations of the motor

Action of Electric Currents on the Pincer of the Crayfish.* —
By the aid of the graphic method, and the slowness with which the
muscles of the piucer elfect their contraction, M. Kichet has been
able to show that the form of the muscle-wave varies with the intensity
of the electric currents which effect it ; it is short when the currents
are feeble, although longer than in the muscles of the frog. When
the intensity of the cxxrrent is increased the form alone changes ; the
fall of the curve is at lirst rapid and then gradually slackens. As the
current is increased in intensity the second period increases in length,
and the former diminishes until at last it may be seen to completely
disappear ; and it follows from this that it is not the height but the
duration of the muscular contraction which increases with the increased
intensity of the exciting currents. That the contraction is due to
change in the muscle itself, so far, at any rate, as its second portion
(that of gradual relaxation) is concerned, is shown by the fact that
this " contracture," as the author calls it, is barely apj)arent when the
motor nerve is itself directly excited. The myographic traces ob-
tained were found to be remarkably similar to those exhibited by
muscles poisoned by veratrin. These observations may bo taken
as supplementary to those previously recorded. |

Atlantic Stalk-eyed Crustaceans.^ — Mr. S. J. Smith, of Yale
College, publishes an account of the stalk-eyed crustaceans of the
Atlantic coast of North America. It forms part of the report in pre
paration for the United States Commission of Fisheries, and embodies
the study of the extensive collections made during the past fourteen
years by Professor Verrill and himself.

In the present paper only the species inhabiting the coast between
Cape Cod and Northern Labrador are given, and although the paper
has special reference to the geographical distribution of the species,
considerable matter is introduced in regard to specific variation and
specific characters, and under some of the species, to the synonymy,
especially where it seemed necessary to the proper understanding of
the geographical distribution, or to show the propriety of the nomen-
clature adopted, or where the species is not well known.

* ' Comptes Eendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 1272.
t This Journal, ante, p. 562.

X 'Traus. Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sci.,' v. (1879); 'Nature' xx. (1879)
p. 535.

874 RECOBD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The total number of species recorded is 73, of which 45 are
Decaj)ods, 11 Schizopods, and 17 Cumaceje, one-half of which are also
to be found in Europe, the author concluding that there is not only a
close relationship between the marine fauna of Greenland and that of
Northern Europe, but a similar close one between that of Greenland
and of the coasts of the continent of North America.

Some New Cymotlioida.* — Herr Koelbel describes some new
species of this group from various localities in a paper which is illus-
trated by two plates ; among these is a representative of a new genus
Emphylia, which is allied to Nerocila of Leach, but is distinguished
from it by the approximation of the bases of its internal antennae.
The single species receives the name of ctenophora, and the habitat is
stated to be Akyab. There are no points in the paj)er of general
interest.

Trilobites and Limiili.t — Professor E. von Martens recapitulates
the history of the Trilobites, which, so characteristic of Silurian
deposits, are never found in any strata later than those of the Permian
epoch. He points out that their relationship to the Isopoda is opposed
by the freedom of the head in these latter, and by their constant pos-
session of seven thoracic and seven abdominal segments, vvliile in the
Trilobites the cejihalic and thoracic portions are always fused and the
number of segments is inconstant. With regard to the view of Pro-
fessor Glaus that the Trilobites are allied to the Phyllopoda, it is
allowed that in these extant Crustacea numerous points of similarity
are to be observed.

Turning to the Limuli (American king-crabs) the author points
out that they are to be distinguished from all other forms of
Crustacea by the fact that there is only one pair of prae-oral appen-
dages ; in this point they agree with the Arachnida, and with this
class some modern zoologists would place them ; when, however, we
consider the points by which the Crustacea and Arachnida are dis-
tinguished, and then study the characters of Limulus, we may see that
the view of Professor von Martens is, at any rate, highly probable.
The Arachnida are remarkable for the absence of abdominal appen-
dages, the presence of simple eyes only, the straight intestine, and the
possession of Malpighian vessels. None of these characters are pre-
sented by Limulus ; it, like all Crustacea, has abdominal appendages,
branchial organs, genital orifices situate at the boundary between the
thorax and abdomen, compound eyes and a true proventriculus. Ob-
servation of living forms has recalled to Professor von Martens the
great similarity between Limulus and the Phyllopod form Apiis cancri-
formis, and he concludes with stating that in his opinion we have both
in the case of Limulus and of the Trilobites, to do with special and
isolated orders of the Crustacea, both of which have taken their origin
from the Phyllopoda.

* ' SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien,' Ixxviii. (1879) p. 401
t ' Naturforscher,' xii. (1879) p 377.

INVEKTEBKATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 875

New Species of Chirocephalus.*— Mr. John A. Eyder, observing
that this genus does not seem to have been noticed in North America,
announces the discovery of a hitlierto uudescribed species in New
Jersey, where it was found in abundance in the ditches.

The genus, as characterized by Dr. Baird,t has been found in
Switzerh\nd, France, England, Eussia, and Siberia. The species
G. lacunce, most nearly like the one now discovered, is figured and
described by Guerin in his ' Iconog. Eegue Animal,' as being found
at Foutainebleau. The diiferences between the species are, however,
sufficiently striking and constant to characterize a well-marked spe-
cific type, for which the following characterization is proposed.

Chirocephalus Holmanii, nov. sp.

Char, specif. — Claspers moderately robust; second joint forked,
longest branch longer than first joint, and curved inwards, its tip
crossing that of its fellow of the opposite side when in repose ;
shorter branch, less curved, slightly swollen, and rough on the inner
surface of its tip, about half as long as the longer branch. Two long,
fleshy, proboscis-like j)rehensile organs arise from the bases of the
claspers and are coiled up between the latter ; muscular fibres pass
throughout their length ; near their origin and for the first third they
are expanded inferiorly into a thin margin with about seven papilli-
form processes ; they then gradually contract, becoming cylindrical
at their second third, where about seven well-marked digitiform pro-
cesses are found, the longest of which are about as long as twice the
diameter of the proboscis at this point ; the remaining third gradually
contracts, and is thickly studded with half-rings of small papillse
which seem to mark indistinctly the segments of the organ. Total
length of the proboscis, when extended, about three times that of the
claspers. Total length 12-14 mm. Habitat, Woodbury, New Jersey.

The specific name is given in honour of Mr. D. S. Holman, in
recognition of the services he has rendered in devising methods for
studying living objects, both large and small, under the Microscope.

Reproductive Organs of Non-parasitic Copepoda.| — A mono-
graph on this subject is published by Dr. August Gruber, of
Freiburg.

1. Testis and Vas deferens. — The primitively double testis is, in all
free forms, a single, usually pear-shaped gland. The vas deferens is
always divided into three parts, differing in structure and function.
The first portion extends at first backwards from the testis, often has
a strong curve forwards at the end of its course, and is provided with
a very narrow lumen. The second portion is more or less con-
voluted, and differs from the first mainly in being considerably dis
tended by the quantities of seminal fluid (Samenmasse) stored up in it ;

* ' Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,' 1879, p. 148.

t " Monograph of the Family Branchipodidse," ' Ann and Mag. Nat. Hi^t.,
xiv. (1854) p. 216.

; 'Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.,' xxxii. (1879) p. 407.

87(3 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the spermatopliore takes its origin in tins segment. The third
portion, the sjiermatophoral sac or ductus ejnculatorms, is usually
short and thick-walled ; in it the formation of the spermatophorc is
completed. The author points out that this division into three parts
of the male genital duct corresponds with a similar state of things
described by Grobbeu in the Bccapoda.

The ripe spermatozoa accumulate at the anterior end of the testis,
and are carried off along the first segment of the vas deferens, the
lumen of which is so small, that often only two can lie side by side.
Arrived at the second segment, they accumulate at its hinder end,
being prevented from entering the third segment by a pylorus-like
constriction between the second and third. The second portion of the
duct becomes so swollen out by the accumulation of sperm, that its
walls are reduced to a very thin membrane ; this accumulation pro-
ceeds up to the bend which marks the line of juncture of the iirst and
second jjortions.

Even in the first portion of the duct there is seen to be a granular
secretion of its wall among the spermatozoa, as well as a delicate
investment, also a secretion of the wall, around them. In the second
segment these two secretions have become much more important, and
there can be distinguished, from without inwards, (1) the tliin
investment; (2) the layers of spermatozoa; and (3) the central mass
of granular cement-substance.

The rudiment of the spermatophorc thus constituted is partly
pushed through the valve into the third segment of the duct, and
the greater part of it is constricted oif to form the spermatophore,
part, however, remaining in the second segment, ready to begin the
formation of a new spermatophore.

The author does not believe in the existence of the special secretion
(Sprengstoff or Austreibstoff) described by some observers, having for
its function the emptying of the spermatophores.

The first section of the paper concludes with a description of the
male organs in the Cydopidce, the Rarpactidce, the Peltidioe, the
Corycceidce, the Calamidce, and the Pontellidce.

2. The rcceptaculum seminis and the formation of the egg-sacs. —
This section treats of the female organs in the Calamidce., the Cyclo-
pida?, and the Earpadidce. The author sums up his results as
follows : — " Amongst the Copcpoda some sjjecies are found devoid of
a special rcceptaculum, others with a pair of symmetrically disposed
receptacula, and others again in which the organ is unpaired, and lies
in the middle line of the abdomen. In the first case, the semen,
surrounded by the cement-substance of the spermatophore, is simply
inserted into the vulva, in both the other cases the seminal ca2)sules
empty themselves, usually through a special pore, into the recep-
tacula, from which the semen makes its way, during the extrusion of
the eggs, into the vulva. The recejitacula are never also cement-
glands, but the secretion which forms the egg-sacs is a product of
the oviduct, the terminal portion of which it fills as a clear, delicate
mass, which sets in water.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 8 I i

The Notodelphyidee.* — M. L. Kerschner describes two new genera
of the curious Copepod family Notodelpliyidfe, eacli including a single
species, which he names Parijplies longipes and Dorsipys uncinata.

He prefaces his descriptions with some corrections of previous
notions as to certain points in the organization of these crustaceans.
He shows that the brood-chamber, which is usually regarded as con-
tained within the body-cavity, is formed, in the majority of Noto-
dolphyidpB, by a duplicature of the integument of the body j^roceeding
from the dorsal surface of the fourth and from the sides of the fourth
and fifth segments, but that in two genera this duplicature is inserted
even ujjon the second thoracic segment. He further indicates that an
unpaired ovary is present, and that the ova pass in strings into the
oviducts (formerly '■ ovaries ").

The author confirms a part of Thorell's observations upon the
connection of the female generative organs, and, by the discovery of
the hitherto overlooked external genital aperture of the female, brings
back these organs to the general type of the whole order.

In all the males observed he describes an unpaired testis, and
represents the envelope of the spermato^jhores as secreted by the wall
of the whole of the seminal duct. In the spermatoi^hore itself he
recognizes more layers than Thorell. He describes the type on
which the nervous system is constructed, and in oj)j)osition to
Buchholz, asserts the presence of olfactory nodes.

New British Entomostraca. — The very curious translucent En-
tomostracon Leptodora Tiyalina, which was first found in the deep
Swiss lakes, and subsequently in other parts of Europe, has now been
found in England, first in the Olton Reservoir, near Birmingham (in
the masses of a minute alga, Clathrocystis), and subsequently in two
other localities, and was described | by Mr. Graham, the President of
the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, with a
drawing by Mr. Forrest.}

In the Olton Reservoir (and subsequently in a second locality)
there was also found an Entomostracon, new to Britain, which was at
first supposed to be a new species and so described and figured in the
'Midland Naturalist ' § {" Daphnia 5«m7u "), but was subsequently
recognized by Professor Lankester as Hijalodaphnia Kahlbergensis of
Schodler. Only the female was found.

Vermes.

Segmentation in Worms and Pulmonates.|l — Dr. W. Mayzel, of
Warsaw, confirms Auerbach's observations as to the changes under-
gone by the nucleus in the dividing egg of Ascaris nigrovenosa and of
Strongyhis auricularis. In both these species, as well as in Limax
variegatus, he found the now well-known caryolytic figures — the spindle

* 'Anzeig. Akad. Wisa. Wieii,' June 13, 1879; 'Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,'
iv. (1879) p. 321.

t « Midi. Nat.,' ii. (1879) p. 225.

X See also Mr. Forrest's paper, ante, p. 82.5.

§ ' Midi. Nat.,' ii. (1879) p. 217.

II ' Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 280.

878 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

nucleus, nuclear disk, " suns," &c. His observations, therefore, tell
strongly against Brandt's amceboid theory of nucleus-division, ac-
cording to which there is no real differentiation of the nucleus, the
fibres described in it being merely folds in its membrane, and the
" suns " at its poles, radially arranged nuclear processes or pseudo-
podia.

Prizes for Life-histories of Entozoa. — The council of the En-
tomological Society of London are authorized by Lord Walsingham
and other gentlemen interested in the diseases of our native game-
birds to offer to public competition the following prizes : —

501. for the best and most complete life-history of Sderostoma
syngamus Dies., supposed to produce the so-called " gapes " in
poultry, game, and other birds ; 501. for the best and most complete
life-history of Strongylus pergracilis Cob., supposed to cause the
grouse disease.

No life-history will be considered satisfactory unless the different
stages of development are observed and recorded. The competition
is open to naturalists of all nationalities. The same observer may
compete for both prizes. Essays in English, French, or German to
be sent in on or before October 15, 1882, addressed to the Secretary
of the Society, Chandos Street, Cavendish Square.

Development and Metamorphoses of Taeniae.* — M. P. Megnin
now gives a fuller account of his observations than that which ap-
peared in the ' Comptes Eendus.'j He expresses the opinion that the
armed Tcenice, or those which are provided with sj)ines, are forms
which exhibit a suppressed development ; it is, however, to his remarks
on the polymorphism of these forms that we now wish to direct
especial attention. As he very justly observes, the existence of two
adult forms developed from the same cestoid worm ai:)j)ears to be very
remarkable ; to remove any difficulty in accepting the correctness of
his statements, he directs attention to the polymor{)hism which obtains
[as Elders has shown] in Nereis Dicmerilii and Heteronereis fiicicola,
of which one is small, agile, and free swimming, and the other large,
slow, and bottom-dwelling ; similar examples may be taken from
among the Arachnida, and it is concluded that polymorphism is the
rule in the lower animals, and that this polymori^hism is always the
result of the influence of the surrounding medium, or is efiected by
certain special conditions of existence. In the particular case now
under investigation, the cause is pretty evident ; when the " vesicular
worm " passes into the Carnivore it finds itself in an intestine, the
contents of which are in a state of continual movement so that the
feeble scolex has need of all its hooks and suckers to fix itself to the
wall ; but, in the Herbivora, it can pass into a more retired position,
and here the hooks are altogether useless.

Nematodes in the Caves of Carniola.| — Dr. Gustav Joseph, of
Breslau, gives a brief account of his researches on the hitherto little-

* ' Journ. Anat. et Phys.' (Eobiu), xv. (1879) p. 228.

t See this Journal, ante, p. 162.

t ' Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 275.

INVERTEBBATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

879

known free Nematodes in tlie caverns of Carniola. The following-
examples of known genera are found •.—BoryJahmis, 2 species; Tijleu-
chis, 2; Aplieleuchns, 1; Tripyla, 1; Monhystera, 1; Anguillula, 1;
Monononchus, 1 ; Ceplialohiis, 2 ; Bhahditis, 3 ; and Ilectm. One
species of the latter genus was especially interesting, partly because
of its size as compared with P. granulosus, the species it most resembled
(11-13 mm. as against 1*3 mm. in the male, and 9-10 as against
0*8 in the female), and partly because it was found both in the sand
of the Recca-grotto and in the sea-sand near the mouth of the grotto ;
in other words, an animal probably originally marine is able to adapt
itself to a life in fresh water and in darkness. Further observations
are necessary to show whether this migration into the dark cave has
relation either to wintering or to breeding.

Aniirsea longispina. — This rotifer, discovered by Professor Kelli-
cott at Buffalo, N.Y., and described in our April number,* has now
been found by Mr. J. Levick t in this country, in the prolific Olton
Eeservoir near Birmingham.

Mr. Levick was not able to see the pair of well-defined " wheels "
described by Professor Kellicott, and thinks them probably a mistake,
a view which Professor Kellicott, in a recent letter to ourselves, con-
firms.

Studies on the Gephyrea.J — Dr. Spengel in treating of the forma-
tion of the ova in Bonellia, points out that the organs described in
1852 by Schmarda as being those of the female generative system
were very diflferently regarded by Lacaze-Duthiers in 1858 ; and that,
since then, twenty years elapsed before the female generative organs
were again carefully examined. Armed with the latest methods of
modern histology, Vejdovsky has returned to the subject, while the
investigations of Greef have led the latter author to confirm the
results of Lacaze-Duthiers as to the uterus and ovary.

Dealing with Speugel's own observations, we find that the ovary of
Bonellia, discovered by Lacaze-Duthiers, is placed in the ventral aspect
of the animal, between the nerve-cord and the coils of the enteron ;
extending through the two hinder thirds of the body, the ovary is
connected with the ventral blood-vessel, which accompanies the
ventral cord ; the anterior part of this vessel consists of a peritoneal
investment succeeded by a membrane in which are contained muscular
fibres ; the part which takes a share in the formation of the ova is the
peritoneal investment, which in its anterior portion, where it is not
connected with the ovary, consists of flattened cells with small
elongated nuclei; about its median third the vessel is seen to
become provided with cells remarkable for their great size. Tliese
are the youngest germ-cells, or, more correctly, "primitive ova,"
and at the margin of each there are to be made out some flat-
tened cells, which are so arranged as to form a kind of investment.
Connected with the primitive ova is a more or less large number of
cells which are placed on pedicels, and in groups which are made up

* Tliis Journal, ii. (1879) p- 157. t ' Midi. Nat.,' ii. (1879) p. 241.

I 'Mittb. Zool. Stai. Neapel,' i. (1879) p. 357.

880 KECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of a set of internal cells, covered by a layer of flatter ones, and both
of which owe their origin to the primitive ova and their investing
cells. The two sets continue to be develoj^ed equally, but the inner
ones undergo a differentiation, which, it may be noted, is very difficult
to observe as it is not a mori^hological one, but is merely dependent,
in its earlier stages, on change in position ; one cell becomes dis-
tinctly central and increases a good deal in size ; some of the peri-
pheral cells next increase in size ; the largest cell, which results from
those changes, is the future ovarian cell. Into their further history
it is impossible for us, in our limited space, to follow them, and we
must be content with stating that the large number of 1500 ova were
found by Lacaze-Duthiers in the uterine cavity.

Passing on to the early stages in the development of the ovum we
find a striking difference between the fertilized and unfertilized eggs ;
in the former the oil-drops are arranged peripherally and form a circle
around the ovarian sphere, while in the latter the yolk is free from
oil-drops and is set a good deal towards one side of the egg, wliile the
oil-drops are limited to other parts. The first stage in fission was
not observed ; in the next, there were four cells of equal size, which,
like the unfertilized egg, consists of two parts, in one of which all the
oil-drops are collected, while the other, which contains the nticleus,
only consists of a finely granular protoidasm ; these two sets of struc-
tures may be known as vegetative and animal. In the next stage four
small animal cells are separated off, which immediately take up a
central position. The further stages of cleavage may be summed up
in a few words ; the animal pole having given rise to four blastomeres,
continues to divide and grow over the vegetative cells, which divide
more slowly. It is remarkable that this mode of cleavage has not
hitherto been observed in the Gephyrea, for Phascolosoma has been
found to exhibit equal cleavage of all the blastomeres and to form an
archigastrula ; nevertheless Trochus among the Mollusca, and Salma-
cina among the Annelids present just the same relations as Bonellia,
and similar relations have been observed in some marine Planaria and
Hirudinea ; to adopt the nomenclatiu'e of Haeckel we here have to do
with an amphigastrula. When the now subjacent macromeres begin to
increase they give rise to the enteric epithelium ; but the centre of
the embryo is still occupied by the four large macromeres, which are
remarkable for the possession of a large oil-drop, while the protoplasm
is reduced to a fairly large investing portion, containing the nucleus
on one side. When the endodermal and ectodermal cells become differ-
entiated an orifice — the blastopore — appears; and the ectodermal cells
soon pass into its inner margin. As to the mesoderm, it does not first
have the appearance of two large cells, as in Lumbricus (Hatschek, &c.),
but appears as a closed circular layer.

At this point there are some gaps in Dr. Spengol's observa-
tions, and we pass on to the characters of the embryo and of the
free-swimming larva, in which we soon observe in the ectodermal
cells the characteristic green pigment, together with cilia which
appear on cells which are without pigment and which continue
to be so. A section taken at about this stage displays a mass of

INVERTEBEATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 881

endodermal cells surrounded by a ttin mesoderm which, again, is
covered by an ectoderm in which, in addition to two cells, supjjlied
with long cilia, there is a thickening of several layers of cells ; this is
regarded by our author as the first rudiment of the sui^ra-oesophageal
ganglion. The embryo now begins to elongate, and from the body,
which is divided by the two bands of cilia into three regions, there is
developed in the first and semicircular segment an eye on either side,
while the whole creature takes on the form of a rhabdocoelous Turbel-
larian, and is seen to be possessed of a great power of contractility.
The next succeeding stages appear to be somewhat difficult to follow
out, and although the mesoderm is seen to divide into an ectodermal
and an. endodermal portion, no coelom to speak of is immediately
formed. The oil-containing cells of the endolerm give rise to a
cavity and the rudiments of the oesophagus are developed. The
development of the nervous system goes on at a rapid pace, but the
ventral cord does not extend to the hinder end of the body, and the
author was not able to observe in it the central canal reported by
Greef. Great changes go on in the mesoderm ; the splanchnic plate
remains thin, but the somatic becomes greatly thickened, and there is,
further, difierentiated an external circular and an internal longitudinal
layer ; here ends the sexually indiflfereut stage of the larva, a worm-
like creature, containing chloroi^hyll, ciliated over its whole surface
and divided by two bands of cilia into three regions, of which the fore-
most is supplied with two large pigment spots. The enteron is a
closed oil-containing sac, in which the rudiments of the oesophagus
may be made out ; the mesoderm is, in the anterior region, formed of
a compact mass of vesicular cells, and, in the rest of the body, consists
of a thin splanchnic, and of a differentiated somatic plate, in which,
besides muscles, there is a mesh of tissue.

The Female of BonelUa. — The first stages in further differentiation
affect the mesh of tissue just mentioned, and the indifferent cells con-
tained in it ; the changes which occur convert the " parenchymatous "
larva into a " bladder-shaped worm," with a spacious coelom, con-
taining fluid. Whence comes this fluid ? the author is not quite able
to say, though he offers what he thinks is a plausible explanation.
About the time when the conversion of the mesodermal cells is com-
pleted there may be seen at the hinder portion of the enteron two
closed vesicles given off from the enteron, one on either side, which
form, by the breaking through of their walls, a means of communication
between the interior of the body and the sea-water ; and the fluid is,
as the author supposes, nothing more than sea-water. This change in
the characters of the mesoderm does not affect the cephalic portion of
it where there is, by a metamorphosis of the portion of the enteron
anterior to the oesophagus, developed the cephalic lobe (or so-called
" proboscis "). Passing over various points we come to the changes
which take place in the epidermis; the ciliated bands, first the
posterior and then the anterior, disappear, the cells of the epidermis
become flatter, and dermal glands begin to be formed. The muscular
bands become so arranged that the circular ones are peripheral, the
oblique internal, and the longitudinal median in position. On the

VOL. II. 3 N

882 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ventral side and posteriorly to tlie moutli appear two important
organs ; tlie hinder pair consist of two setae, eacli of wliicli lies in a
cellular sac, which is apparently its matrix ; in front of these there
is a pair of extremely delicate tubes which jjroject freely into the
ccelom, and are covered by epithelium and by a peritoneal investment ;
they have a narrow, although distinct, lumen. Unable to give any
account of these orifices, the author regards them as primitive seg-
mental organs ; they disappear very soon. As to the generative
organs, the ovaries appear very early in the form of large cells, with
round nuclei, placed near the hinder portion of the ventral vessel.

Tlie ilfaZe.— The history of the male of Bonellia is one of the most
interesting in comparative anatomy ; Schmarda, regarding the funnel
of the uterus as the testis, considered that Bonellia was herma-
phrodite. Lacaze-Duthiers considered that all the specimens he had
seen were females, and Kowalevsky was of the same opinion, until in
1868 he found in the female ducts a number of small Planarian-liko
parasites, which he regarded as being the male form of this interesting
creature. In 1877 Vejdovsky discovered (and in 1878 gave an account
of his observations *) the ventral nerve-cord ; Selenka has reported
the presence of two sub-oesophageal ganglia and of a pair of segmental
organs ; while, on the other hand, Greef has lately expressed his
dissatisfaction as to the reality of this Planarioid form being the male
of Bonellia.

Dr. Spengel found the males forming green scales on the pro-
boscis of the female, and they, when, after some difficulty, separated
from it, exhibited themselves under the form of elongated small worms
with a green coloured epidermis, two eyes at their anterior end, and
an oily euteron — in fine they ajipeared to be Bonellia-larvce, save
only that they had lost their two bands of cilia. Further inves-
tigation showed that they possessed germ-cells, altogether similar to
those of the female, connected with masses of somewhat smaller cells,
arranged in a central and a peripheral group ; the latter are the true
seminal cells ; increasing in size, they become separated from the
surrounding tissue and swim about in the body-cavity of the males.
Meantime the mesoderm in the anterior region becomes more compact,
the rudiments of the oesophagus disappear, and the hinder portion
of the enteric tract becomes fused with the mesoderm.

It is impossible here to enter into the details of the organization
of the male, and we must refer in a very few words to their " morpho-
logy." The anterior portion of the body represents the " cephalic
lobes" of the female, the ventral cord is essentially the same as it
is in the asexual larva, but the cellular elements are not, as in the
female, arranged metamerically ; they form a connected cord ; the
digestive system is in a very elementary condition. No vascular
system ajipears to be developed, but this is probably due to the
mesodermal cells going completely to form the sperm. In conclu-
sion, it is observed that the male of Bonellia is a Gephyrean in
all essential points, and that, subsequently to the larval stages, all
interest is centred on the male organs, while the loss of the ciliated
* See this Journal, ante. p. 290.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 883

bauds and of the eye-spots is to be correlated with their parasitic mode
of life.

Pelagic Annelids from the Canary Islands.* — Prof. Richard Greeff
describes several interesting species found by him off the coast of
Lanzarote, one of the Canary Islands.

1. Acicularia Virchoicii. — This animal attains a length of 5 to
9 mm., its greatly elongated body consisting of twenty-six to thirty-
nine segments. The head-segment or prostomium is prolonged into
a movable conical frontal process, which serves as a tactile organ.
The head also bears a pair of leaf-like parapodia, directed somev/hat
forwards. These properly belong to the second segment or peristo-
mium, but there is no separation between the two. The remaining
segments bear outwardly dii-ected parapodia, each consisting of
notopodium and neuropodium, with a small prominence between them
bearing sette. The form of the two divisions of the parapodium is
curious : each is more or less quadrate in outline, and attached,
mushroom-like, by a stalk on the centre of its inner surface.

On the surface of the parapodia are a number of circular disks,
each made up of numerous facet-like areas, like a compound eye.
Further examination of these bodies shows that each consists of a
dee]) cup-like depression of the surface, filled with a bundle of close-
set parallel rods, some of which are occasionally seen projecting far
beyond the surface of the disk, having evidently been partially ejected.
Observation of the living animal showed that these curious organs
acted as adhesive disks ; they adhered to the slide and cover-slip,
sometimes the whole follicle being extruded and looking like a stalked
sucker. It seems probable that they may also act as urticating organs.

A description is also given of the alimentary canal, nervous system,
and generative organs : a dorsal vessel containing a clear colourless
fluid was made out.

The author found a larva of Acicularia, on the point of metamor-
phosing ; it was chiefly distinguished from the adult by its circlet of
long, outstanding setfe just behind the head.

2. Pontodora pelagica (nov. gen. et sp.). — The most interesting point
about this species is the character of its segmental organs, which
open by ciliated apertures at the summits of little stalked, cup-like
structures on, and at the base of, the parapodia. Sometimes each cup
has several ciliated apertures, sometimes only one, in which case it
bears a strong resemblance to a Vorticella. The internal apertures of
the segmental organs were not observed. The length of the body is
1 • 6 mm.

Greeff places Ponfodora in the family Syllidce.

3. Pelagohia longicirrata (nov. gen. et sp.). — In this species, which
attains a length of 3 mm., there was no prostomiiim to be seen, the
mouth being, to all appearance, actually terminal. There are no true
peristomial cirri, but the peristomiimi bears, on each side, a pair of
short simple feeler-like processes, and, farther back, a ciliated lobe.
A pair of simple eyes, with lens and pigment, is present in this

* ' Zeitschr. wise. Zool.,' xxxil. (1879) p. 237.

3 N 2

884 EECORD OF CDREENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

as in the former genus. It also may be placed provisionally in the
family SyllidcB.

4. Phalacrophorus pichis (nov. gen. et sp.). — The length of the body
is about 6 mm. There are two simple eyes, sessile on the extremities
of the cerebral ganglion. The central lobe (Ruder) of the parapodia
is ciliated, the cilia being in some places collected into bundles, which
possibly represent the apertures of the segmental organs. The
pharynx is provided with a pair of curved jaws. This genus is con-
sidered as an aberrent form of the Lycoridce.

5. Sacconereis Cannricnsis (^nov. spi.). — The author was prevented
from tracing out the whole life-history of this species, but the proba-
bility is that, as in the species described by A. Agassiz, the impreg-
nated egg gives rise to a sexless female or " nurse " (Autolytus), which,
by budding, gives rise to the male {Polyhostrichus) and female
(Sacconereis). The female was found with her ventral nidamental
pouch full of eggs and larva. Four stages of the latter are described,
and also a newly discovered larva, the adult form of which is unknown.

6. Observations on the Tomopteridce. — There has been a good deal of
difference of opinion as to the presence of a pair of small appendages
on the head of Tomopteris, over and above the blunt frontal feelers
and the long bristled tentacles. Greeff considers that these are always
present, but that they have escaped notice owing to their small size,
and the fact that tlicy are often tucked in under the head, and frequently
broken off when the animal is caught. He calls them the first pair of
tentacles, the well-known long setose appendages being the second.

Greeff has also investigated the "rosette-like organs," and his
results are entirely opposed to those of Vejdovsky.* He fails to find
anything of the nature of a lens, denies altogether the visual function
of the organs, and considers them to be parapodial glands.

An account of the muscular system of T. Esclisclioltzii is given, and
the paper concludes with a description of three new species, T.
Kcfersteinii, T. levipes, and T. EschschoUzii.

Annelid Jaws from Scotch and Canadian Palaeozoic Rocks.t—
Mr. G. J. Hinde describes fifty-five different forms, the greater propor-
tion of which are from Canada, the strata in which they were imbedded
being principally shallow water deposits. After referring to the very
few recorded instances of the discovery of any portions of the organism
of errant annelids as distinct from their trails and impressions in the
rocks, he describes the principal varieties of form and of the structure
of the jaws, classifying them from their resemblances to existing
forms under seven genera, five of which are included in the family
Eunicea, one in the family Lycoridea, and one among the Glycerea.

The jaws occur as small, dark, shining objects, very varied in form,
dispersed through the rock, quite detached from each other and from
the positions they occupied in the head of the animal. The material of
which they are composed appears to be nearly entirely of a chitinous
character, and so far free from calcareous matter that it undergoes no
change in nitric acid.

* This Journal, ii. p. 155.

t ' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,' xxxv. (1879) p. 370.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMJA, MICllOSCOPYj ETC. 885

There is very great variation in the dimensions of the jaws ; the
greater number do not average more than y^o inch in length, but a few
are ^ inch long and yL iuch wide. In order to form an idea of the
relative length of worms with similar jaws, the principal jaw-plate was
measured in a specimen of the existing Eunicea sanguinea (whose body-
was 8 inches long), and was found to be i inch long aud j^^ inch wide.
If the length of these animals is in proportion to that of their jaws,
then the largest of the fossil jaw.> would belong to an annelid of about
13 inches in length, whilst the greater jiart would not be more than
3i inches.

Organization of Batrachobdella Latasti, C. Vig.* — This Hiru-
dineaij was found living parasitically upon a Batrachian of Algeria,
Diploglossus pidus, which, added to a certain external resemblance,
led to its being taken for Glossiplionia algira. Like the latter, it has
only two eyes, but is otherwise distinguished by its smaller size,
its more regular form, not attenuated in front, its green colour, and
its proportionally larger posterior sucker. The following are the
results of its anatomical study by C. Viguier.

Genital Organs. — The genital orifices are in the male on the twenty-
first ring, and in the female between the twenty-third and twenty-
fourth. There is no developed penis, but a simple button, as in the
Glossiphonke, which is generally placed a little to the right of the
median line (looked at from the lower surface). The epididymi are
very large, and, after a certain number of folds, each gradually
narrows into a very slender deferent canal. Twelve testes relatively
large are arranged in two regular and parallel rows. The female
apparatus is composed of two very small pyriform ovaries, from which
start slender oviducts, passing into a very small transverse and always
exactly median matrix situated immediately above the vulva.

Digestive Apparatus. — There is, as in the Glossiphonice, an exsertile
trunk, behind which the cesoj)hagus has the aspect of a muscular tube
with longitudinal and annular fibres. Above the genital orifices
there is a large, pyriform, brownish swelling, visible by transparent
light in the living animals, and which is constituted, from without
inwards, by somewhat voluminous brown cells, and by large clear
cells with a brilliant nucleus, disposed all round the lumen of the
digestive tube. Immediately behind this swelling, which performs,
no doubt, the function of a liver, are the first lateral cfeca, which pass
in front of the first testes ; five other cfeca on each side pass between
the testes of each row. Lastly, a seventh pair of narrow caeca comes
behind the last pair of testes. The axial portion of the digestive tube
presents between the cfeca small turbid cells, perhaps hej)atic cells.
Behind the seven pairs of narrow caeca, and where the cavity of the
body is no longer occupied by the testes, are four pairs of large caeca
— the first two directed slightly forward, the third nearly transverse,
the fourth directed backward. The terminal portion of the digestive
tube makes a small loop to the left, and is then directed in a straight
line to the anus.

* 'Comptes Eendus,' Ixxxix. (1870) p. 110; 'Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' iv.
(1879) p. 250.

886 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Circulatory Apparatus. — The circulatory apparatus is nearly-
identical with that described by Budge in Clepsine ; but the vascular
loops of the head advance further in front of the eyes.

Nervous System. — The nervous system nearly agrees with that
described by Baudelot in Clepsine. The sub-a3Sophageal portion
of the collar results from a more considerable grouping, and
the terminal mass of the chain from a smaller grouping than in
Clepsine. The number of large cells contained in the vesicles
attached to the ganglion is less than figured by Baudelot.

In short, Batracliobdella approaches the Glossiplionim or Clepsinoe
by its nervous system and circulatory apparatus, while the general
arrangement of the genital organs is rather that which is found in
Ponhdellce or Pontobdellce ; and the digestive apparatus, although
presenting a trunk as in Clepsine, differs from what is seen in all the
other Hirudiueoe by the arrangement of the caeca and presence of a
hepatic swelling.

New Alciopid.* — In describing the eighth species of this interest-
ing group which is now known to constitute a portion of the Mediter-
ranean fauna. Dr. liichard Greef calls attention to the great size of
the dorsal lamellar cirri of Alciopa Krolmii ; the dorsal, as well as the
ventral cirri, are not rounded, but are continued into an elongated
conical ti}). As in the other species of the genus, and in connection
with its pelagic mode of life, the whole body is transparent, the only
exception being the red eyes beneath the first pair of dorsal cirri, and
the lateral brown glands, which are so situate as to be with difficulty
visible ; the eyes are also separated considerably from one another,
owing to the great breadth of the cephalic region. The muscular
supply of the parapodia is exceedingly well developed, inasmuch as
four powerful muscles pass out, on either side, from the inner face of
the body-wall to these organs and break up in the cirri ; one of these
pairs passes so close to the ganglion as to be easily mistaken for
a nerve-cord.

In the characters of its nervous system and of its sensory organs
this new species agrees very generally with the other Alciopids.
Special organs which appear to belong to the " segmental " series
are very briefly mentioned ; they form cellular tubes, very similar to
racemose glands, and lie, coiled in the body-cavity, on either side of
the enteric tube, while they give off a canal which appears to pass
into the body ; unfortunately, the author was unable to make out
either their external or their internal orifices.

Organization and Classification of the Orthoneetida.f — Profes-
sor A. Griard has now completed his researches on this important group
of Vermes, his discovery of which was announced in a preliminary
paj)er published in 1877, | reproduced in this Journal.

1. Bhopalura opliiocomce. — For the generic description and mode
of occurrence of this species we refer to the abstract just mentioned.

* ' Mittb. Zool. Stat. Neapel,' i. (1879) p. 448.

t ' Joiiru. Auat. et Pliys.,' xv. (.1879) p. 449, also 'Comptes Rendua,' Ixxxix
(1879) p. 545.

X ' Comptes Reudus,' October 29, 1877 ; see this Journal, i. (1878) p. 23.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. S87

The ectoderm of each metamere is composed of a single transverse
row of large cells, of which the first and last metamere contain four
each, the others, with the exception of the papilliferous zone, in which
the number is not readily made out, contain six or eight each.

The endoderm forms a sac, the external surface of which exhibits
the appearance of delicate muscular bauds. These, the author believes,
are due not to separate muscular fibres, but to processes of the
endoderm cells, of the same nature as the well-known process of the
ectoderm cells of Hi/dra, so that inwj^alura may be said to possess a
splanclmopleural pseHclo-mesoderm, while Hijclra has a somatojoleural
pseudo-mcsoderm. If this discovery is confirmed it will be one of
very great importance.*

2. Intosliia f gigas.—ThiH species is two and a half times as long as
Bhopalura, which attains a length of 0- 108 mm. The body is some-
what flattened, instead of regularly cylindrical, less produced at the
ends than Bhojjalura, with less distinct metameres and no papilliferous
zone. Each segment is composed of several rows of cells, these latter
being much smaller as well as more numerous than those of BJiojMlura.
No trace was discoverable of the muscular bands, although the author
is inclined to think that they exist in a reduced condition.

3. Gemmiparous Bcprodiiction of Orthonectida, — Under certain cir-
cumstances the cells of the endodermal sac undergo great modification,
and the sac, increasing gi'eatly in size, breaks through the endoderm,
and escapes as a sporocyst. In'the interior of this buds are formed, and
from these secondary buds arise, sac-like bodies being finally produced,
formed of one layer of cells, from which a second layer is afterwards
formed by delamination.

4. Oviparous Beproduction. — A few developmental stages of Bhopa-
lura were observed : enough to show that yolk-division is of a well-
marked amphiblastic type, and that the gastrula is formed by ej)iboly.
Caryolytic figures were observed in the nuclei of the dividing cells.

In Intosliia development is as markedly archiblastic : the blas-
tula is composed of columnar cells radiating from the central cleavage
cavity. The central end of each cell subsequently becomes divided
off to form an endoderm cell ; the inner layer arises therefore by
delamination.

5. Systematic. — The Orthonectida are defined by the author as
follows : — Metazoa, retaining throughout life the planula form ;
having a ciliated ectoderm which exhibits a division into metameres,
which do not correspond with any internal division; having also a
sacciform endoderm, giving rise to a splanchuo pleural pseudo-meso-
derm. Eeproduction (a) asexual, by gemmte, and (&) sexual, the
sexes being probably lodged in different individuals.

The group includes a single species of Bhopalura (B. ophiocomoi),
and three species of Intosliia (I. gigas, parasitic on Ophiocoma neglecta ;

* Professor Giard's figures are unfortunately not good enough to enable the
reader to judge for himself of the soundness of the author's conclusions. They
show nothing more than a striation of the endoderm.

1 This genua should properly be Mclntoahia, having been named in honour of
Dr. Mcintosh.

888 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

I. linei, on Lineus gesserensis ; and L leptoplance on Leptoplana tremel-
laris).

The relations of the group the author expresses in the following
table : —

Cestoda.
Turbcllaria. \

I Trematoda.

Gasterotricha. Protelmintha. Dicyemida.

I ^1 i

Orthonectida.

Gastrseada.

6. The author discusses the bearing of his discovery upon the
gastrula theory, and comes to the conclusion that, although the
structure of tbe OrtJwnectida seems to support Eay Lankester's
planula theory, or Metschuikoff s parenchymula theory, the primitive
form of the Metazoa is the gastrula by invagination.

Echinodermata.

New Organs of the Cidaridse.* — Mr. C. Stewart calls attention to
the existence in the members of this family of five organs, each
borne immediately below the outer extremities of the compasses. In
form they are identical with the external branchife of the other
families of the Desmosticha, but their walls are more delicate. The
author agrees with Miiller in denying the existence of external
branchite in the Cidaridae, and believes that the organs described
functionally replace them. They are diverticula of the peritoneum-
bounded chamber in which the jaws are lodged, and if their function
be respiratory, he thinks the chamber must communicate with the
surrounding water near the tips of the jaws. These branchias would
then have their interior bathed with water, their free surface by the
fluid of the body-cavity. It is suggested that the function of the
c jmpasses, their muscles and ligaments, is not tbe movement of the
jaws, but to vary the capacity of the jaw chamber and so cause a
renewal of its water.

In speaking of the pedicellariae of Dorocidaris -papillata, the
frequent occurrence of four-jawed examples of the armed variety on
the anal region was pointed out ; also that in all armed pedicellarias
of this family which end in a single fang this is hollow, and has an
opening on the outer border near the tip ; at its proximal end the
hollow opens into the special chamber of the jaw. The resemblance
of these to the gemmiform pedicellariae of the Echinidao is indicated.

The existence of a series of spines projecting from the inner
surface of the corona between the inner ambulacral pores is shown in
C. tribuloides and Phyllacanthus haculosa ; and also that in D. papillata
the amount of spicula development in the genital gland is very
variable.

* ' Traus. Liuu. Soc. (Zool.),' i. (1879) p. 569.

INVERTEBRATA, CEYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 889

Echini of the ' Challenger.'* — Professor Alexander Agassiz Las
just published a preliminary report on the Echini of the exploring
expedition of H.M.S. ' Challenger.' It was not Agassiz's intention to
publish this preliminary notice, as he hoped to be able to issue the
descriptions of the species with his final report on the group ; he
found himself, however, compelled, for the sake of retaining for the
material of the ' Challenger ' expedition the priority of discovery, to
notice, however briefly, the magnificent collection entrusted to his care
by Sir Wyville Thomson.

In contrasting this collection with those made during the two
expeditions of the U.S. steamer ' Blake,' Agassiz says that these latter
contain some of the most interesting forms obtained by the former,
often complementing more or less imperfect ' Challenger ' material.
Among the Cidaridse, Arbteciadae, and Diadematidae many new species
were found, and a new genus allied to Astropyga. Among the Echino-
thurije, a number of new species were dredged. Of the Echino-
metradBB nothing of importance was collected. Among the Temno-
pleui-idas excellent series of the species of Salmacis and Temnopleurus
were obtained, a Cottaldia, hitherto only known from the chalk, and
an exquisite genus Prionechinus, allied to Salmacis. The most
interesting feature of the Echinidas proper was the occurrence of
several northern forms in deep water in the tropics. Not a single new
species of Clypeastroids was found, and the number of specimens even
was quite small. They do not play any important part in shaping the
character of the fauna of deep water, and are, perhaps, the most
strictly littoral group of Echini, indicative, at least in the present
epoch, of comparatively shallow water, inside of the 100-fathom line,
and probably giving us a good guide as to the depth of the sea and
the natiu'e of the bottom of the cretaceous and tertiary shores, where
they occur in such large numbers. One recent species of Catopygus is
interesting, as adding another of the cretaceous forms to those still
living.

By far the most interesting group of Echini is that of the
Pourtalesice — the species were found in abundance ; of Pourtalesia
there are six species. In Cystechinus there are three species,
C Wyvillii and C. clypeatus have quite stout tests, while in 0. vesica
the test is reduced to a mere film, so that even in alcohol the shape of
this sea-urchin reminds one of the crown of an old felt hat which has
seen its best days. The test of all the Pourtalesice is quite delicate,
the amount of limestone being, at the great depths where they occiu',
reduced to a minimum, and yet even at the greatest dejiths they are
found associated with Ophiurans, which are by no means wanting in
lime. Among the Euspatangia, Spatangus p)urpureus occurred in the
tropics at a depth of 400 fathoms, and Echinocardium australe was
dredged at the great depth of 2675 fathoms. In Australia it is a
littoral zone species. Among the Brissina two species of Hemiaster
were obtained allied to S. prunella, a new species of Khinobrissus, and
two new ones of Schizaster.

* 'Proc. Am. Acad. Arts aud Sci./ xiv. (1879) p. 190 ; 'Nature,' xx. (1879)
p. 53i.

890 KECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

No better idea can be given of tlie value of tliis extraordinary
collection than by stating tbat there are described iu this list no less
than forty-four new species. At the time of the publication of
Agassiz's ' Eevision of the Echini,' there were scarcely over two
hundred species of Echini known, and since that time less than fifty
species have been added to the list. In the specific diagnosis of the
species only the principal localities are given ; the details are re-
served for the full report, which we believe is iu good progress,
many of the requisite illustrations being already engraved.

Anal Plates of Echinocidaris.* — Professor F. Jeifrey Bell draws
attention to the fact that the number of anal j^lates iu this genus is
not so constantly four as the student would be led to think from the
statements made by all the writers who have defined it ; it was first
noticed by Professor Alex. Agassiz, that a specimen of E. Dufresnii
might have five anal plates, while Mr. Bell's observations show that
the number not only varies in the species in question, but in other
si:»ecies also of the same group ; and that tlie variation may not be
confined to these being only one more in number, but that there may
be as few as three, and as many as six, or even ten ; in those examples
in which there were six or ten, it is curious to note that two of the
anal plates retain the characteristic form of a right-angled triangle,
and together occupy about one-half the anal area. From the figures
given by Professor Bell, it would seem that the variations are ex-
hibited in nine out of fifty-four specimens examined.

In a further pajjer f Mr. Bell describes and figures the dentary
apparatus of three species of the genus Tripneustes, which exhibit
gradational characters of apparently considerable importance in the
determination of species.

Ccelenterata.

Phylogeny of the Ctenophora.i — Professor Haeckel has recently
read to the Jena Society (16 May, 1879) an imjDortant paper on this
subject ; the notice has for its basis a new form of the Anthomedusae
to which Haeckel has given the name of Gtenaria ctenopJiora.

The author commences by pointing out that the morphological
characters of the Coelenterata are such as to lead to a firm belief in
their common ancestry ; these, which are best seen in the Hydrome-
duste, have not been quite so obvious as regards the Ctenophora ; the
majority of modern zoologists have associated them more or less inti-
mately with the Anthozoa, but so long ago as 1866, Professor Haeckel
suggested that they were more closely allied to the Hydrozoa, and this
view later observations, but more especially those now to be recorded,
considerably support. The Pacific form under investigation is regarded
as being intermediate between the Gemmaria-like Anthomedusfe and
the Cydippoid Ctenophora ; the whole result may be summed uj) in
saying that the Ctenophora appear to have been developed from the
Anthomedusas, and especially from the family of the Cladonemida?.

A most interesting part of the paper is a review of the more

* ' Proc. Zool. Soc.,' 1879, p. 436. t Loc. cit., p. 655.

X ' Kosmos," ill. (1879) Part 5.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 891

important homologies between the Ctenophora and the Meclusfe
(specially Cijdipiie and Ctenaria).

Ctenophora. Craspedota (Cladonemida).

1. Gastric cavity = Umbrella-cavity.

2. Oral margin = Umbrella-margin.

3. Iimer surface of gastric cavity . . = Subumbrella.

4. Mouth of infundibulum .. .. = Primitive simple Medusa-moutli.

5. The two lateral pouches for the) _ JThe two lateral pouches for the ton-

teutacles j\ tacles found in some Cladonemida.

6. The two lateral tentacles .. .. ={^^f, two lateral tentacles of somo

\ Craspedota.

7. The eight adradial " ctenophores " = T^^edSffi'''^''''^'''^ "°''' °^ '"""^ ^°*^°'

It is also pointed out that the four primitive peri-radial canals of
the Ctenophora appear to be homologous with the four peri-radial
canals which are found permanently in the majority of the Craspedota;
the eight adradial canals of the Ctenophora, which are formed by the
division of the four peri-radial ones, are also to be found in some
Cladonemida ; while those pinnate branches, which are in the Cteno-
phora converted into genital glands, form either generative glands in
some Craspedota {Gonionemus, Ptychogena) or simple glands which
have no generative function (Catahlema, Ctenaria).

Ctenaria ctenophora, which belongs to the family of the Cladonemida,
has an ovate umbrella provided on its outer surface (exumbrella) with
eight adradial meridional costce, which are jDrincipally made up of
rows of urticating cells, and these are the parts which are homologous
with the " ctenophores " of the Ctenoj)hora ; the subumbrella has its
musculature only feebly developed and passes into a delicate velum.
The gastric cavity is small and is separated by a constriction from a
large and pyriform apical cavity, which occupies the aboral third of
the umbrella ; this latter is homologous with the " infundibulum " of
tlie Ctenophora and with the " brood-cavity " of Eleutheria. The
mouth is surrounded by sixteen simple tentacles. Four simple and
hemisi^herical gonads (generative glands) lie in the wall of the gastric
cavity ; four short peri-radial canals arise from the constriction
between the gastric and a2)ical cavities and soon bifurcate to form
eight adradial canals which pass to the margin of the umbrella ; these
eight canals are provided with glandular diverticula and are con-
nected together, at the margin, by a circular canal; wdth this last
there are connected two peri-radial tentacles, which form two loner
hollow tubes, which are beset with a series of lateral filaments. From
these notes it will be gathered that although Ctenaria presents us
with nothing new, it unites in itself a number of characters, of which
a part only have been hitherto observed in any one genus of the
AnthomedussB ; thus it has, for example, the eight urticating costfe of
Ectopleura, the apical cavity of Eleutlieria, the gastric characters of
Cijtceis, the gastro-canal arrangement of Cladonema, and the pinnate
tentacles and tentacle-pouches of Gemmaria.

After dealing with the important questions of the homologies
of the different parts in the Medusas and the Ctenophora, Professor
Haeckel comes to a consideration of the ontogeny and phylogeny

892 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of the latter group ; as to the former point it is to be observed that
conogenetic arrangements obtain very largely ; the history of the
germ is compressed and simplified, owing, doubtless, in large measure
to the great development of the food-yolk. The results, however, of
the elaborate comparison which has been instituted between the
organs of the Ctenophora and of the Authomeduspe seem to make it
highly probable that the Ctenoj^hora took their origin in the Cla-
donemidae, and had for their ancestors Hydroid polyps of the Tubularian
group.

The author finally remarks that the most important ontogenetic
character in the Ctenophora is that the funnel is the first organ to
aj^pear, and that from this there are given ofl:" four peri-radial canals,
which, by bifurcation, give rise to eight adradial ones. It is only
after this that the so-called stomach, which is invested by ectoderm,
apjiears.

Zoantharia malacodermata of the Coasts of Marseilles.* — M.
Jourdan gives a short account of his investigations into the structure
of these animals, in which he points out that the walls of their body
consist of three layers, (1) an external cellular layer or ectodermic ;
(2) a fibrous and mesodermic ; and (3) cellular and eudodermic.

In the ectoderm there are to be found among other structures
epithelial elements which are probably sensitive and are apparently
" analogous " to the chromatophore-pouches found in Actinia equina ;
the presence of neuro-muscular cells is, it may be noted, distinctly
reported. The structure of the mesodermal layer of Ceriantkus was
found to be different to that of the other zoanth malacodermata ; it is
stated to be composed of a thick muscular layer covered in by two
planes of connective tissue ; there are in it smooth muscular fibres
which are longitudinal in direction and are arranged in radiating
laminae ; below the internal fibrous layer there is a layer of circular
muscular fibres. The fibrous layer of Calliactis is stated to be ex-
ceptionally thick and to be traversed by permanent pores in addition
to being provided with a number of spots of circular muscular fibres
which seem assuredly to act after the manner of a sphincter.

The tentacles, which have the same structure as the walls of the
body, are characterized by the presence of a layer of longitudinal
muscles subjacent to the ectoderm ; the oesophageal walls have like-
wise the same structure as the body-walls, but their external cellular
layer is remarkable for the presence of special glandular elements.

M. Jourdan promises more detailed observations.

Blastology of the Corals.f — Dr. W. Haacke, of Jena, deals with
this subject in a paper which is couched in the language of Haeckelian
morphology. After pointing out the absence of any good evidence as
to the metameric characters of the corals, the author states that ho
regards the typical form as being a simple pyramid, the base of which
corresponds to the oral and the apex to the aboral end of the body of
the coral " jj^^^son."

* ' Coinptus Eendus,' Ixxxix. (1879) p. 452.
t ' Jeuais. Zeitschr.,' xiii. (1S79) p. 2(39.

INVEI^TEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 893

The Octocoralla or Alcyonaria oifer the simplest conditions ; in
correspondence with the eight tentacles ranged round the peristome,
the gastric cavity is provided with eight "mesenterial" filaments,
which form, in the oral half of the body, gastric filaments, and in the
aboral, generative sarcosepta; these eight divisions are the indica-
tions of the jiresence of eight parameres, and a half of each forms an
anthnere. After a series of considerations of the results attained to
by a number of observers, of which it is impossible to present any
abstract, the author comes to the conclusion that the body of the
Octocoralla is formed of eight unequal parameres, which are so
arranged round the primary axis as to give to the body the appearance
of a bilateral symmetry ; but the author is careful to point out that
this last apjilication is a somewhat wide one, and that all we can
justly say is that the Alcyonarian is octampliipleural.

The Hesacoralla ofler some points of difficulty, inasmuch as the
number of their divisions may reach to several hundreds in some
forms, and this multiplication of secondary and tertiary systems leads
to the difficult question as to whether they each correspond to a para-
mere ; if we accept the view that each tentacle corresponds to a para-
mere, then if we take such a form as Actinia mescmbrycmthemum, in
which there are 192 tentacles, we find that the six largest tentacles of
the first cycle correspond to the six largest parameres ; and that they, as
well as the next succeeding cycles of 6, 12, 24, and 48 tentacles will
be each of them bilaterally symmetrical (eudipleural) ; but as this will
not apply to the sixth cycle of 96, in which the proper sarcosepts are
not paired, and they consequently would be asymmetrical, it is difficult
to see how the view of Koch, by which each tentacle is regarded as
corresponding to a paramere, can be substantiated. To this is opposed
the view of Professor Haeckel, who regards each paramere as a sixtli of
the coral "person," and as made of six interradial (of the second cycle)
and of six times thirty-one tentacles, of which the median (pcri-radial)
one belongs to the first cycle, and the lateral (adradial) thirty to the
3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th cycles respectively. This view appears to recom-
mend itself to Dr. Haacke, who finds in EuphjUia spfieniscus the six
parameres very distinctly marked out by their coloration.

In the Tetracoralla there are four parameres.

As to the development of the different groups, we Imow very littlo
as to the stages, subsequent to the gastrula, in the Octocoralla;
Kowalewsky's figiires seem to indicate that when the eight parameres
are formed, the two lateral are much the larger, and this observation
shows how it is possible, although indeed the ellipse-shaped mouth
would do just as well, to draw a dorso- ventral median plane through
the creature ; similarly, the greater length of two of the gastric fila-
ments (Kolliker) in the Pennatulidje, supports the doctrine of the
octamphipleural character of the Octocoralla, to which we have
already referred.

There is somewhat more detailed information with regard to the
Hcxacoralla. Lacaze-Duthiers has shown that in the gastrula there
are first developed two sarcosepts perpendicular to the median plane
* Cf. Dnnft's 'Atlas of Corals,' pi. vi. fig. 1.

£94 KECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of the body ; Dr. Haacke is, however, careful to point out that this
" bilaterally-symmetrical" stage is not to be confounded with that
which obtains in the Vertebrata, for the latter are only comparable to
a single paramere made up of two antimeres set on either side of a
median plane, while in the coral there are two parameres even at this
stage ; two new sarcosepts then apj^ear and the larval becomes tetra-
l^leural, and this stage is followed by the hexamphipleural stage,
which is only of short duration ; other sarcosepts are developed, and
twelve can shortly be made out ; hereafter, in some forms, the number
of sarcosepts is increased. As to the cause of this ajjparent bilateral
symmetry, the author considers that the dipleural form of the Vermes
and other Bilateria is to be easily referred to a creeping mode of life,
to locomotion in a definite direction, while the regularly pyramidal
form is due to adajjtation to a sessile mode of life.*

In conclusion, he points out the natui-al characters of the group
of the Octocoralla, which never have either more or less than eight
tentacles and sarcosepts ; while the difficulties as to the Hexacoralla
are resolved by showing that the number six recurs with sufficient
constancy to justify us in believing in the arrangement having been
transmitted from a six-rayed ancestor ; this arrangement may, how-
ever, have become subsequently obscured by the formation of a larger
number of sarcosepts.

Porifera.

Spongiological Studies.t — A paper under this title has just been
published by Professor E. Metschnikoflf.

1. Developnent of Halisarca Diijardinii. — Of the two Neapolitan
varieties investigated, one corresponded with F. E. Schulze's descrip-
tion, while the other was distinguished by forming thin, soft, slimy
incrustations on stones. The larvae of the two were similar, except
that that of the first was twice as large as that of the second. The
sjiermatozoa of the adult occurred in seminal capsules with a distinct
epithelial investment. The younger eggs were beset with large club-
shaped processes of their substance, standing out at right angles to
the surface, and completely disappearing as the egg reaches maturity.
No true vitelline membrane was observed, but a thin investment to the
egg existed, probably formed of endothelial cells.

Yolk-division is complete. The first four blastomeres are similar,
but afterwards a distinction is observable in larger and smaller masses
arranged radially around the blastocele. The latter is at first small,
becoming practically obliterated at one stage of division, but latterly
appears again, and increases in size, the larva then consisting of a
single layer of cylindrical cells surrounding a large central cavity. In
this cavity, a number of cells now appear, constituting the mesoderm ;
their exact mode of origin was not ascertained, owing to the opacity
of the embryos. The mesoderm cells are of two kinds, ordinary, finely
granular cells, and " rosette-cells," with large, highly-refracting gra-
nules : these latter are by far the more numerous and undergo rapid
multiplication, completely filling up the segmentation cavity.

* Cf. Ilatscliek, tliis Journal, ante, p. 5C7.
t ' Zcitscbr. wiss. Zool.,' xxxii. (1879) p. 349.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 895

Tlie ectoderm cells next acquire long cilia, and those in the region
of one pole of the now elongated embryo, undergo a slight increase in
thickness ; the embryo will afterwards become attached by this, its
posterior end. But the difterentiation of the ectoderm into cells of
two kinds is only temporary : as it further increases in size the cells
once more become uniform. In the meantime the granular cells of the
mesoderm increase in number, filling up large interspaces between the
rosette-cells, which previously were in close contact.

The cilia next become converted into slowly moving processes, and
eventually disappear, leaving the ectoderm as a layer in which the
separate cell-bodies are only distinguishable by the aid of silver
nitrate : the outermost layer of the ceils, at the same time, becomes
firm and cuticle-like.

After a pause of two days in development, the formation of
the canals begins, — Metschnikoff's account of this process being of
the highest interest. These cavities are formed by a grouping of the
granular mesoderm cells, which become arranged side by side, around
intercellular spaces, so that, in this case, the endoderm is actually a
secondary product of the mesoderm.

2. Anatomical Observations on Ascetta. — The author was able to
prove conclusively the presence of a true ectoderm, instead of a syncy-
tium as Haeckel maintains, the contours of the cells being well brought
out by silver nitrate. Haeckel's statement that the lowest sponges
consist merely of ectoderm and endoderm is also denied : a distinct
mesoderm was found in Ascetta, in the interior of the granular amoeboid
cells of which the spicules were found to be produced, and not
in the gelatinous interstitial substance. Nothing new was made
out as to the structure of the endoderm, but the observations of
Haeckel and Carter as to the passage of ciliated into amoeboid cells
were confirmed.

3. Emhryological Observations on Calcareous Sponrjes. — In Ascetta
primordialis the process of development resembles closely that de-
scribed above in Halisarca. A one-layered blastula is formed, and
from its cells large granular mesoderm cells are produced, which
accumulate in, and finally fill up the segmentation cavity. Amongst
these largo granular cells occur small elements with few granules,
probably the foundation of the endoderm. In A. blanca, the formation
of mesoderm cells is confined to the lower pole of the ovoidal blastula,
the process having some resemblance to one of invagination. But in
neither species is there any true gastrula stage; the inner set of
cells forms a mere parenchymatous mass, and never a definite epithe-
lioid layer ; from this mass endoderm and mesoderm are subsequently
differentiated.

In Sycandra rapJianus, Metschnikofi^ confirms his own earlier and
Schulze's later observation, that the ciliated hemisphere of the blas-
tula undergoes invagination within the non-ciliated, and not vice versa,
as Schulze formerly believed. In the blastula, previously to invagina-
tion, a cavity was observed in the non-ciliated hemisphere, dividing the
latter into two layers of cells, an internal in contact with those of the
ciliated hemisphere, and an external. The former remain large, and

896 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

form the mesoderm, probably answering to the internal cell-mass of
Halisarca ; the latter become flattened and form the ectoderm.

At the conclusion of the invagination process, when the blasto-
pore has closed up, the embryo consists of an external layer of ecto-
derm cells, and an external mass of large cells in which arc seen the
developing spicule. The ectoderm cells send out pscudopodia, and
confer upon the whole larva the power of executing amoeboid move-
ments. While these continue no distinction between the ectoderm
cells can be seen, but if the larva is irritated, by touching it with a
needle, the pseudopodia are drawn in, and the cell-contours become
evident, so that, as in Ascetta, the syncytium theory breaks down.

In Leiicandra the developmental process is essentially the same ;
so that there are two types of development amongst the calcareous
sponges, one represented by Ascetta, the other by Sycandra, Leucandra,
and Ascandra.

4. The Ingestion of Nutriment in Sponges. — Metschnikoif directly
observed the ingestion of carmine in Halisarca, Ascetta, and Spongilla,
by both the endoderm and the mesoderm cells, but in neither case by
the ectoderm. In Ascetta, also, the extrusion of particles from a spon-
taneously formed aperture in a cell was observed. In Spongilla the
cells of the ciliated chambers, like those of the ectoderm, were not
observed to take in nutriment ; this has an important bearing on
Balfour's theory.*

In Halisarca it was also observed that when the sponge was over-
fed, the endoderm cells increased to such an extent by the ingestion
of carmine, that the canals disappeared entirely, and the sponge
appeared like a mass of carmine, disk much shorter, containing
amoeboid cells, with an ectodermal investment. This phenomenon is
interesting as being of the same nature as the obliteration of the
alimentary canal during digestion, in certain Turbellarians.f

5. General Bemarks. — The author mentions having found a Sjyon-
gilla in which there was no trace of ciliated chambers, and states
further that he has observed, in the young of this species, the cham-
bers disappear, and subsequently reappear — the amoeboid or parenchy-
matous cells undergoing conversion into ciliated cells. The conclusion
deduced from this, that the " endoderm " is formed periodically from
" mesoderm," and is therefore a secondary structure, is borne out by
the facts of development as seen in Halisarca (Metschnikoif), AplysiUa
(Schulze), and other genera, in which the embryo consists of a solid
mass of parenchyma with an ectodermal investment. This lends
suj)port to the view that the true primary germ-lamellfe are the ecto-
derm or epiblast, and a neutral parenchymatous internal layer (lower
layer cells of Vertebrata), from which latter the mesoderm or meso-
blast, and the endoderm or hypoblast take their rise as secondary
formations.

The author concludes with some criticisms on the gastrula theory
of Haeckel and the planula theory of Ray Lankester. He considers
that the stage originally succeeding the blastula (a hollow sphere of

* 'Quart. Joiirn. Micr. Sci.,' January 1S79, and this Journal, antr, p. 177.
t This Journal, ante, p. 287.

INVERTEBRA.TA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY. ETC. 897

similar, ciliated cells) was not tlic gastrula, but the pm-cnchjmella, or
planula with internal mass of i^arenchyma, and that this arose from the
blastula, by some of the cells of the latter losing their cilia and making
their way into the blastocele, like the reproductive cells of Volvoz.
This theory, according to which the gastrula is a secondary larval
form, is supported by the absence of a gastrula stage in the lower
sponges and ccelenterates, by the fact that the gastrulae of different
animals are not homologous, and by the occurrence of pseudogastrulae.

Development of Horny Sponges.*— Dr. C. Keller, of Ziirich,
records the following observations on the development of Chalinula
made at the Zoological Station, Naples.

Multiplication is both asexual (by buds) and sexual : the breeding
season being in March and April. The sexes are separate : before
sexual maturity both sexes have a brownish-yellow colour ; at the
breeding season, the female becomes rose-red, and finally yellowish
red. It takes about twelve to fifteen hours for the larvse to escajie :
afterwards tiie sponge rapidly dies down. The egg is surrounded
with a special follicular investment. Yolk-division is amphiblastic
(total, but unequal) : no cleavage cavity was observed.

An amphigastrula was formed with an epiblast formed of a single
layer of flagellate cells, and giving rise to the adult ectoderm ; and a
hyj)oblast which forms both mesoderm and endoderm of the adult.

Protozoa.

Reticularian RMzopods.f — Mr. H. B. Brady continues his account
of the ' Challenger ' specimens. The greater part of the paper is
taken up with systematic descriptions of species, of which the follow-
ing are new : — Frondicularia compta, Fldbellina foliacea, Ramulina
globidifera, Uvigerina punda and U. interrupta, Sagrina virgula, and S.
divaricata, Spirillina incequalis, S. limhafa, and S. obconica, Planorbulina
echinata, Glohigerina cequilateralis, G. digitata, and G. conglobata.

The part of the paper of greatest general interest is the con-
cluding section, "Notes on Pelagic Foraminifera." The forms at
present known to occur at the surface are : — Glohigerina buUnides,
ivjiata, rubra, sacciilifera, conglobata, and aquilateralis ; G. (Orbulina)
universa ; Hagtingerina pelagica, do. var. Murrayana ; Pullenia oblique-
lociilata ; Sphceroidina dehiscens ; Candeina nitida ; Pulvinulina
Menardii, do. var. tumida, P. Canariensis, crassa, and Micheliniana ;
Cymbalopora bulloides ; and Chilosfomella ovoidea.

As to the question whether Foraminifera live both at the bottom
and at the surface, the author summarizes the more important facts as
follows : —

1. "We have positive evidence that Foraminifera do live at the
bottom of the deep sea, from the common occurrence at great depths
of certain forms with composite or ai-enaceous tests ; and we have
negative evidence in the same direction in the entire absence from

* ' Zool. Anzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 302.

t ' Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,' xix. (1879) p. 2G1 ; see also this Jourual, a7ite,
p. 276.

VOL. II. 8 O

898 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the surface fauna of many hyaline genera which are abundant in
bottom clredgings.

2. Both in Pulvinulina and Glohigerina (but notably in Pulvi-
nulina) species closely allied to the surface forms are found in the
bottom ooze, though they never occur at the surface ; amongst others,
Glohigerina dnhia and G. digitata, Pulvinulina elegnns, P. Karsteni,
P. pawperata, and P. faviis. Hence there is no a priori improbability
that the other members of the same genera are capable of supporting
life at the bottom.

3. A comparison of specimens of the same species, taken at the
surface and at the bottom, demonstrates at least that the average size
of the former is less than of the latter, and that the thickness of the
cell-wall of the largest surface specimens bears no comparison with
that of adult bottom specimens.

4. Nothing comparable to the thick-shelled Orhidince, still less
to those with tests composed of several layers, is to be met with in
the sixrfaco fauna.

5. No surface Globigerince have hitherto been obtained by means
of the towing net from points on our own shores at which they are
found at the bottom.

6. A fact adduced by Dr. Wallich, of some weight, as I think,
namely, that Glohigerina shells are found in the digestive cavities of
Opliiocomce living at the bottom at great depths.

7. The testimony of many experienced observers (Ehrenberg,
Parker and Jones, Wallich, and others), that the Glohigerince. in the
small soundings which they had for examination contained the
sarcode bodies, the colour and nature of which each has described,
with which statement the author's results from the material taken in
the " tow net attached to trawl " generally agree.

On the whole, Mr. Brady is inclined to think that these lowly
organisms may be both deep-sea and pelagic, their simple organiza-
tion enabling them to live equally well at the surface and on the sea
bottom.

Structure of Haliphysema Tumanowiczii.* — This interesting or-
ganism, as to the nature of which so much discussion has lately been
made, has now been examined by Professor Ray Lankester, who
arrives at the conclusion that Haliphysema is, as Mr. Saville Kent and
Mr. Carter believe, a Reticularian Rhizopod, and not, as Professor
Haeckel thinks, a sponge. Of the specimens examined, furnished by
Mr. Kent, some were fresh, others preserved in chromic acid.

It is unnecessary to say anything about the well-known spicular test;
the point of chief interest is Professor Laukester's description of the
contents. These were best made out in chromic acid specimens mounted
in balsam and crushed so as to crack the test and allow of the sepa-
ration of the soft internal substance. The latter was found to be "a
continuous mass of protoplasm, exhibiting no central cavity, and
devoid of all structure." Scattered through the protoplasm are great
numbers of vesicular nuclei, like those of Pelomyxa, and most abundant
in the basal or prominent portion of the " core " of protoplasm.
* ' Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,' xix. (1879) p. 470.

INVEBTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 899

At the distal end, the protoplasm contained bodies much larger
than the nuclei, the smaller of which consisted of mere vacuolated
protoplasm, while the larger were composed of granular protoplasm
with a nucleus ; none possessed a cell-membrane. There was evidence
that these egg-like bodies multiply by division. They agree with the
" ova " figured by Haeckel, and are of quite the same nature as the
nucleated germs of some Foraminifera.

The protoplasm itself " has the appearance of being built up by a
meshwork of fine fibrillte, or, to j)ut it in another way, appears to
consist of denser substance, honeycombed by very small ' vacuoles,'
or spaces of less dense substance."

The external protoplasm, first seen by Saville Kent, was observed
in some of the preserved specimens, having been fixed by the chromic
acid in the " streaming " condition on some of the spicules. Nuclei
were sometimes found imbedded in it, so that these evidently are
carried out of the test in the stream of protoplasm.

Professor Lankester concludes as follows : — " From the preceding
account it appears that the structure of Ealiphysema is not quite so
simple as that which has been supposed to characterize the body-sub-
stance of the Lituolida. It seems to me very possible that we shall
continually find among the larger members of the various groups of
organisms classed as ' Foraminifera ' as high a structural differentiation
as that exhibited by any of the naked fresh-water forms of Gymno-
myxa (Ehizopoda), such as Pelomyxa, Chlamydomyxa, and Actino-
sphcvrium. Possibly when means are taken to overcome the difficulties
of observation presented by their opaque and resisting shells, the larger
' Foraminifera " may prove not only to be nucleated, but to be as
highly organized (though not in the same way) as the Kadiolaria."

Professor Lankester seems to doubt Mr. Kent's suggestion that the
organisms from which Haeckel's beautiful figures of Haliplujsema were
taken, are " remarkable isomorphs or external facsimiles of the Fora-
miniferal type."

Observations on New Infusoria.* — Dr. Aug. Gruber gives a
short preliminary notice of some new forms, which appear to be of
great interest, and of which he promises more elaborate details.

Three of the new forms occupied ramified tubes ; these creatures
are called Stychotriclm socialis, Ozytricha tubicola, and Maryna socialis
(gen. nov. et sp. nov.) ; the two former belong to the hypotrichous, and
the third to the holotrichous division of the Infusoria : the author
points out that they exhibit considerable analogies to the colonial
forms described by Stein as existing among the Flagellata. Tillina
magna (n. g. et n. sp.) exhibits the same processes of division as were
observed by Stein in Colpoda cucullus. The two new marine forms
which belong to the genus Cothwnia (Vorticellidae) are respectively
remarkable, (1) C. socialis for a very primitive mode of forming
colonies — the new individuals formed by fission always remain
attached by their long stalk to the investments of the older forms,
and they are all remarkable also for the formation of a special peri-
stomial operculum; (2) in C. operculata there is also an oiierculum
* ' Zool. ABzeiger,' ii. (1879) p. 518.

3 0 2

900 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which is specially remarkable for the attacliment to it of a clelicato
membrane which arises from the hinder part of the animal, and is
able, when the animal contracts itself, to shut down the operculum of
the shell.

Influence of the different Colours of the Solar Spectrum on
Infusoria.* — Senor Serrano y Fatigati has instituted experiments on
this subject with results agreeing with those of M, E. Yung t in the
case of the ova of frogs, fish, &c., viz. that the violet rays accelerate
and the green rays retard the development of Infusoria.

Supposed new Fresh-water Species of Freia. — See ' Proceedings,'
p. 989.

Lithamoeba discus, a New Rhizopod. — This interesting form is
described by Professor Eay Lankester,| who discovered it in some
water sent him by Mr. Bolton from the Olton Eeservoir near
Birmingham.

The body is discoid, and has a diameter of y-|g inch. In the pro-
toplasm of which it is composed are imbedded a great number of
highly refracting, often uniform, concretions, the largest of them yi^
inch in length, but most of them not more than a quarter of that size.
The composition of these curious bodies was not made out ; they were
not affected by dilute acetic acid or potash, but were dissolved by strong
hydrochloric acid. Probably they are of similar nature to the
granules of Amceba.

There is a single large nucleus, ^^ inch in diameter, of an irre-
gularly trapezoidal form, and enclosed in a distinct membrane. It
consists of a ground-substance, with a number of angular granules
imbedded in it.

Included food materials — diatoms, &c. — were observed in the pro-
toplasm, the centre of which is occupied by a very large contractile
vacuole ^\q inch in diameter ; a portion of the contents of this " are
discharged periodically to the exterior." The vesicle does not entirely
collapse, but divides into two smaller ones, which afterwards enlarge
and fuse together.

The protoplasm exhibits a distinct vacuolar structure, especially
well seen by treatment with osmic acid and picro-carmine. In this it
resembles Greef 's Polomyxa.

The application of iodine brings out the presence of a fine cuticle,
so fine that it is ruptured by the extrusion of the pseudopodia. These
are very interesting : their protrusion begins " with a minute rupture
of the cuticle. Through the orifice thus produced the fiuid proto-
plasm exudes in a spherical form, and as it increases in quantity the
rupture of the cuticle is increased, whilst concretions from the more
central portion of the disk-like body flow into the enlarging lobe.
With great rapidity the whole extrusion appears to fuse once more
with the disk, and a new rupture or extrusion takes place at another
point of the margin. A new cuticular pellicle must be formed very

* ' An. Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat.,' viii. (1879) (Actas) pp. 42-3.

t This Journal, ante, p. 138.

X ' Quart. Journ, Micr. Sci.,' xix. (1879) p. 484.

JOUR. R, UIC. SOC. VOL. II. PL. XXVI.

Monobia confluens.

INVEUTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 901

rapidly ou the surface of the hernia-like extrusions of protoplasm."
No filamentous pseuclopoclia were observed.

The characters of the nuclei and cuticle are quite peculiar, and
altogether Lithamceba takes. Professor Lankester considers, a very
distinct position among the amoeboid Gymnomyxa.

New Moneron.* — M. Schneider describes a new form of this
interesting group under the name of Monobia confluens, which he has
found in fresh water.

In its simplest form, in a state of repose, it forms a small and
almost spherical mass of fine granular protoplasm, which has a bluish
hue by transmitted light, and is provided with neither nucleus nor
vacuole (Plate XXYI , Fig. 1). From this homogeneous body radiate
in all directions pseudopodia of extreme delicacy, and about four
times as long as it, and so transparent and fine as to be almost invisible
but for the small swellings, which are placed here and there on them,
and which refract the light more strongly. These pseudopodia are
rectilinear, move slowly and coalesce tit their extremities, so that they
recalled to the author the similar processes in the Furaminifera.

When the creatures become active they lose their spherical form
and move about by a general contraction of their bodies. The form
which they then take varies much less than in other Protozoa ; it is
usually that of a Savoy biscuit inflated at the ends and slightly con-
tracted in the middle, the extremities being the seat of the emission
of the pseudopodia (Fig. 4). Sometimes they become triangular, when
the pseudopodia radiate from each apex ; or, again, they may become
much more irregular and give off processes from every protuberance
(Figs. 3 and 5).

The creature was never observed taking in food, but foreign
bodies were often observed in somewhat great numbers in its interior,
and these were sometimes contained in a vacuole of digesting matter,
though no proper contractile vacuole was ever present.

When nutrition has effected a considerable increase in the size of
the body, growth gives place to reproduction, which is thus effected :
the body elongates and there appears a central constriction, which,
getting narrower and narrower, finally disappears altogether, so that
there are two individuals instead of one ; but this does not happen
very frequently ; in most cases the two spheres remain united
(Fig. 2), and a second means of communication between them, parallel
to the former, is often effected by the fusion of two of their pseudo-
podia. As often as this relation is established, the bond of union
widens by afilux of plasma and the granules of each body pass into
that of the other, and the process thus begun may be continued until
at last we may get an association of eight, as shown in Fig, 7 ; nor
do the variations end here, for as M. Schneider expresses it, " the
next day each member of the colony had pulled upon the common
cord and a new resultant had been produced from these opposite
capjices. My Monera were now grouped as drawn in Fig. 8, in a
square surmounted by a triangle, the latter surmounted by an arrow."

* ' Arcli. Zool. Exp.' (Lacaze-Duthiers), vii. (1878) p. 585. Fig. 6 of the Plate
id not described in the text.

902 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The colony was never the same at the end of the day as it had been
at tlie beginning. No other mode of reproduction than that by fission
was observed.

Dealing with the systematic position of Monohia, the author
remarks that it might be as justly jilaced with the Foraminifera as
Myxodictijum sociale, which Professor Claus has relegated to that
class ; he, however, bears in mind the almost general presence of
a nucleus in the Foraminifera, and concludes that, until our know-
ledge of the mutual relations of the Protozoa is more complete, it
is necessary to retain Haeckel's group of the Monera.

Eozoon Canadense.* — Professor Mobius replies in detail to
Principal Dawson's criticism of his Monograph (see ji. 275), and it is
needless to say adheres to his original view. He points out more
particularly that not a single one of all the specimens of Eozoon
which he studied came from the hands of "dealers or injudicious
amateurs " as suggested, but all directly or indirectly from Messrs.
Dawson and Carpenter, and promises that if he is furnished with other
specimens which rrincii:)al Dawson recognizes as the genuine repre-
sentatives of Eozoon, and showing the organic nature contended for,
he will examine them with care and conscientiousness, and if he finds
a true organic structure will avow it without hesitation.

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology
of the Phanerogamia.

Development of the Embryo of Phanerogams."]"— Famiutzin has
undertaken a close investigation of this subject, with especial reference
to the following statements of earlier observers (in particular Hanstein
and Westermeier), viz. " That the three primary layers, the dermatogen,
periblem, and plerome, show no clear separation in their products of
division, but pass over into one another at their boundaries ; and that
a uniform origin of these three primary layers in the embryo occurs
only in the tigellum (the hypocotyledonary portion of the stem), and
then only in Dicotyledons ; while in the whole of the embryo of
Monocotyledons, and the cotyledonary portion of Dicotyledons, a more
or less indefinite, and in many cases altogether irregular, cell-division
takes place, without any trace for a considerable time of a separation
into primary layers ; and that it is only at a later i^eriod that such
a difi'erentiation can be recognized." This statement Famintzin finds
must be considerably modified. His observations were made chiefly
on Capsella bursa-jxistoris and Alisvia plantago ; his main results, as
far as regards these plants, being as follows : —

1. In the embryo of both these plants, the results were altogether
the same as to the independence and origin of the three primary
layers. In both a perfect regularity was observed in their origin ;
when once differentiated, the three layers remained perfectly distinct
during the whole period of the development of the embryo, never

* ' Am. Jonrn. Sci. and Arts,' xviii. (1879) p. 177.

t ' Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Pctcrsbourg.' xxvi. (1879) No. 10.

INVEKTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 903

passing over the one into the other. Although minor differences were
observed in the course of development even in the same plant, the final
result was the same ; that the first separation of the three primary-
layers is brought about in this way, that in an optical transverse section
of the embryo each of its constituent quadrants appears to be comj^osed
of an inner plerome-cell, two periblem-cells, and two dermatogen-
cells.

2. The second important result, both in Alisma and Capsella, is
that the cotyledons — as to whose foliar nature no doubt has been
entertained — cannot be regarded, as is the case with the other foliar
organs, as outgrowths of the dermatogen and the periblem of the axial
portion of the embryo. The cells from which the three primary
layers which compose them originate, are of altogether equal value
with those of the axial portion. In both plants the two inner of the
primary layers do not originate by outgrowth from the layer already
formed and differentiated in the axial portion, but by division, by walls
parallel to the surface, of the layer which lies beneath the dermatogen
in the upper half of the embryo. The divisions which give rise to the
three primary layers, as well as those which afterwards arise in these
layers, are altogether of equal value in both parts of the embryo, and
correspond with one another.

3. The first division walls in the embryo of Alisma are transverse,
and are formed successively in strictly basipetal order. To the first
three walls the three principal portions of the future embryo — the
cotyledon, the central portion, and the root — owe their origin, and they
remain completely differentiated during the whole course of its
development. The uppermost cell gives birth to the cotyledon, the
second to the central portion, on which the stem-bud (plumule) is
formed, the third to the root ; by the transverse divisions which
follow, the hyjiojihysis and a portion of the pro-embryo (suspensor)
are formed.

4. The place of origin was accurately determined by the detection
of two dermatogen-cells in the central portion of the embryo, which
were readily distinguished from the other superficial cells of this
layer both by their form and by the divisions which occur in them.

5. In Capsella the differentiation of the tissue in the growing
cotyledons in the earliest stages of their development, and the cell-
divisions in the pro-embryo, must be regarded as new.

Development of the Embryo-sac of Angiosperms.*— M. Vesque,
in a further communication on this subject, considers that the recent
discovery of Strasburger fills uj) a space which i:)reviously appeared
to separate Phanerogams from Vascular Cryptogams, According to
the recent observations of the author, the primordial mother-cell of
the embryo-sac, as defined by Warming, divides, by transverse septa,
into two, three, four, or five special mother-cells, the homologues of
the mother-cells of the pollen of Phanerogams, or of the spores of
Vascular Cryptogams. These septa are formed in succession from
below upwards, or from above downwards, according as the primordial

* 'Comptes Reudus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 1350; aud 'Anu. Sci. Nat. (Bot.),'
viii. (1879) p. 261.

904 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

motlici'-coll does or does not exliibit an aj^ical increase during the
formation of the walls.

The groups of Fluviales, Eanunculaceae, and Cruciferae present
two special mother-cells ; three have been observed in the greater
part of Mouocotyledones and Apopetalae ; four or five in Gamopetalae,
Santalacefe, Aristolochiacese, &g.

The observations of the author lead him to apply the term
embryo-sac to the collection of cells which proceeds from the
primordial mother-cell.

In certain Liliaccfe, such as Lilium, each of the special mother-
cells produces, by the division of its nucleus, a tetrad of nuclei which
are the homologues of pollen-grains and of macrospores. The
septum which separates the first and second cells becomes resorbed
before the division into tetrads commences. The single cavity which
results (the embryo-sac properly so called) finally encloses eight free
nuclei which behave in the way that Strasburger has described.
In the remaining Liliaceae, Agraphis, Muscari, &c., the first and
second cells alone give birth to four nuclei, while the lower special
mother-cells produce an apparatus to which M. Vesque has given the
name anticline. In Lachenalia, on the contrary, the first cell alone
gives rise to a tetrad ; three of its nuclei form the sexual apparatus ;
the fourth unites itself with the undivided nucleus of the second cell
and coalesces with it.

The Amaryllidaccfe, Iridacefe, Aroidea), Juncaccfe, Cyperaceae, &c.,
differ but little from the common type of Liliacea3, which occurs
again very commonly in the Apopetalfe, as in the Euiihorbiacete,
Papaveraceas, Eosacea?, and allied families.

The exception presented by Mouocotyledones, among which the
presence of a single tetrad has been established, occurs frequently
among Apopetalpe — in Saxifragacea3, Onagrariacefe, &c. — and becomes,
so to speak, the rule among Gamopetala3 ; while Caprifoliaceje and
Valerianacefe do not present this character, and thus offer a greater
resemblance to ordinary Apopetalfe. The first cell always produces
a complete tetrad, even in the most highly organized Gamopetalfe,
such as Com2)ositPe.

The cells to which the author gives the name of anticlinal present
remarkable differences in their development. Sometimes they are
arrested immediately after their development (ine^-t anticlinals) ; some-
times they increase and divide after impregnation, and thus produce
the albumen (active or albuminigenous anticlinals), as in EricaceaB,
Scroi)hulariacefe, Labiatte, &c. ; sometimes again they elongate and
ramify in order to reach, in the tissues of the chalaza or even of the
placenta, as in Osyris, &c., the nutritive substances which they bring
to the other anticlinals to enable them to divide (cotyloid anticlinals).
The part which the development of the albumen takes in the pro-
duction of the special mother-cells suggests a comj)arison with the
prothallium of Vascular Cryptogams. This remark applies also to the
albumen which is formed in the first and second cells by the division
of the central nucleus, whether the multiplication of the nuclei bo
accompanied by the simultaneous formation of septa, as in Plantagi-

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 905

naceae, Compositfe, &c., or whether the septa appear only at a later
period, as in Eanunculacete.

From these considerations, the mature embryo-sac may be
classified under four types : —

1. Embryo-sac consisting of two special mother-cells ; two
tetrads ; antij)odals without anticlinals (Fluviales, lianunculacesB,
Cruciferfe, &c.).

2. Embryo-sac consisting of three or four special mother-cells;
two or more tetrads ; antipodals ; one or two inert anticlinals (the
greater part of the Liliacea^ and allied families; Euphorbiaceae,
Papaveraceee, Rosaceas, Caprifoliace83, &c.),

3. Embryo-sac consisting of three or four special mother-cells ;
a single tetrad ; no antipodals ; one or two inert anticlinals (Ona-
grariaceae, Saxifragaceas, Boraginaceae ; Primulaceae ; Apocynaceae ;
Compositfe, &c.).

4. Embryo-sac consisting of four or five special mother-cells ; a
single tetrad ; no antipodals ; one or two active anticlinals ; an inert
or cotyloid anticlinal (Aristolochiacefe, Santalaceae, Scrophulariaceae,
Labiatae, Ericaceae, &c.J.

Angiosperms and GjTimosperins.* — Professor Strasburger has
supplemented his previous researches on this subject by a publication
of great imjjortance. Owing to a change of view as to the homology
of the ovule in Gymnosperms, the terms for the two great classes
previously suggested, by him, Archisperms and Metasperms, are now
abandoned. The main results at which he has arrived may be
summed up as follows : —

The points which have specially engaged the author's attention are
the development and homology of the ovule in Angiosperms and
Gymnosperms ; the origin of the embryo-sac, and the processes that
take place in it before impregnation ; the formation of endosperm ; the
structure, development, and homologies of the flower and inflorescence
in Gymnosperms ; and some questions as to fertilization and the
formation of the embryo in the same class. He is able to confirm his
previous observations on the development of the embryo-sac and the
jirocesses which take place in it in the case of Monotropa and the
Orchidefe, and considers them to be of general application. He dis-
putes Warming's and Vesque's j statement that the two or four cells
formed by the septation of the mother-cell of the embryo-sac ever
coalesce into a single cavity ; it is only one of these cells, usually the
lowermost, that develops into the embryo-sac, pressing aside its sister-
cells. The germinal apparatus and the antipodal cells are formed in
the same way in the embryo-sac ; there is never any formation of
tetrads in the sister-cells. Strasburger also disputes Vesque's assertion
that antipodal cells are not formed in many Gamopetalae. These asser-
tions are illustrated and proved by a large number of drawings. The
author does not agree with the view of Warming and Vesque that the
cells formed by the division of the mother-cell of the embryo-sac are

* 'Die Angiospermen und die Gymnospermeii,' von E. Strasburger, Jena,
1879; sec 'B>t. Zeit.,' xsxvii. (1879) p. 514.

t See this Journal, ante, p. 90-1.

906 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

homologous to pollen mother-cells, and supports his contrary opinion
by cogent arguments. He would rather find a homologue to the
pollen-grain in the embryo-sac itself.

As to the homology of the ovule, Strasburger abandons his earlier
view that it is a bud ; he would now rather compare it to a sporangium. In
the details of the comparison he does not, however, agree with Warming,
but considers the funiculus as the homologue of the pedicel of the si)o-
rangium, the nucule that of the capsule itself. In this connection he
investigates the phenomenon of oolysis in Bumex and Helenium ; and
comes to the conclusion that it is not, as generally supposed, a phe-
nomenon of reversion. The fact that in these cases leaf-pinnre finally
appear in jjlace of the ovules which spring from separated carpellary
structures, and buds in place of the terminal ovules, he regards as a
substitution of one structure for another, vegetative organs being pro-
duced instead of reproductive. Since the two processes compete with
one another, a variety of intermediate forms make their appearance,
according as one tendency or the other preponderates. If oolysis were
really a reversion phenomenon, it might be expected that a structure
would sometimes be formed resembling the sporangium of a cryj^togam ;
while, on the contrary, the result is always the production of purely
vegetative leaflets, or of a bud. The conception of the ovule as the
homologue of a sporangium is confirmed by many facts ; such as the
position of the ovules, in certain plants, on the median line instead of
the edge of the carpel, and their occasionally unquestionable origin
from the axis of the flower.

With respect to the relationship of the ovule to the pollen-sac, the
author maintains that in this case there is no homology; malfor-
mations never show a single ovule, but always a considerable number,
in i^lace of an anther-lobe ; so that this latter may be regarded as
homologous to a sorus.

In the latter portion of his treatise Strasburger enters into a
detailed account of the structure and development of the female flower
in the Coniferte and Gnetacese ; and he now regards as ovules the
structures previously described by him as ovaries. The investigation
of the history of development of the ovule leads him to the important
conclusion that the mode of formation of the embryo-sac in Gymno-
sperms agrees in essential points with that in Augiosperms. As in
these, the mother-cells of the embryo-sac arise from the cell-layer im-
mediately beneath the ei)idermis, and from the first step in division.
Inner cells become the mother-cells of the embryo-sac, while the
outer ones may be regarded as " Tapetenzellen " of Warming. The
mother-cells, whether formed singly as in AbietinetB, or in numbers as
in Taxacea3, are each divided by septa into three cells ; the lowermost
of each now becomes the embryo-sac, and sujii^lants the other two.

The ovule of Gymnosperms, notwithstanding some not unim-
portant differences, is unquestionably homologous, in its first stages of
development, to that of Angiosperms. The processes that take place
in the embryo-sac are also comparable in the two cases. In Angio-
sperms the nucleus divides, and its derivatives i)ass into the ends of
the embryo-sac, where four nuclei take the i^lace of the original one.

INVEBTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 907

The processes in tlie embryo-sac of Gymnosperms also commence with
a division of the nucleus ; after which appears the first difference,
namely, that the septation continues, instead of ceasing when four
nuclei have been formed in each end of the embryo-sac. But after
impregnation the formation of endosperm begins afresh by cell-
division or division of the nucleus. Strasburger is inclined to regard
the cells of the germinal apparatus and the antijiodal cells as
endosperm-cells ; the germinal cell appears to him to be a very
reduced archegonium.

With regard to the relationship of Gymnosperms to Vascular
Cryptogams, Strasburger is disposed to look on the former as directly
descended from the Lycopodiaceae. The genetic connection of Angio-
sperms with Gymnosperms he considers much more doubtful ; but is
unable to regard the Gnetacete as the ancestors of the former.

Investigations on the process of fertilization, especially in Juni-
perus virginiana, resulted in the detection of a canal-cell, previously
overlooked in the Juniperaceae, originating only very late, at the com-
mencement of impregnation, and very soon becoming disorganized.

The formation of the embryo in Ceplialotaxus and Araiicaria
presents several remarkable peculiarities. Among others, the apex
of the rudiment of the embryo consists of large cells containing but
little j)rotoplasm, which form a kind of protective apparatus, and are
afterwards thrown off. The apex of the stem is therefore formed
from inner cells.

Nucleus of the Embryo-sac* — In his ' Cell-formation and Cell-
division,' Strasburger states, as a universal rule, that no fresh forma-
tion of nuclei takes place in the embryo-sac ; all the nuclei proceed-
ing from one another by division. According to Darapsky, an
exception to this rule occurs in the case of Hi/acintl us cuiatus, where
the large size and great clearness of the nucleus in the embryo-sac
when in a state for fertilization present favoui-able conditions for
observation. During the development of the endosperm in this
l)lant, the fresh formation of nuclei for the cells of which it is
ultimately composed can be readily observed.

Gynmospermy of Conifers, f — A contribution to the literature of
this subject is furnished by Celakovsky, in a description of a pro-
liferous fir-cone carefully examined by him.

The rachis of the cone was produced into a terminal shoot, the
interuodes of which were moderately elongated, and the scales much
smaller than in the ordinary cones, and exhibiting transitions to
axillary buds. Near the apex was a dense rosette of large, leafy
buds arranged in several spiral rows. Above this were several
whorls of sterile acicular leaves, and finally a leafy spiral terminal
bud consisting of ciliated bracts. With respect to the position of the
ovules on the fertile scale or on the two bracts of the bud, the
abnormal structures show beyond a doubt that they spring from the
back or under side of the bracts; and a careful examination proved
that the origin of the ovule was clearly in the channel-like depression

* 'Bot. Zeit.," xxxvii. (1S79) p. 553. f ' Flora,' Ixii. (1879) p. 257.

908 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

between the roUed-in margin and the median line of the entire fertile
scale. The position of the ovule on the back of the bract in the
bud shows that it cannot possibly be an axillary shoot to this bract.
Another corroboration of the ovular theory and gymnospermy of
Conifers is that, as far as has at present been observed, the ovules, in
retrograde metamorphosis, never develop into shoots, but begin to
disappear as soon as the metamorphosis commences.

The general result of Celakovsky's observation is — in opposition
to the earlier view of Strasburger — to confirm the prevalent theory
that the ovule of Conifers is truly gymnospermous.

Reproductive Organs of Cycadese.* — In sequel to his observa-
tions published in 1877, M, Warming has re-examined the subject
with fresh material. The principal results before arrived at are
fully confirmed ; but he now considers that both Strasburger and him-
self were in error in the supposed observation of a canal-cell to the
" archegonium " ; what he previously described as such ho now
believes to be a large nucleus of the central cell which descends
towards its lower extremity. M. Warming also confirms the re-
markable observation that in Ceratozamia the embryo is never formed
in the seed until after having been sown in the soil. The embryo
has only a single cotyledon, which is unilateral, and embraces the
summit of the stem ; the radicle and the tigellum are very short in
proportion to that of the pro-embryo ; their structure appears to be
identical with that of Conifer£e.

True Mode of Fecundation of Zostera marina.f — According to
M. A. Clavaud, it is not correct, as generally supposed, that the
anthers fertilize the pistils of flowers enclosed in the same spathe,
these organs not being nearly mature at the same time. There
is dichogamy and proterogynous dichogamy. Neither is the asser-
tion correct that the extremity of the pollen-cell penetrates into
the ovary through a stylar canal open at the summit of the stig-
matic branches. This apical opening does not exist, and the ex-
tremity of the iiollen-cell is inert. The pollen-tube does not grow
from the terminal elongation of the pollen-grain ; it is always a
lateral swelling situated at a certain distance from this extremity,
which, when applied to any point of the stigmatic surface, penetrates
by means of a notable " gelification " of the walls, which j)roduces
later the destruction of the stigmata.

Arrangement and Growth of Cells.:}: — Professor Sachs has been
pursuing his investigation of these difficult subjects in the Botanical
Institute at Wiirzburg, and contributes a further instalment of
results.

The chief point which he desires to bring forward with respect to
the growth of cells is that the normal direction for the formation of
a new wall is always at right angles to that from which it starts, and

* 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Copenhague,' 1879, p. 73; French resume, p. 9.
t ' Acta Sue. Linn. Norinandie,' ii. p. 109 ; ' Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr.,' v. (1879)
p. 197 ; see ' Bot. Zeit ,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 535.
X 'Arb. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg,' ii. (1879) p. 185.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 909

that in tlie lees common but still nnraerous cases in whicli the direction
is different, this is always the result of disturbance. Division at
right angles appears to be a common property of the protoplasm of
cells in a condition to divide ; and this would seem to be a fact of
fundamental importance, although we are altogether in ignorance as
to its cause. Whenever an apparent departure is witnessed from this
law, it must be the result of forces at work during the division, which
deflect the wall from its normal direction. The essential factor in all
growth is the increase in volume of the organ on the one hand, and
its change in form on the other hand.

With respect to the formation of cells, the author refers to a view
which he has already previously expressed, that many organs which
have ordinarily been described as unicellular, are in reality not cel-
lular at all. This is especially the case with the Coeloblastas. The
ends of the shoots of Gaulerpa, Mucor, &c., play the same part in these
plants as the cellular growing point in the higher plants ; and the
same is the case with the ends of the shoots of Codium and of the
fruticose lichens. The Sphacelariaceae present a beautiful passage
between the truly cellular and the non-cellular plants. In this group
the whole of the growing part of the plant is non-cellular, and the
apical cell corresponds to the earlier growing end of the shoot in
higher jdants. The formation, growth, disappearance, and new for-
mation of growing points are a consequence of distribution of growth ;
the growing point is, however, not the only, although a very common
manifestation of this distribution.

Various Forms of the Cell-nucleus.* — At the conclusion of his
paper on " Cell-formation and Cell-division," Professor Strasburger
thus sums up the main results arrived at.

The processes of division are identical in animal and vegetable
cells ; as also is the behaviour of the nucleus, with unimportant
deviations. The greatest variation which has at present been observed
in the division of the nucleus is that between the " nucleus-spindle "
with differentiated disk, and the " nucleus-barrel " without any differ-
entiated disk. The " nucleus spindle," exclusive of the disk, is com-
posed of slender threads usually converging towards the poles ; the
" nucleus-barrel " of stronger threads of one kind only, and only slightly
approximating towards the poles. The various special forms are
classified as under, viz. : —

I. "Nucleus-spindle"; with differentiation into "threads" and
" disk."
1. The threads converging strongly towards the poles.
a. The poles clearly marked.

a. The elements of the " plate " uniformly distributed in
the equatorial plane of the " spindle." Many animal
ova.
p. The elements of the " plate " more or less regularly
distributed in the equator round the " spindle." En-
dothelium of the frog.

* ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 2«1,

910 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATDTG TO

b. The poles not clearly marked.

a. The elements of tlie " plate " distributed regularly in
the equatorial plane of the " spindle." Most vege-
table cells.
p. The elements of the " plate " lying outside the
" spindle " in the equator. An unusual case in the
integuments of the ovule of Nothoscorodon fragrans.
2. The threads only slightly or imperceptibly converging to-
wards the poles.
a. The ends of the threads marked by knots. Embryo-sac

and integument of Monotropa.
h. The ends of the threads not especially marked. Spirogyra.
II. " Nucleus-barrel " formed of a single kind of rod-like elements.

1. The elements of the " barrel " strongly converging towards

the poles. Integument of ovule of Nothoscorodon fragrans.

2. The elements of the " barrel " ouly slightly or imperceptibly

converging towards the poles. Epithelium of larva of sala-
mander ; cartilage of larva of batrachia.

Conducting Tissue for the passage of Pollen-tubes.* — The
structure and development of the tissue which serves the special
purpose of conducting the pollen-tube from the stigma, through the
style and ovary to the micropyle of the ovule, has been made a special
subject of study by M. G. Capus.

By a conducting tissue the author understands one composed of
cells, usually elongated, delicate, and but slightly united, the union
of which forms a cylinder occupying the centre of the style, or lining
the walls of a central stylar canal. The pollen-tube carries on a
parasitic existence, obtaining the nutriment necessary for its rapid
elongation from this conducting tissue. The development of this
tissue hence depends greatly on the number of pollen-tubes for which
it is destined to supply the nutriment, and therefore on the number
of ovules to be fertilized.

This conducting tissue is always a modification and extension of
the epidermis, whether on the surface of the stigma itself, as a lining
to the stylar canal, or on the walls of the ovary or of its dissepi-
ment intermediate between the base of the style and the ovules. At
the period of impregnation the cells of this tissue are filled with a
dense, granular, oily and nearly opaque substance. In certain cases
the periblem or hypodermal tissue takes part, along with the true
eindermis, in the origin of the conducting tissue. Again, but
rarely, the conducting tissue may owe its origin to prolification, or
the tangential division of the epidermal cells ; more often to a similar
division of the hypodermal cells. The stigma, proj^erly so called, is
nothing but the apical termination of this conducting tissue of the

In the ovary it is never continued below the spot from which
spring the lowest ovules. It is much more strongly develojjed in
ovaries with parietal placentation and a large number of erect ana-

* ' Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.),' vii. (1879) p. 209.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 911

tropous ovules than in those with parietal placentation and a Bmall
number of pendent anatropous ovules, or in unilocular ovaries with a
single erect ortbotropous ovule. In almost all cases the pollen-tube
has to traverse a longer or shorter free space between this conducting
tissue, where it is in the immediate proximity of the placenta, and
the micropyle of the ovule ; and the cause of this deviation of the
pollen-tube from its previous course is altogether unknown. The
conducting tissue of the placenta is frequently raised in the form of
more or less prominent papillae or hairs ; and the same is the case
with that of the stigma and even of the style.

The style may be either hollow in the centre, the cavity being
then lined by the conducting tissue, or it may be solid, the central
portion being then loose and large-celled, and forming itself the
conducting tissue. Most commonly ovaries with parietal placentation
are terminated by a hollow style. In plurilocular ovaries with axile
placentation, there are frequently a number of separate stylar canals
corresponding to the number of loculi.

The cells which form the conducting tissue do not always remain
united into a compact continuous tissue ; those which line the stylar
canal frequently become detached over a smaller or larger extent of
the surface, and produce a kind of soft jelly. The cells of the con-
ducting tissue frequently contain starch, oil, and amorphous chloro-
phyll. The pollen-tube traverses the style either within the conducting
tissue, or in immediate contact with it, or with its papillaj, drawing
its nutriment from its cells. The stigma, even when apparently ter-
minal, is always really lateral, and formed from the edges of the car-
pellary leaf rolled over and meeting. In the same manner there
is a double fprmation of conducting tissue for every carj)el within
the ovary ; and in those cases where the style is solid, it is formed
by the coalescence of the opposite edges and sides of a primitive
canal.

Seminal Integuments of Gymnosperms.* — M. Bertrand publishes
an exhaustive paper on this subject, in which he sums up the present
state of our knowledge under the following heads :—

(1) Ovules of Gymnosperms. He here discusses the orthotropy
of the ovules of Gymnosperms ; the number of their integuments ;
their development ; their " pollen-chamber " ; their vascular system ;
and the morphology of their different parts. (2) The transformation
of the ovular into seminal integuments ; including the closing of the
micropylar canal ; the formation of the membranous seminal integu-
ments ; the formation of the partially fleshy and partially woody, or
partially dry and partially woody integuments ; and the arillus. (3)
The disposition of the seminal integuments in the principal genera of
Gnetaceae, Coniferae, and Cycadeae. (4) The accessory envelopes and
disseminating organs of the seeds of Gymnosperms. This includes
an account of the accessory envelopes in Welwitschia, Ephedra, Gnetum,
Coniferfe, and Cycadeae ; and of the direct and indirect organs of dis-
semination in the various families. The paper is illustrated by six
plates.

V * ' Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.),' vii. (1879) p. 61.

912 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Relationship of Intercellular Spaces to Vessels.* — Dr. Von
Hohnel points out that one important functional diiference between
true vessels and intercellular cavities is that, while in the latter the
pressure of the air never differs materially from that of the sur-
rounding atmosphere, in the former it may either be considerably less
(when transpiration is very active), or in some cases more than double
as great. Except in a few special instances, the fibrovascular bundles
consist of vessels in close apposition with one another, without inter-
cellular spaces.

In these exceptional cases the author has succeeded in establishing
the following laws : — (1) In no case, in the vascular bundles of the
stems of Phanerogams, is a vessel which is still functional bounded
immediately by an intercellular space. (2) In the leaves of Phanero-
gams a tracheid or vessel is never directly bounded by an intercellular
space. (3) Throughout the plant the functional vessels and tracheids
are always separated from the intercellular spaces by at least a single
layer of living cells.

Peculiarities in tlie Power of Living Parts of Plants to conduct
Electricity- 1 — Investigations of this subject conducted in Sachs's
botanical laboratory in Wiirzburg, have led Dr. Kiinkel to conclusions
which may be briefly summed up as follows : — Parts of plants, the
elongation of which is mainly in one direction, exhibit differences in
the power of conducting electricity according as the direction of
growth is ascending or descending.

Influence of Electricity on Vegetation-I — A series of experiments
carried on by M. Naudin appears to lead to an almost opposite con-
clusion from the results previously transmitted to the Paris Academy by
MM. Grandcau and Leclerc, that the flowering and fructification of
plants are retarded and impoverished when they are excluded from the
influence of atmospheric electricity.

The earlier experiments were made on tobacco and maize at
Nancy and Mettray ; and later ones on the tomato and other plants in
the warmer climate of Antibes. In both sets isolation was effected by
enclosing the plants in an iron cage, covered with a small-meshed iron
netting. For the first fortnight of M. Naudin's experiments, there
was no apparent difference between the plants in the cage and others
grown under precisely similar conditions outside it ; but after this
time the plants in the cage were decidedly stronger than those in the
open air, and this difference became more pronounced as time went on.
The periods of flowering, and of the formation and maturing of the
fruit, were contemporaneous ; but as regards the quantity of vegetable
matter produced in a given time and on the same extent of soil, there
was a great difference in favour of the caged plants. M. Grandeau
believed that trees exert an injurious influence on plants in their
neighbourhood by withdrawing atmospheric electricity from them ;
but this again was not confirmed by M. Naudin's results. He attri-

* 'Ocsterr. Bot. Zeitschr.,' xxix. (1879) p. 137.
t ' Alb. Bot. lust. Wurzburg,' ii. (1879) p. 338.
j ' Coniptos Reiuhis,' Ixxxix. (1879) p. 535.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 913

biites this plienomenon rather to the shade cast by trees, and especially
to the exhaustion and desiccation of the soil by their roots, which often
extend to a great distance. On the other hand there are many plants
which seek the neighbourhood of trees, and which even thrive only
under their shadow ; and these, probably, must be adapted to a
diminution of atmospheric electricity. M. Naudin states that, in
some cases at least, the same sjiecies is not only more vigorous, but
flowers earlier, with larger flowers, under the shade of trees than in
more open situations.

His general conclusion is that the influence of atmospheric elec-
tricity on plants is complex, varying with the species, and being also
modified by climate, season, temperature, degree of light and moisture,
and perhaps also by the geological structure or mineralogical compo-
sition of the soil.

Absorption of Rain and Dew by the Green Parts of Plants.*—
The ancient view of Hales and Bonnet that plants have the power of
absorbing rain and dew, was combated by De Candollo, Meyen, Trevi-
ranus, and especially by Duchartre, whose conclusions to the contrary
elfect have been accepted since his time by nearly all vegetable physio-
logists. The subject has been recently reinvestigated by the Eev.
G. Henslow, whose experiments appear to have established conclu-
sively that the older view is the correct one. Not only has this
conclusion been confirmed by an independent series of researches
carried on by M. Bousingault,| but it is in harmony with the practical
experience of all horticulturists.

Without entering into the details of his experiments, which will
be found recorded in the paper itself, it may be stated in general
terms that the results arrived at by Mr. Henslow are, that dew is not
absorbed by saturated tissues at night ; but that absorption does take
place at and after sunrise, when transpiration recommences, and an
indraught is caused by the moisture retained on the leaves ; further,
that when leaves are purposely or naturally killed by excessive drought,
they then do absorb water ; as may be proved by the balance, and in
other ways.

Decrease of the Power of Absorption in Branches dipped in
Water 4 — From a fresh series of investigations on this subject, Dr. F.
von Hohnel has come to the conclusion that experiments on the rate
of absorption of fluid by cut branches have little value in determining
the phenomena which take place in the living plant, an important
factor in the former being that the decrease of absorption which takes
place after a time is largely due to the formation of mucilage and the
appearance of bacteria, causing a partial or entire closing of the
vessels.

'Water-pores.§ — Under this term Langer describes those orifices in
the epidermis of the leaves and other green parts of plants which serve

* ' Journ. Linn, Soc. (Bot.),' xvii. (1879) p. 313.
t ' Ann. Chim. et Phys.,' May 1878.
X ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxsvii. (1879) pp. 297, 313.
§ ' Oesterr. Bot. Zeitsclir.,' xxix. (1879) pp. 79, 105.
VOL. II. 3 P

914 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

for the elimination of drops of water. He has studied their structure
and function in detail, following the observations of Borodin, de Bary,
and others.

Water-pores are not always to be distinguished by their appearance
from ordinary stomata, but may frequently be known by being larger
and remaining open when the normal stomata are closed. They have
been long known to exist in many plants, as, for instance, many species
of fern, water-plants like Callitriche verna and autumnalis, Hippuris
vulgaris, and Banunculus aqiiatilis, and succulent plants like Golocasia,
Crassula, &c. By some authors they have been treated as organs of
secretion. They are either solitary or arranged in groups, and are
most common on the upper side of the leaf. In Crassula lactea small
depressions are visible to the naked eye near the margin of the leaf,
which the Microscope reveals to be groups of from twenty-five to thirty
of these water-pores, covered by a very thin transparent parenchyma.
They are distinguished from the ordinary stomata by being rounder,
with a nearly circular opening, and by the guard-cells being destitute
of chlorophyll. An actual excretion of water was not observed in
these — as was the case afeo in many other instances — and is probably
only a temporary function of them. Very similar structures occur in
several species of Crassula, and others belonging to the same natural
order. 1 he leaves of Primula Sinensis exude a large amount of water,
which the author believes to escape through two large water-pores
which he found on the lower side of each tooth. The excreted water
yielded carbonate of lime on evaporation. Colocasia antiquorum has
long been known for the remarkably copious exudation of water from
its leaves. Langer found on the upper side of the leaf, near the apex,
three gigantic water-pores, through which the elimination appears to
take place, with wide-open crevices. The remainder of the stomata
on the upper side of the leaf were much smaller, but also wide open.
Similar pores were observed on the leaf-stalk, w^here also an exudation
of water takes place. After being placed for fifteen hours in the dark
the large water-pores still remained wide open, while the smaller
stomata were more or less completely closed.

The observation of these and many other examples led the author
to the conclusion that the two functions of the diffusion of gases and
the elimination of water are not sharply differentiated in the stomata,
but that an ordinary stoma may, at certain times and under certain
conditions, become converted into a water-pore, its guard-cells losing
their contractile property, and the fissure usually becoming more
circular.

Respiration of Plants.* — M. H. Moissan has undertaken a careful
series of experiments for the purpose of determining afresh the rela-
tion between the volume of oxygen absorbed by plants and that of
carbonic acid emitted in respiration. The observations were made by
means of carefully constructed apparatus, on a considerable number of
trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, and with the following results : —

Every living organ absorbs oxygen from the air, and disengages

* 'Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.),' vii. (1870) p. 292.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 915

carbonic acid gas. The amotmt of carbonic acid emitted in respira-
tion has no dii-ect connection with that of the oxygen absorbed. In
general, at low temperatures, the quantity of oxygen absorbed is
greater than that of carbonic acid evolved. There is a certain tem-
perature, diflercnt in different species, in which the two amounts are
nearly equal ; above this temperature, the production of carbonic acid
is in excess of the absorption of oxygen.

Respiration of Marsh and Water Plants.* — Recent investiga-
tions by E. Freyberg have been specially directed to the two facts,
that the roots of marsh plants can grow and even flourish in media
containing very little oxygen, or even none at all, and that marsh
plants are, with very few exceptions, useless to mankind. A series of
experiments brought out the fact that marsh plants (rice, Mentha
aquaticn, Caltha palusiris, &c.) show a much smaller power of respii-a-
tion than land plants belonging to the same natural order (wheat,
Lammm album, Banunculus hulbosus, &c.), and consequently require
much less oxygen. This low power of resi^iratiou app.ars to be
accompanied by a small proi^ortion of nitrogen in their chemical com-
position ; a connection dej^ending on well-known physiological facts,
the seat of respiration being the protoplasm or albuminoid contents of
the cells. In the case of the only two marsh plants which are exten-
sively grown as food-material, rice and the sugar-cane, their value
depends not on any nitrogenous constituents, but on the presence of a
large amount of a carbo-hydrate.

Influence of Light, Warmth, and Moisture on the Opening- and
Closing of the Anthers of Bulbocodium vernum.— Kerner has
already observed that the anthers of this plant, belonging to the Col-
chicaceae, open in the morning and close in the evening. Mikosch
has investigated t the cause of this phenomenon, and attributes it to
the action of a special layer which forms the innermost jjortiou of the
wall of the anther, and which exists only in anthers possessing the
proi)erty of similar movements. This layer consists of three or four
rows of cells, compressed from below inwards, the walls of which
always remain thin.

Chemical Eesearches on the Formation of Coal4 — M. Fremy
finds, as a result of some laborious and complicated experiments, that
the plants which have produced coal have done so by uudergoiu" a
process of fermentation, which, in converting them into poat, has
completely destroyed every trace of vegetable structure, and it is only
when the peat has been subjected to the influences of heat and pres-
sure that it has been converted into coal. Coal is not, therefore,
an organized structure, as has been supposed.

With regard to the impress of plant-life which is so frequently
to be observed in pieces of coal, M. Fremy suggests that it may
be very fairly considered that these marks were made when the

* ' Landwirthschaftliche Versuchs - stationen,' xxiii. p. 403; see ' Nutur-
furscher,' xii. (187^) p. 257.

t ' Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr..' June 1878.

1 'Coinptes Rendus,' Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 1048.

3 P 2

916 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

coal was still plastic. His experiments showing that the principal
constituents of vegetable bodies become, when exposed to heat and
pressure, converted into substances very like coal, are exceedingly-
interesting.

New Carbo-hydrate.* — Prof. Schmiedeberg describes a new carbo-
hydrate of the formula CgHigOs, discovered in the bulbs of Urginea
Scilla, and hitherto described as a gnm, fur which he proposes the name
sinistrin. When pure it is colourless, a white powder when dx'y, absorb-
ing water readily from the air, and then becoming transparent and
gum-like. It is soluble in water, insoluble in absolute alcohol, is not
coloured by iodine, does not reduce oxide of copper. Sinistrin is pre-
cipitated from its aqueous solution by acetate of lead when there is
great excess of ammonia, but not otherwise ; when decomposed with
lime-water, a slightly soluble amorphous lime-compound is produced.
Sinistrin rotates the pole of polarized light to the left ; the concentra-
tion and temperature of the solution have no influence on the amount
of rotation. Saliva and yeast do not saccharify it ; but when a dilute
solution is warmed with from one to four per cent, of sulphuric acid, it
passes over altogether into sugar. This sinistrin-sugar probably con-
sists of levulose and an optically inactive sugar, apparently in the
proportion of 5 to 1. Sinistrin is contained in such quantities in the
bulbs, along with sugar, that it constitutes the greater part of their
dried substance. The author considers it probable that sinistrin is
formed from the direct products of assimilation. The pure cellulose of
the bulb, when decomposed by dilute acids, yields no trace of levulose,
but only sugars with rotation to the right.

Calcium phosphate in the Living Cells of Plants.!— In examin-
ing the leaves of Soja liisjnda and Bohinia jJseudacacia, MM. Nobbe,
Hanlein, and Councler found, especially in the first-named species,
in the parenchymatous cells of the mesophyll, a quantity of peculiar,
colourless, moderately refractive bodies, of a roundish, elliptical, or
ovoid form, their average size about that of the cell-nucleus, one, or
rarely two in a cell. A careful investigation of these structures
showed that they consisted of calcium ortho-phosphate,

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Crjrptogamia Vascularia.

Germination of Fern-spores.t — Eecent observations by Eauwen-
hoff, of Utrecht, point to a somewhat different interpretation from
that at i^resent generally accepted of the first processes in the germi-
nation of the spores of ferns and other vascular cryptogams.

The phenomena presented by the germination of a fern-spore are
as follows : — A more or less considerable (but often very small)
swelling of the exospore takes place from absorption of water. After
some time — less or more according to the species — the wall of the

* ' Zeitschr. Physiol. Chemie,' 1879, p. 112; see ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 513.
t ' Landwirthschaftliche Versuchs-statiouen,' xxiii, p. 471 ; see ' Natur-
forscher,' xii. (1879) p. 276.

X ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 441.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 917

sjiore Oldens at tlie poiut of junction of the three ridges in radiate, or
in tlie middle of the single ridgo in bilateral spores. Through this
opening protrudes a papilla, which develops protoplasm and chloro-
phyll like a young cell, and, either at once or after a short time, puts
out a second papilla, the first rhizoid ; both cells subsequently de-
veloping in various ways. The usual explanation of these appear-
ances is that when the exosjiore bursts, the endospore develops and
forms the wall of the first cell of the prothallium, as also usually of
tlie first rhizoid ; the contents of the spore passing over into these
two cells.

In following out this process, Rauwenhoif met with the difficulty
that, although chemical tests failed to detect the presence of cellulose
in either the endospore or exospore before germination, this substance
is clearly present in the papilla and in the parietal portion of its
contents in the earliest stages of germination. He gives a detailed
description of the phenomena observed in the germination of the
spores of Gleichenia, which are especially favourable for observation,
owing to the transi)arency of the cell-wall of the spore, and comes to
the conclusion that the source of the wall of the first prothallium-
cell and of the first rhizoid is not the endospore or inner shell of the
original wall of the spore, but a new cellulose wall secreted out of
the i^rotoplasm of the spore before it opens, and increasing in the
ordinary way by intussusception.

The source of the ordinary interpretation of the first stage in
germination is doubtless a false analogy with the process of develop-
ment of the pollen-tube, which undoubtedly results from the growth
of the intine or inner coating of the wall of the pollen-grain.

That the germination of the spores of other vascular cryptogams
will be found to agree with that of Gleichenia rather than with the
development of the pollen-tube of phanerogams, where observation
of these processes is possible, is concluded by IJauwenhoft" from the
following considerations. A section of pollen-grains in which the
pollen-tube has begun to develop, shows that where the tube has
broken through, the wall consists of fewer layers than elsewhere,
that is, of the extine only. In fern-spores, on the contrary, the wall
is of the same thickness, and consists of as many layers after germi-
nation as before ; showing that the protruding wall of the papilla
must be a new membrane. The changes in the contents of the spore
on germination are also much more extensive than those of the
papilla of the pollen-grain when the tube is formed. The intine of
pollen-grains consists, moreover, of cellulose, which is certainly not
generally the case with the endospore of such fern-spores as have
been carelully examined. This explanation also corresponds with
what is known to take place in the formation of the zygospore of
Spirogyra and other Conjugate, as well as with the processes observed
in the germination of the spores of Equisetacete, Hepaticae, and
Bryine?e.

Bilateralness of Prothallia.* — In opposition to the opinion of
Bauke,| Leitgeb still maintains his view that the bilateralness of the
* ' Flora,' Ixii. (1879) p. 317. t See tins Journal, ante, p. 4r)l.

918 EECORD OF CUIIRENT KESEA.ECHES EELATINa TO

prothallium of ferns (i. e. the exclusive tendency of one side to
produce antlieridia and archegonia) is the result mainly of a diiference
in the supply of light, rather than of gravitation ; the organs of
reproduction being produced only on the shaded side. His con-
clusions were confirmed by the following observations on Ce7-ato])teris
tJialictroides.

Prothallia of this fern are produced with ease by sowing the spores
on a nutrient fluid. When lighted from above, the prothallia expand
on the surface of the water, or raise themselves above it, turning one
side to face the light. Only the shady side produces archegonia, the
rhizoids springing either from it or from the marginal cells, and
growing downwards into the fluid. But when the light reaches the
prothallia from below, the result is quite different. They grow down
into the fluid to meet the light, bat curve, as soon as the true surface
begins to develop, so that one surface is placed at riglit angles to the
incident light. The conditions with respect to contact with the
substratum are therefore here the same on both sides, and yet the
archegonia, as well as those rhizoids which spring from the surface,
are produced on one side only, viz. the shady side. The rhizoids
also do not grow downwards, but spread themselves over the surface
of the fluid ; they are therefore not positively geotropic, but to a
certain extent negatively heliotropic.

These prothallia are also instructive in another respect. The
rhizoids are, as is well known, produced especially at the basal end
of the cells. This occurs also in the parts of the prothallium which
grow obliquely downwards, proving that it is not gravitation that
determines their place of origin, but that it depends on the contrast
of base and apex of the prothallium.

Development of the Prothallium of Salvinia.* — Prantl has
closely followed out the history of development of the prothallium
and reproductive organs of Salvinia natans, with the following results,
which are not in every respect in harmony with those previously
arrived at by Bauke.f In addition to the wall of the si^orangium, the
true spore is surrounded by a small-celled integument, the exospore
of Pringsheira, but more correctly called the epispore by Eussow and
Sachs. This is firmly attached to the thick yellow exospore, which,
on germination, becomes detached in three lobes from the apex of the
spore. At the same time the epispore is also burst into three lobes.
The ripe sj)ore always swims on the surface of the water, and is not
merely buoyed up by algfe, as Hofmeister supposed ; the entire
epispore serving as a swimming apparatus. Germination takes place,
under favourable conditions, about Christmas.

The germination, development of the prothallium, fertilization,
and the development of the young plant until the " peltate leaf" has
attained its full size, take place in the dark, but with formation of
chlorophyll. The first cell-formations in the prothallium are
exceedingly difficult to follow. The meniscus-shaped anterior portion
of the spore is first of all separated from the large spore cavity by a
single basal wall, the " hyaline membrane " of Pringsheim. A young
* 'Bot. Zeit.,' xxx-vii. (1879) p. 425. f This Journal, ante, p. 753.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 919

prothallium seen from above, i. e. from the apex of the si^ore, has a
nearly equilateral triangular form with rounded angles alternating
with the lobes of the exospiire. The first wall is vertical, cutting off
one of these angles. This portion, which may be called the sterile
third, develops into the large-celled knob which is always found at
the base of the archegonial surface of the prothallium, and never
bears archegoiiia. The further cell-division and formation of the
archegonia is described in detail in the poper. In the majority of
cases the archegonia are formed only on the ventral surface of the
prothallium which bears the " lump " behind ; but sometimes extends
somewhat on both sides, and even reaches the dorsal surface. The
distinction between the dorsal and ventral surfaces is clearly not due,
as in ferns, to a difference in the illumination, but is inherent in
the prothallium.

The original tripolar development of the prothallium appears to
present some analogy with that of Hymenophyllaceas, except that the
large spore-cavity is first of all divided off by a septum. The mode
of formation of the archegonia reminds one again of Selaginella, in
which the archegonia form three rows alternating with the lobes of
the exospore. In Salvinia there are only two rows ; the third side
remaining sterile, and forming the " lump."

Mtiscinese.

New Bryum.* — Mr. H. Boswell describes a Bryum gathered in
Teesdale, without flowers or fruit, the form and texture of the leaves,
however, appearing distinct and sufficient to render it well marked.

The name — B. Oritjanum — was suggested by the peculiar odour,
and it is thus characterized: —

" Stems elongated, about an inch or more, copiously radiculose
and forming dense soft tufts. Leaves ovate and ovato-lanceolate,
shortly pointed, scarcely acuminate, concave, nerved almost to the
apex, cells lej^todermous, oblong and nearly rectangular, margins
plane, slightly recurved when dry, formed of a single row of narrower
cells." — Shady old wall, Teesdale.

In soft dense tufts, foliage full green, the young leaves at the
summit rosy-pink, the old foliage of former years and lower part deep
brown, stems and leaves matted with numerous radicles. Habit and
general aspect much as in B. harbutum Wils., or some forms of
B. oeneum from Norway — from the former it differs in the form of the
leaves, which are not piliferons-acuminate, in tlie nerve ceasing
below the aj)ex, in the form of the cells, and their very thin walls.

Fungi.
Structure of Chaetomium.t — W. Zopf has investigated the struc-
ture and development of this genus of Sphaeriacete,! and contributes
the results to the ' Proceedings' of the Botanical Society of Branden-
burg. He regards all the species which have hitherto been described
as modifications of a single one— which he calls Chcetomium hostrychodes,

* ' Naturalist,' v. (1879) p. 33.

t See ' Hedwigia,' xviii. (1879) p. 91.

J Placed, in Cooke's 'Handbook of British Fungi,' among the Perisporiacei.

920 RECOKD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

distiDguished by au ellipsoidal perithecium, minute spores, about
6 fjL in diameter, and a tuft of elegant hairs.

Proposed New Genus of Fungi— Peniophora. * — Dr. Cooke pro-
poses to separate sixteen species of the two Friesian genera of
Corticium and Stereum (of tne order Auricularini of Hymenomycetous
Fungi), and to unite them in a new genus under the name of
Penio])hora {tttji'lov, a shuttle). He puints out that Fries paid little
or no attention to microscopic characters, so that his whole classifica-
tion of the Ilymenomycetes was limited to what could be detected by
a common lens. In these days of microscopic research such a limit
is scarcely satisfactory, and in the above t^vo genera there are struc-
tural features which indicate that Fries' arrangement was not so
perfect as it might have been had he brought the Microscope to his aid.

The new genus includes those species in which the hymenium
is beset with short, rigid, uncoloured, rough, projecting cells
(" metuloids ") which are attenuated upwards or subfusiform and
give the surface a velvety appearance, the old genera retaining only
the sjjecies in which these shuttle-shaped bodies are absent, the
hymenium being naked.

Vine Fungi.j — The various fungi which attack the vine, either as
parasites or as saprophytes, have been carefully studied, enumerated,
and described by von Thiimen, and classified according to the part of
the plant on which they are found. On the grapes he describes only
a single species, Macrosporium uvarmn (new) ; on the woody parts no
fewer than twenty -four species, a large number of them new, belonging
to the genera Fiisarium, Biplodia, Leptotliyrmm, and others. Para-
sitic on the leaves are six species, all described as new ; while on the
root is a single species, Boesleria liypogcm, new not only specifically,
but also generically, belonging to the Helvellacese.

Propagation of Cluster-cups. :j:— Dr. Cooke, in his 'Introduction
to the Study of Microscopic Fungi,' calls attention to the difficulty of
accounting for the appearance of the cluster-cuj)s (^JEcidiacei) bursting
through the cuticle of the leaves of the plants on which they are
found. The question is as to the manner in which their spores reach
the interior of the leaf where they germinate. It certainly cannot be
by way of the stomata, for these are too small, nor would this account
for the preservation of the spores until the succeeding year. Equally
difficult is it to imagine a process by which they can gain access to
the interior of the growing leaf through the roots, nor have they been
traced passing through the tissues of the plants. Dr. Cooke mentions
the fact, however, that the Kev. M. J. Berkeley was able to propagate
cluster-cups by growing plants from seeds which had been placed in
contact with their spores.

Following this hint, and noting the fact that certain species
ripen and discharge their spores at the time when the plants on

* 'Grevillert,' viii. (1879) p. 17.

t F. von Thiimen, ' Die Tilze des Wciustockcs,' Vicuna, 1878 ; bee ' Hedwigia,'
xvii. (1879), p. lis.

X ' Am. Naturalist,' xiii. (1879) i>. 1(17

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC, 921

which they are found are in blossom, Mr. M. A. Veeder, of New
York, anticijjated that these spores would be found along with the
pollen in the interior of the ovary, thus coming into contact with the
seeds and depositing the germs of future growth. Acting upon this
hypothesis, he examined the flowers of Podoi^hyllum peltatnm and
Ariscema tripliyllum growing within a few feet of plants of the same
species whose leaves were covered with cluster-cups, and in many
instances found the orange-coloured spores among the pollen in the
ovary. He also found pollen from Podophyllum peltatiim mingled
with the spores dusted over the leaves of a plant of the same species
at a distance of several feet from any blossom, indicating, apparently,
that it had been transjiorted by insects.

Onion-smut, Urocystis Cepulae.* — A parasitic fungus, excessively
destructive to the onion, was first observed in North America, in the
States of Connecticut and Massachusetts, about twelve years since, and
was first described by Dr. Farlow f under the name of Urocystis Cejmlce.
Although committing great ravages on the crops in those States, it was
very local, being unknown in that of New York. Hitherto the fungus
has been supposed to be confined to the New World ; but M. Cornu has
now detected it in the neighbourhood of Paris, on an early variety of
the white onion known as the " Oignon de Nancy." It attacks the bulb-
scales and the bases of the leaves, reducing them to a black powder.
Dr. Farlow considers that the fungus has invaded the onion from some
wild si^ecics, and Dr. Cooke considers it a variety of Urocystis Colchici,
a parasite of the autumn crocus.

Lagenidium Rabenhorstii, a new Phycomycete.J — W. Zopf
reports the discovery of this new parasitic fungus, which was causing
great ravages among the Sjnroyyra and other Conjugatje in the water
in the Zoological Garden in Berlin, to the Proceedings of the Botanical
Society of Brandenburg. The reniform biciliatcd zoosj)ores attached
themselves to the host, penetrating the cell-wall by means of a perfo-
rating tube, and developing in the interior into a mycelium, which, in
its non-reproductive condition, is unicellular, of small dimensions, and
unbranched. The zoosporangia become subsequently separated by a
septum. Sexual plants sj^ring from two zoospores which penetrate
into the same cell of the host ; the antheridia and oogonia resem-
bling those of the class generally. Though coming nearest to Lageni-
dium of any known genus, it differs from the species hitherto known
in the form of the zoospores and th:; numbjr of the cilia.

The author divides the family of Saprolegniacete into two groujjs :
— (1) the typical Saprolegniete, in which there is a distinct differentia-
tion of a vegetative and a reproductive portion, including the genera
Saprolegnia, PytMiim, Cystosiplwn, &c. ; and (2) the Ancyliste^e of
Pfitzer, in which no such differentiation is evident, and in which must
be included the genera Ancylistcs, Myzocytium, Lagenidium, and Acldyo~
geton.

* ' Cumptes Eenduir,' Ixxxix. (1879) p. 51.

t Twenty-fourth Ann. Rep. of the Sec. of the Massachusetts State Board of
Agriculture, Onion-smut, 1877.

X See 'Hcdwigia,' xviii. (1879) p. 9-1.

922 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Protomyces graminicola,* — Dr. Schrceter has detected tliis fungus,
recently described by Saccardo, in great quantities on Setaria viridis
and S. glauca, and finds it identical with Ustilarjo Urhani Magnus. He
considers it an endophytic Phycomycete, belonging either to the
family Peronosporese or Pythiaceae.

The fungus was especially abundant on the above-named grasses
where they constituted the most abundant weeds in potato-fields ; and
in this situation Schrceter found on Setaria a conidia-bearing fungus,
the identity of which with the one in question he could not doubt.
This corresponded very closely with the smaller sjiecies of Peronospora,
such as P. pygmcpa, but was distinguished by the acute ends of the
branches. He considers the fungus to be therefore a true Peronospora,
but belonging to a new section, which he calls Sclerospora, distin-
guished by the unequally thick dark-brown envelope consisting of
several layers, formed out of the oogonium wall, and the dusty spores.
With the exception of P. Schleideniana on Allium Cepa, this is the only
Peronospora hitherto detected parasitic on a monocotyledon. Schrceter
thinks that the parasite may be of economical value from its destruc-
tive influence on very widely distributed agricultural weeds.

Conidial Fructification in Mucorini.f — Di". Cunningham describes
the complete life-history of Choanepliora, a mucedinous fungus, para-
sitic on the corolla of Hibiscus and other shrubs in India, including
no less than four distinct forms of fructification. Of the reproductive
bodies one kind, tlie zygospores, are sexual, and the other three non-
sexual:— conidia, sjwrangial spores, and chlamydospores. The sj)oran-
gial and chlamydosporic reproductive bodies appear to be more closely
allied to one another than to the conidia. They are new and inde-
pendent cells formed within the tubular system of the parent plant ;
but the conidia are merely isolated portions of that system, being, in
fact, only the tips of the terminal filaments of the aerial portion of
the plant. The distinction is not merely an anatomical one ; the fact
that the difference in the nature of the conditions favours the develop-
ment of the various forms of fructification, indicates a physiological
distinction also. The conidial fructification is the form characteristic
of active nutrition and vegetative growth. Given a very rich nutritive
medium and fully developed normal conidia, a luxuriant development
of mycelium occurs, followed, sooner or later, by an abundance of
conidial fructification. With diminishing nutrition there is progres-
sively poorer mycelial development and less-developed conidial fruc-
tification. When this degeneration has reached its utmost limit, when
the conidial fructification is reduced to its poorest and simplest type,
the sporangia begin to make their appearance ; and when the con-
ditions of nutrition are too greatly lowered even to allow of this, we
find the chlamydosporic fructification providing for the preservation
and dift'usion of the plan.

Dr. Cunningham's observations are in one point inconsistent with
those of Van Tieghem and Le Monnier, who deny that true conidial
fructification ever occurs in the Mucorini ; and the conjunction of
these various forms in one species would destroy Brefeld's proposed

* ' Hedwigia,' xviii. (1879) p. 83.

t ' Trans. I.inn. Soc. (But.),' i. (1879) p. 409.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 923

classification of the Mucorini or Zygomycetes into two sub-families,
one clistinguisliecl by sporaugial, the other by conidial non-sexual
fructification.

Beech Disease, Phytophthora Fagi-* — Professor Hartig finds
that this disease of young beech-seedlings is spread by the oospores
which germinate in the soil. The mycelium differs from that of other
Pcronosporefe in being septated. The mode of formation of the
sporangia is similar to that described by de Bary in the case of
Phytophthora infestans. The germinating filaments of the zoospores
creep along the surface of the leaf, and j)enctrate between the ejiidermal
cells, sporangia beiug produced in the course of two or tliree days.
The mycelium and sporaugia develop chiefly in the cotyledons, much
less luxuriantly in the foliage-leaves.

The formation of oospores takes places as follows :— On the inter-
cellular mycelial filaments are formed numerous not very long lateral
byphfe, which swell up into a club-shaped form, producing oogouia at
the extremity. The oogonium is thin-walled, filled with protoplasm,
and is divided off from the hypha by a partition wall, beiug thus
elevated on a short stalk. In the neighbourhood of each oogonium is
produced at the same time a much smaller antheridium by the swelling
into a club-shaped form of the apex of a hyphal branch, which usually
becomes attached to the oogonium near its base. The wall of the
oogonium not unfrequently exhibits an indentation at this spot ; but
the coalescence of the two sexual cells consists simply in a union of
growth, and the resorption of the substance of the wall of the oogonium
at a small round spot; there is no forcing itself of the antheridium into
the oogonium by means of a beak-like process. The contents of the
antheridium, which is divided off from the hypha by a septum, then
pass over into the oogonium; the protoplasm of the oogonium some-
what contracts, and an oospore is produced, at first with a thin, after-
wards with a very thick wall. The oospores may either germinate
directly, or tliey may retain their power for at least three years.

The disease has at present nearly confined its attacks to nurseries,
where the young plants are very crowded. The practical remedy
appears to be to refrain from planting the seed in soil likely to be
infected with the oospores.

Berggrenia— New Genus of Discomycetes.t — Dr. Cooke describes
an aberrant genus of the Discomycetes which possesses a general
interest to the mycologist as a new arrangement or inversion of
organs. The fungus was collected in 1874-75, by Berggren, of Lund,
during his visit to New Zealand, and the name Berggrenia is proposed
for it. It is ovate, pyriform, somewhat clavate, about one inch in
height, and nearly as much in breadth, but compressed laterally to
one-fourth of that thickness in one direction. It looks very much
like a Tremella, being a little plicate or rubbed below and inflated, so
that the centre is hollow, and though attenuated a little at the base

* ' Forstwissenschaftlicbes Centralblatf,' i. (1879); see 'Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii.
(1879) p. 511.

t A paper read by Dr. M. C. Cooke at tbe annual meeting of the Woolhope
Club, at Hereford, October 2, 1879; see 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1879 (Oct. 25)
p. 533.

924 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RET,ATINQ TO

there is no distinct stem. The base is watery white, the upper half a
bright reddish orange.

For some time Dr. Cooke was puzzled with this, which at first he
regarded as a Tremella, or Gue^yinia, or it might be an ally of Spathu-
laria ; softened and examined under the Microsco^De no external
trace of hymenium could be found, nothing but a tough cellular
tissue of large and uniform cells, until cutting open one of the speci-
mens, he found the inner walls softer, rugose, and so different in
texture that at once, more out of curiosity as to the character of the
cells, than hope to find the hymenium, he examined a portion of the
inner wall, and found it to consist entii-ely of an effused hymenium
of large, closely packed, cylindrical asci, each containing its eight
elliptical sporidia, but without paraphyses. In fact there is here an
inflated fleshy sac, with the hymenium enclosed and covering the
whole of the inner surface. It is a Spatlmlaria turned inside out, and
is of far more importance than a mere new species or genus could be,
presenting a most interesting subject for study, and adding yet
another to the contrarieties of the antipodes.

With respect to the affinities of the new fungu'?, there is no doubt
whatever that the hymenium is entirely enclosed, normally. Perhaps
Sphcerosoma comes nearest to it, except that it has a thicker and
firmer periderm, and is moreover hypogaeous. This affinity is sufficient
to prove that it is not impossible for a plant of such a structure to be
a Discomycete, and Tulasne considered Sphcerosoma to be a Discomy-
cete although evidently so very closely related to Genea. Indeed, in
Dr. Cooke's oinnion S2:)Jicerosoma is further removed from the Discomy-
cetes in the direction of the Tuberacei than Berggrenia from some
species of Peziza.

There is a great similarity in the character of the fruit, and in the
fleshy stroma, as to texture, &c., between Cyttaria and Berggrenia ;
in fact, the latter resembles the former, inverted, and the areolfe
suppressed. The hymenium is confined in some Cyttarioi to a few
nearly closed cells, and although the relationship is by no means
close in any direction, Berggrenia should be placed, it is suggested, in
the Bulgariacei, nearest perhaps to Cyttaria. The discovery hereafter
of intermediate links may render the affinities clearer than at present
they seem to be.

Microphytes in the Blood and their relation to Disease.* —

Mr. T. E. Lewis contributes a paper of fifty images on this important
subject, giving a critical resume of the work of former observers, as
well as the results of his own investigations.

Mr. Lewis, first of all, goes over the evidence for the opinion that
bacteria are the actual cause of the morbid symptoms in splenic
fever, septicaemia, infectious pneumo-enteritis of the pig, and re-
current fever, the diseases in which there is the strongest evidence
for a contagium vivum. He then recounts some observations of his
own as to the occurrence of bacteria in the blood of perfectly healthy
animals, and gives his reasons for thinking that the presence of
microphytes in the blood is a mere epi-phenomenon, having no
* ' Quart. Journ. Micr. Soi.,' xix. (l^!79) p. 356.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 925

causal relation with the disease. The chief reasons adduced may be
summed up as follows : —

1. It is by DO means proved that the various forms of Bacillus,
Spirillum, &c., occurring in certain diseases are specifically distinct
from forms having no relation whatever to any pathological
conditions.

2. All the representatives of the Schizomycetes may be and
have been introduced into the blood without causing any morbid
symptoms.*

3. In the diseases supposed to be due to bacteria, the microphytes
are "never to be detected in the earlier stages of the disease, but
only at a brief period before and after a fatal termination."

4. " The poisonous properties of septinous blood and of other
decomposing animal solutions gradually disappear toward the third or
fourth day, a fact which is scarcely reconcilable with the doctrine
that the poison resides in the almost imperishable ' spores ' of the
bacilli, which existed during the earlier stages of decomposition."

5. Septinous fluids retain their virulent properties after filtration
through fine porous materials, the effect of the filtration being to free
them from " visible molecules of every description."

6. " The coagulum produced by boiling a septinous fluid is more
virulent than the fluid itself." Eleven hours' boiling does not destroy
the poisonous properties of such a fluid ; a watery extract of the
residue of such a fluid evaporated to dryness has an intense toxic
effect.

7. The poison (septine or sepsin) of some of these fluids may be
made to combine with acids so as to form salts, which latter retain all
the toxic properties of the original fluid, t

8. The living tissues, under the influence of a chemical irritant
(iodine or ammonia), may secrete a virulent fluid, capable of com-
municating disease from animal to animal.

Mr. Lewis concludes " that the living tissue elements of the body
itself play a much more important part in the elaboration of
septinous and allied poisons, than what has of late been ordinarily
ascribed to them."

Crenothrix polyspora, the Cause of the Unwholesomeness of the
Berlin "Water.:|: — According to Dr. Zopf, this is a nostoc-like fungus,
which has developed, from some unknown cause, in enormous quanti-
ties in the wells of Berlin. The filaments are enclosed in a gelatinous
envelope; but the cells readily become isolated, and develop into
new filaments. There are also very minute gonidia produced by
division of the cells of a filament ; these are also enclosed in gela-
tinous envelopes and develop into filaments, and, under certain
circumstances, into palmella-like colonies of cells. From the absence
of chlorophyll, Crenothrix appears to occuj)y an intermediate position

* With regard to these two points, cf. Koch, ' Wundinfectionskraiikheiteii,'
ante, p. 754.

t The possibility that the non-living contagium indicated in §§ 5, 6, and 7
may itself be a result of organic actiun, should not be lost sight of.

X ' Entwickelungsgeschichtliche Untersuchung liber Crenothrix pohjspora,' von
Dr. W. Zopf, Berlin, 1879 ; see ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 54G.

926 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

between the O.scillarieae and tlie Bacteria. Rabenliorst's name, Creno-
ihrix Kuhniana, would, however, appear to be justified by the laws of
priority. Largely distributed through the water of wells and water-
works, it occurs also in the soil. Both the filaments and the palmella-
colonies are coloured ochre-yellow or brown by deposition of iron.

Fungi Parasitic on Fungi.* — A careful examination of a very
large number of examples has convinced S. Schulzer that in many
cases 'where forms of fungi have hitherto been believed to be different
stages in the same cycle of development, they are really distinct
species, the one parasitic on the other ; and that very great care is
required to determine which of these two is the case.

In some cases the parasite aj)pears to exercise no injurious influ-
ence on the host ; but far more frequently it in time partially or com-
pletely destroys it, and then presents very much the appearance of
springing from it as a succeeding stage of development. In the case
of the larger Hymenomycetes, the parasite often prevents the forma-
tion of the spores, its own conidia then ajjpearing to take their place.
Thus Artofrogus Vitmarii causes sterility in the lamellfe of Nyctalis
asterophora ; Lactarius deliciosus shows no indication of the formation
of lamellae when attacked by Hijpomyces lateritius ; and Agaricus
ccesar ens is similarly affected by Mijcogone rosea.

Poison of Marsh Fever, j — The physical cause or poison to which
marsh or intermittent fever is due, was made the subject of special
investigation during the spring of the present year by Signer
Tommasi, professor of pathological anatomy at Eome, in conjunction
with Professor Klebs, of Prague. According to an account laid by
the former before the Academy of Eome, J the investigation was
rewarded with complete success.

The two investigators spent several weeks during the spring
season in the Agro Bomano, which is notorious for the prevalence of
this particular kind of fever. They examined minutely the lower
strata of the atmosphere of the district in question, as well as its
soil and stagnant waters ; and in the two former they discovered a
microscopic fungus, consisting of numerous movable shining spores
of a longish oval shaj)e, and -9 micromill. in diameter. This
fungus was artificially generated in various kinds of soil ; the fluid
matter thus obtained was filtrated and repeatedly washed, and the
residuum left after filtration was introduced under the skin of healthy
dogs. The same thing was done with the firm microscopical particles
obtained by washing large quantities of the surface soil. The animals
experimented upon all had the fever with the regular typical course,
showing free intervals, lasting various lengths of time up to sixty
hours, and an increase in the temperature of the blood during the
shivering fits up to nearly 42^, the normal temperature in healthy
dogs being from 38° to 39° centigrade. The filtrated water only
caused changes in the temperature of the body, even when five times
the original quantity of water was administered, and the trifling fever

* 'Oesterr. Bot. Zeitscbr.,' xxix. (1879) pp. 112, 15.").

t ' Times,' 1879, October 8.

j 'Tiansunt. Acad. Lincei,' iii. (1879), p. 21C.

IN\^RTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 927

actually caused was not of an intermittent cliaracter. The animals
artificially infected with intermittent fever showed precisely the same
acute enlargement of the spleen as human patients who have caught
the disease in the ordinary way, and in the spleens of these animals a
large quantity of the characteristic form of fungus was present. The
fungus was also found abundantly in other lymphatic vessels of the
animals. As the fungus here grows into the shape of small rods,
Tommasi and Klebs gave it the name of Bacillus malarke.

The strictly scientific method jjursued in this investigation does
not admit of a doubt that the accomplished investigators have really
discovered the cause of the disease in question. The discovery may
be regarded as another of the series of which those in connection
with inflammation of the spleen and diphtheritis were earlier examples.
Against the intermittent fever poison, which is connected with this
newly-discovered microscopic fungus, the medical art was formerly as
powerless as it is still against diphtheritis and inflammations of the
spleen. For intermittent fever, however, medicine was provided with
a remedy when the virtues of quinine were made known, and it may be
reasonably expected that, as in the latter case, so against the poison
of the diphtheritic fungus and that of sjtlenetic inflammation, medical
science will sooner or later discover their appropriate antidote.

It is announced * that Drs. Marchiafava and Valenti have since
detected the Bacillus in human patients in a more advanced stage than
in the animals originally dissected.

Development of Bacteria-f — The following are the results of a
series of experiments undertaken by A. Prazmowski in the botanical
laboratory at Leipzig on the development of various bacteria, and
especially on their alleged power of producing spores.

1. Bacillus sithtilis. With regard to this species, the author fully
confirms the observations of Brefeld with respect to the jiroduction
and germination of the sj)ores. But as regards the statement of Cohn
and Van Tieghem, that it is the cause of butyric fermentation, he
believes he has proved that this is certainly not the case.

2. The butyric ferment, Vibrion butyrique, Amylohacter, or
Bacillus Amylohacter. The young rods are difficult to distinguish
from those of B. suhtilis ; but in nutrient solutions they develop
into longer and distinctly septated threads. The formation of the
zoogloea-form is, however, very different. A single rod is always the
origin of a zoogloea-colony ; after coming to rest it divides into two
derivative rods, which then separate and lie nearly side by side.
After this has been repeated several times, a copious development of
mucilage takes place. The author contests Van Tieghem's statement
that this organism has the power of causing fermentation in cellulose
and other carbo-hydrates, maintaining, on the contrary, that the
substance produced is always butyric acid, as is proved by the smell
as well as by chemical analysis.

3. Vibrio Bugula. This bacterium was found in cultures of the
butyric ferment.

4. Bacillus Ulna. This species is readily distinguished from
* Loc. cit., Nov. 12. t ' B"t. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 409.

928 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

other bacteria by its size, and by its peculiar somewbat heavy move-
ment.

In a communication to the French Academy,* Van Tieghera
disputes the accuracy of Prazmowski's observations as far as Bacillus
Amylohacter is concerned, and repeats his i)revious I'esults. The
correctness of his conclusion he considered to be proved by the
invariable disengagement of hydrogen.

Experimental Researches on a Leptothrix.f— M, Feltz presented,
on the 9th of June, a " rectification " of his earlier communication,!
in which he details his correspondence on this subject with
M. Pasteur, who was of opinion that the so-called new form was the
Bacterium of anthrax-poisoning, and furnished him with a guinea-pig
suffering from the disease, and with another jjoisoned with his own
Lejjtothrix. The result of the examination of their blood was to con-
vince M. Feltz of the correctness of M. Pasteur's view. M. Pasteur
adds a short note, in which there is one point of especial importance
in these days — ■" Je me suis abstenu generalement de donner des
noms specifiques a ceux de ces organismes que je pouvais croire
nouveaux."

Antidote to Bacteria-poisoning in Frogs.§ — Bactera^mia is, in
the frog, always accompanied by an alteration in the characters of the
blood-corpuscles, and this alteration has a proportional relation to the
gravity of the condition of the poisoned frog ; a small subcutaneous
dose of phenate of soda (e. g. about yg^ y milligramme for each gramme
of the frog's weight) is found to be an efficient antidote.

Sugar-refining Gum, Leuconostoc mesenteroides.|| — It has long
been known to the manufacturers of beet-root sugar that a gelatinous
gummy substance, of a firm and elastic consistency, composed of white
lumps of moderate regularity intimately associated into a kind of
parenchyma, makes its appearance on the sacks in which the cut
beet-root is pressed, on the presses themselves, on the sieves through
which the juice passes, and less often in the boiled syrup. This
substance is known in France as gomme de sucrerie, in Germany as
Froschlaich (frog's spawn). The part of this substance soluble in
alcohol contains maunite, fatty acids, glycerophosphoric acid, and a
nitrogenous principle, betain or oxynevrin. The insoluble part, much
the most considerable, is almost exclusively comj)osed of a substance
with the composition CijHioOio, endowed with a rotatory power to the
right (ttj = 223°), three times that of cane-sugar, and greater than
that of dextrin or starch. It has been called by Scheibler dextrane.
At first supposed to be a non-organized protoplasmic product of the
cells of the beet, several observers subsequently determined its
organic nature ; and it was seen to have considerable afiinity with
Nostoc on the one hand, and with Cohn's genus of bacteria Ascococcus
on the other hand.

Van Tieghem has recently subjected this organism to a searching

* ' Comptes Eendus,' Ixxxix. (1S79) p. 5. t Ibid., Ixxxviii. (1879) p. 1214.
X See ante, p. 454. § ' Kev. Internat. Sci.,' iv. (1879) p. 88.

I! ' Aun. Sci. Nat. (Bot.),' vii. (1879) p. ISO.

INVERTEBRATA, CUYPTOGAillA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 929

iuvostigation, derived from experiments both ou tlie boot and on the
date and carrot. He considers it to have a close analogy with Nostoc
in its mode of germination and development, its structure in the adult
state, and its reproduction ; but, difiering in the absence of chloro-
phyll, he proposes for it the distinctive name of Ltmconostoc, a new
genus of bacteria, most nearly allied to Ascococcus and Myconostoc of
Cohn. It would then occupy a position in the family of Schizo-
phytas, and in Cohn's tribe of Nematogense, in the same section as
Nostoc and Hormosiphon, but constituting by itself the only member of
the series destitute of chlorophyll, known as Phycochroraacea). It
develops with extraordinary rapidity in a suitable medium, but has
not the character of a ferment. Its effects arc extremely injurious to
the industry.

Excrescences on the Root of the Alder. * — Tubercular excrescences
on the root of the alder have long been a subject of investigation, and
have been referred by some to malformation and hypertrophal growth ,
by others to the prick of an insect ; while M. Woronine attributes
them to the attacks of a parasitic fungus, to which he gave the name
Schinzia Alni, and of which he believed he had detected both the
mycelium and the spores.

M. Gravis, who has subjected these bodies to fresh examination,
has been unable to confirm the observations of Woronine. Ho
considers them to partake rather of the nature of a gall ; the sub-
stances found in the cells he regards as amylaceous or albuminoid
reserve -materials stored up for the purpose of nutrition. Even should
the phenomenon be due to the attacks of a parasitic fungus, M. Gravis
thinks its systematic position has yet to be determined.

Lichenes.

Vitricole Lichens and the Schwendenerian Hypothesis-f— Dr.
Nylander has a note in ' Flora ' upon Vitricole Liclaeus, from which
the Eev. J. M. Crombie gives the following extract, wliich bears
directly upon Schwendener's theory.

After observing that he had already J stated that it was useless
to study the germination of lichens from spores cultivated at home,§
because in Nature itself not only the earliest stages of germina-
tion, but also the whole development of lichens, can readily be
perceived on quartzose rocks or smooth bark of trees,ll Dr. Nylander
proceeds to notice that the same may still more easily be observed on
glass which has been exposed for a long series of years in districts
where lichens are of common occurrence. " There, on the very pure
surface of the glass, we have under the Microscope before our eyes,
numerous germinations and prothalline formations, and then gradually
advancing the beginnings of the primary glomeruli of the thallus (as

* 'Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Bclg.,' xviii. (1879) p. 50.
t 'Flora,' Ixii. (1879) p. 303; see ' Grevillea,' viii. (1879) p. 30.
X ' Flora,' 1877, p. 356, and 1878, p. 247.
§ Vide also Crombie iu ' Pop. Sci. Kev.,' 1874, pp. 267-8.
II To this al.S() may be added, on mortar of walls and houses, as iu the suLurLs
of London.

VOL. II. 3 Q

930 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

are sufficiently well figured in ' Tul. Mem. Lich.,' t. 3, f. 3), and
behold the whole pi'ocess of evolution from tlie germinating spore to
the perfect thallus, and at length to the formation of the perfect
apothecium. All of these are seen to be formed of themselves, that
is, by an innate power or impulsion of procreation, which is inherent
in the sjiore, the only aiding materials being those lent by the atmo-
sphere, especially rain-water. Upon the very pure glassy substratum
where these vital phenomena go on, no trace of any Protococcus
(or Pleurococcus), nor of any element of a heterogeneous thallus
can be detected in the vicinity, although innumerable examples of
such germinations have been examined in very favourable circum-
stances, especially in Lecanora (jalactina Ach., Lecanora exicjua Ach.,
and Lecidea alboatra Hoffm., growing upon glass. The prothalline
commencements of Lecanora exigua radiate dendritically around the
spores, and are of a blackish colour, forming the hypothallus, in which
minute, cellulose, thalline glomeruli are produced, presently exhibiting
gonidia forming themselves in the cells (as in Tul, Mem., I. c.) ;
often also we see apothecia produced even in a very young plant.
The same is the case with the beginnings of Lecanora galactina ; *
but here the hypothallus is white, consisting of white, byssine,
appressed filaments, laterally apposite and contiguous. All these
hypothalli are very closely agglutinated to the glass ; and there are
no traces whatever of any Protococci in connection with them."

These observations of themselves (Mr. Crombie says) in connection
with Vitricole Lichens (which, in this country, he has only observed
on broken pieces of bottles on garden-wall tops, chiefly in Scotland)
are amply sufficient to show how untenable is Schwendener's hypo-
thesis, which, in the concluding words of Nylander's paper, is thus
" reduced to the nothingness from which it ought never to have
emerged."

Parasitism of Lichens on Mosses.t — II. Zukal, having observed
the frequent occurrence of luxuriant lichen-growths in the midst of
tufts of moss, has determined the cause to be a parasitism of the lichen
on the moss.

The stem and leaves of Plagiotliecmm sylvaticum were penetrated
in all directions by thehyphte of the thallus of a Pertnsaria and those
of Hypmm splendens by a Lep-aria. The stems of a plant of Pohjtri-
chuni commune, up to the rosette of leaves, were found to be infested
with minute patches of the thallus of a Cladonia. In one case the
lichen had attached itself to the apex of the leaf of the Pohjtrichum,
and completely penetrated the leaf with its rhizines. The gonidial
layer of the lichen was in these cases normally developed.

Colorific Properties of Lichens. t— The subject of the colouring
matters contained in lichens — to which Dr. Lauder Lindsay directed
attention in 1858-5 — has recently reacquired, he says, considerable
interest in connection with the introduction of colour-tests, as

* This Mr. Crombie says he can entirely corroborate from his own observations
on this species, as growing on mortar in tlie north suburbs of London,
t ' Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr.,' xxix. (1879) p. 189.
j ' Grevillea,' viii. (1879) p. 2r).

INVEKTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 931

characters for species in licliens, and tlie development of fast dyes
from licliens cai^able of competing witli the coal-tar and other recent
products of the chemist's laboratory.

During the last twenty-five years the principal changes in our
knowledge of the chemistry of these colouring matters consist in

(1) the addition of sundry (supposed or really) new substances, con-
fusing to a still greater degree the previous confusion of names ; and

(2) certain proofs of the correctness of the opinion, that several, at
least, of the bodies described by different chemists as differing
trivially in constitution are referable to the same substance. A new
series of conjoint researches by competent chemists and licheno-
logists are therefore required. Not only are neio fields of research
open, but the need of a revision of all previous analyses is even more
evident. Chemists themselves are forced to make this admission, but
the subject has not as yet proved a sufficient counter-attraction to the
innumerable other interesting problems daily exposed for solution in
organic chemistry. Meanwhile, the crude researches of lichenologists
may serve to pave the way for the subsequent more scientific and
precise analyses of chemists, by indicating the directions in which
chemical inquiry is likely to prove useful or successful.

The foregoing along with other considerations have induced
Dr. Lindsay to submit the results of another more systematic and
complete series of experiments, supplementary to those presented in
1853-5. These results include a general inquiry into colour-
development in the whole family of lichens, and the experiments are
on the one hand a repetition, and on the other an extension, of the
former series, and illustrate generally the colour-reactions of lichens.

A solution of the lichen colorific principles was used in hot
water or alcohol, boiling the lichens, previously reduced to powder
or minute fragments, as the majority, at least, of the colouring
principles, while insoluble in cold and sparingly so in hot water, are
readily soluble in cold or boiling alcohol. The reactions developed
are thus the efiects of reagents on the alcoholic or aqueous decoctions of
the lichen-thallus.

Whilst the specimens experimented on were for the most part
comparatively old, a parallel series of experiments was made on fresh
lichens in their own places of growth with, on the whole, similar
results.

Dr. Lindsay has prepared a voluminous series of elaborate tables
of details of his experiments which is not however yet published.

Microgonidia.* — Dr. J. Miiller, of Geneva, replies to the objections
brought forward by de Bary, and reasserts the correctness of the
discovery by Dr. Minks of the " microgonidia " of lichens ; which he
states have now been detected also by nearly all the Geneva botanists ;
by Dr. Tuckermann, of Amherst, and by Herr Stodder, of Dorten,
without any chemical preparation, and by ToUes' immersion-systems
(h Td5 iV' ^^^ irV)- For the observation of the " microgonidia,"
Dr. Miiller recommends immersion objectives, with Abbe's condenser,
and an illumination of white light only reflected from white clouds, &c.
* ' Flora," Ixii. (1879) p. 294.

3 Q 2

932 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Algae.

Formation of the Siphons and Tetraspores in Polysiphonia.*—
Professor Wright considers the frond of Polysiphonia as not, correctly
speaking, articulated or jointed. As regards the development of the
central tube, in the living state there is no central cavity in the
frond ; but there is a central cell many times longer than broad,
putting one in mind of a prosenchymatous cell, with four or more rays
proceeding from about its central portion, and its two poles somewhat
dravpn out. In the early disk-shaped condition of the frond a division
takes place, apparently simultaneously, into a central cell, and four
others surrounding it in the form of a cross, the central cell being the
smallest. As development progresses, the central cell or tube grows
only in length, or, at least, very little in breadth ; while the four sur-
rounding cells grow both in length, width, and depth, forming
ultimately what are known as the " siphons." The evolution of the
tetraspores is very much the same as in Griffithsia.

Fertilization of Red Algse by the Agency of Infusoria.f — Pro-
fessor Dodel-Port, of Zurich, has communicated to ' Kosmos ' an
account of some exceedingly interesting observations made by him on
the fertilization of a Floridean alga, Polysiphonia siihulata T. Ag.,
which appears from his researches to present a singular combination
of analogies with the auemoj^hilous and eutomophilous phanerogamous
plants. An abstract of Professor Dodel-Port's paper, with figures,
appears in ' Nature.';}:

Like many other Floridean, Polysiphonia siihulata is dioecious, and
the male and female plants appear often to grow at a considerable
distance apart. The antherozdids, which are produced from anthe-
ridia presenting a considerable external resemblance to microscopic
ears of maize, are described as mere globules of protoplasm, con-
taining a small, highly refractive nodule and a few plasma granules,
but entirely destitute of cell-wall, and of the cilia by means of which
the antherozoids of so many algre make their way through the water
in search of the female organs which they are destined to fertilize.
The antherozoid is thus precisely analogous to the pollen-grain of an
anemophilous phanerogamous plant.

The female reproductive organ in this plant is a multicellular body
forming an outgrowth from the apical parts of the branches of the
thallus. The youngest of these carpogonia is found nearest the apex,
those lower down being more mature. The structure of the carpo-
gonium is described by Professor Dodel-Port in detail, but the most
important point for our present purpose is the presence at its summit
of two hair-like organs — a forked hair composed of several cells, and
a trichogyne, a slender, colourless, unicellular hair, a little shorter than
the forked hair, and i)roduced from the surface of the carpogonium at
a later period, making its appearance, in fact, about the time when the
unfertilized carpogonium arrives at maturity. When full grown, it

* 'Trans. Irish Acad.,' xxvi. (1879) p. 47.

t 'Kosmos,' 1879 ; see ' Pop. Sci. Rev.,' iii. (1872) p. 421.

j ' Nature,' xx. (1879) p. 463.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 933

is of a cyliudrical form, abruptly rounded off at the extremity, and its
narrow interior canal is filled with colourless, finely granular proto-
plasm. The trichogyne is most important, as it is the receptive organ,
analogous to the elongated style which occurs in so many phanero-
gams. Fresh antherozoids of Polysiphonia subulata, on coming into
contact with the upper part of the trichogyne, which seems to some
extent to act as a stigma, immediately adhere to it firmly, when the
granular contents of the antherozoid pass into the interior of the
trichogyne, and a part of them descending the canal in the latter reach
the carpogonium, of which they fertilize the central cell. This pro-
cess, as will be seen, is very analogous to that which takes place in
phanerogamous plants.

In the case of anemophilous or wind-fertilized dioecious plants, it
is well known that the chance of fertilization is usually greatly
increased by the enormous quantity of pollen which the male flowers
yield to every passing breeze, and a similar provision is found to
prevail in the case of dioecious Polysiphonia. It is perfectly clear
that the antherozoids of this plant, being quite destitute of any loco-
motive organs, must be passive in their further proceedings, and they
are no doubt carried along in all directions by the currents and other
movements of the water until, on meeting with the trichogyne of the
female plant, they adhere to it, and fulfil their duty. When the two
sexes grow at no very great distance apart. Professor Dodel-Port
seems to think that the small marine animals, Crustacea, annelids, star-
fish, infusoria, &c., which swarm in the submarine forests of Florideaa,
may aid importantly in effecting the transportation of the fertilizing
element to the female organ ; but in the course of his investigations
he discovered that certain minute animals interfere in the process in
a much more curious and interesting fashion, vividly reminding us,
indeed, in the singular adaptation of means to ends, of the wonderful
relations unquestionably existing between insects and flowering plants.
On the growing thallus, and especially on the youngest branches,
Prof. Dodel-Port constantly found an immense number of the well-
known bell-animalcules ( Vorticella), which were, as usual with them,
in incessant motion. These little creatures were found to feed upon
the antherozoids floating about in the water ; but besides those which
they manage to swallow, a considerable number are whirled about in
the vortex caused by the cilia of the animalcule, which no doubt stops
them in the course impressed upon them by larger submarine currents,
and keeps them, as it were, hovering about the neighbourhood where
their business lies. As the VorticellcB are constantly changing their
position by the contraction and extension of their little foot-stalks, the
whirls set up by them in the water must become very complex, and
the best proof that the action of these little vortices upon the anthero-
zoids is beneficial to the plant, is to be found in the fact that it was
through their agency that the author was enabled to observe the
attachment of the antherozoids to the trichogyne. The presence of
the VorticellcB, in fact, imparts to the passive antherozoids a motion
analogous to that with which the ciliated sperm-cells of other Algge
are endowed. In the case of the Polysiphonia, the beneficial action of

934 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tlie whirls produced by the Vorticellce is supposed to be increased by
the presence in the immediate vicinity of the trichogyne of the forked
hair above mentioned. This hair, it is believed, will divide the
whirls, and thus produce subsidiary whirls, tending directly to bring
the antherozoids into contact with the trichogyne.

In his conclusion, Prof. Dodel-Port makes the following remarks :
— " The total absence of active organs of locomotion in the antherozoids
of Florideae points to a common ancestor from which the diiferent
branches of the Florideae have inherited the immobility of the anthero-
zoids. During the differentiation of the red seaweeds many forms
have no doubt died out in consequence of fertilization not taking place
through the passivity of the male cells, while other forms have retired
to localities which favour the process of fertilization by the active
currents of the water in spite of the immobility of the antherozoids.
It is well known that we now find most of the existing species of
Florideae on the coasts of the warmer seas, which are constantly
washed by the waves ; while the northern coasts, which are covered
with crusts of ice during a great portion of the year, are very poor in
red seaweeds. Future researches will have to show how far in many
of these aquatic plants the differentiation of the genera took jilace
in the direction of an adaptation to the small marine animals which
inhabit them, and favour their fertilization in the way I have pointed
out."

Cell-structure of Griffithsia setacea, and Development of its
Antheridia and Tetraspores.* — Professor E. P. Wright has made a
careful examination of this red alga, well known to all collectors of
seaweeds. In regard to the process of formation of the antheridia
and tetraspores. Dr. Wright observes, that at first they are hardly
distinguishable ; very early, however, the mass of protoplasm com-
pletely isolates itself in the former case, while in the latter it remains
attached by a little pedicel of protoplasm, which was found in every
species of Polysijjhonia in which he watched the development of the
tetrasporic fruit. After the mass of protoplasm is well formed, it
divides into four parts. Although the antherozoids of the FloridefB
are ordinarily described as motionless, Dr. Wright observed in those of
Griffithsia an obscure amoeboid movement, quite sufficient to enable
them to cling to or even enter a trichogyne. Various other inter-
esting points in the structure of the cells and in the production of
the sexual and non-sexual reproductive organs are described.

Reproduction of Cutleria.f — A careful examination of Cutleria at
the zoological station at Naples, has led Falkenberg to confirm in the
main Eeinke's statements J as to its mode of fertilization. This is
not effected by a " diffusion-current," but by the actual coalescence of
a single antherozoid — presenting in this respect a contrast to Fucus — •
with the " receptive spot " of the oosphere. The attractive force of
the oosphere on the antherozoid appears to extend over a distance of

* ' Trans. Irish Acad.,' xxvii. (1879) p. 27.

t 'Mittheil. Zool. Station Neapel,' i. (1879) p. 420; see ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii.
(1879) p. 510.

X This Journal, ante, p. 605.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 935

several centimetres. The impregnated oospore germinates without any
intermediate period of rest, and develops at once into a cellular fila-
ment ; this condition being described by Reiuke as that of the " resting
larva." In this state Ecinke believed he had detected the production
of " secondary spores," which, however, Falkenberg regards as a
pathological product. This condition is only of short duration ; in
six or eight weeks lateral branches are produced, diflfering altogether
in appearance from the primary germ-plant, consisting of plates of
tissue with marginal growth. At this stage the germ-plant perishes.
The impregnated female zoospores (zygospores) do not, on germina-
tion, produce at once a Cutleria-thallus, but a second generation, con-
sisting of flat creeping shoots, which develop as lateral branches from a
primary " germ-foot," and which differ materially from the ordinary
C«^/e>-/a-thallus, both in the direction of their growth, and in the
position of the growing jioint.

The author considers the phenomena here described as a connecting
link between the conjugation of similar zoospores (zoogametes), and
the impregnation of a passive oosphere by mobile autheroids.

Conjugation of Ectoearpus.* — It is now some time since Thuret
discovered, contrary to his first assertions in 1850, that Ectoearpus
possesses unilocular sporangia (oosporangia), as well as multilocular
sporangia (trichosporangia). The same authority is said to have
proved later on that the zoospores issuing from either of these forms
of sporangia germinate without any previous reciprocal contact.
Janczewski and Eostafinski have obtained the same result ; they say
that no conjugation takes place, neither at the moment of the emission
of the zoospores, nor during their germination.j Since that, however,
Eeinke has proved sexuality in the Ectocarpacete, and in Zanardinia
and Cutleria. Areschoug had already previously observed the con-
jugation of Dicfyosiphon, but by a method which gave room for some
criticism. In Acetahularia, Strasburger has observed that the zoo-
spores only conjugate when they issue from different spoi-angia.
Goebcl has proved analogous phenomena in Edocarpus pusilhis, which
is frequently found in the Bay of Naples on the great algae, particu-
larly on Codium tomentosum. He has seen the zoospores of this species
conjugate only when two neighbouring sporangia were open at the
same time. The same is the case with Ulothrix, according to Dodel.
There is, therefore, among the inferior cryptogams, a tendency to
cross fecundation.

American (Edogoniacese. X — Professor Wittrock, the chief autho-
rity on the CEdogoniaceee, has monographed the American species,
including twenty-three of (Edorjonimn and eight of Bulbochcete, seven
species being altogether new. The family, as a whole, differs but
little from its European aspect, all the American forms belonging to
types which are also represented in Europe. Those of Greenland and
other northernmost parts of America are identical with those of
northern Europe ; while those from the southern districts differ

* 'Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1878) pp. 117, 193.

t ' Soc. des Sci. Nat. de Cherbourg,' 1873 ; Ibid., 1875, p. 9.

X 'Botauiska Notiser,' Nov. 5, 1878 ; see ' Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 312.

936 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

specifically from those of the south of Eui'ope. The genus Bulhochcete,
in America as in Europe, has most representatives in the northern and
north temperate zone.

New Genus of Chroolepidas .*— Dr. Eeinsch has detected a new
genus of algfe, to which he gives the name Acrohlaate, and which he
refers to the family of Chroolepidse, attached to small mussels
belonging to the genus Turritella, and to small stones, on the coast of
Buzzard's Bay, west of Cape Cod, North America.

The individual plants are microscopic, and form small green
tufts, resembling at first sight an Ectocarpus, the larger plants being
copiously branched. The characteristic reproductive organs, agreeing
in their origin and the development of their cell-conteuts with the
conceptacles of Chroolepus, are always formed at the apex of the fila-
ments, the zoospores being produced in them. The mode of growth
of the filaments resembles that of Cladophora. "While at present
placed among the Chroolepidre, the author thinks it possible that the
discovery of sexual reproductive organs may hereafter show Acrohlaste
to form a connecting link between this family and the Phfeosporeaj.

Fossil Algae belonging to the Verticillate Siphoneae.t — Munier-
Chalmas includes under this section of calcareous alga) all the Chloro-
sporefe comprised by Harvey in the family Dasycladca^, and all those
fossil genera related to Larvaria, Chjpeina, Poh/tnjpa, Acicularia, Dac-
tylopora, and Uteria, many of which have hitherto been mistaken for
foraminifera. The group includes more than fifty genera, mostly
found in the Triassic, Jurassic, Chalk, and Tertiary formations. It is
at present represented only by seven living genera, viz. Dasycladus,
Halicorijne, Oijniopolia (including Polytrypa and Descaisnella), Poly-
physa, Acetahularia, Neomeris, and BorneteUa ; the last a new genus
founded on Harvey's Neomeris nitida, distinguished by the origin
of the sporangia at the side of the radiate threads, instead of at the
apex in the centre of the terminal pileus.

The frond of the verticillate Siphonea) is simple or dichotomous,
formed of a tubular axis, from which spring successive whorls of
radiating branches. In many species the axis as well as the rays have
their wall encrusted with calcium carbonate, so that the plant is
enclosed in a calcareous envelope, which reproduces with exactitude the
details of its organization. This inorganic envelope consists of one or
two calcareous cylinders. The inner one is formed of the axis and the
first member of the verticillate rows of cells which spring from it.
The outer cylinder is composed of the outermost cells of the branches
which end in an enlarged swelling, the lateral margins coalescing
with those of the neighbouring ones. The fructification may also be
encrusted with lime, and contribute to the formation of the outer
cylinder, as may be seen in the genus Gymopolia. The fructification
sometimes consists of single receptacles or sporangia, as in Gymopolia
and Neomeris, sometimes of a number of smooth shining hollows in
which sporangia or spores are formed, as in Acicularia, Maupasia, Dac-

* 'Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. SCI.

t 'Comptes Rendus,' Oct. 29, 1877; see 'Bot. Zeit.,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 165.

INVERTEBRATAj CRYPTOGAMIAj MICROSCOPY, ETC,

937

tylopora, &c. In the fossil forms a calcareous skeleton remains, very
liable to be confounded with that of foraminifera, in which are hollow
chambers and canals, where the fructification and the rays have been
and by means of which they may be determined with great ease.

The author thus classifies the genera belonging to the group.
Those marked thus * are fossil genera ; those marked * * are known
in both the fossil and living state : —

I. Cymopolidse

II. Acetabularidse ..

III. Thyrsoporellidas

IV. DactyloporidiB ..

V. Neomeridoe

VI. Uteridae
VII. Hagenraulleridse

Dasycladus.

Halicoryne. [

Clypeina.* I

Cymopolia.** j

Parkerella.* I

Hermitella.*

Polyphysa.

Acefabularia.

Acicularia.*

Briardiiia.*

Oriojiovella.*

Thyrsoporella.*

Gumbeliiia.*

Dactylopora.*

Neomeris.

Bonietolla.*

Terqiieiuella.*

Maupnsina.*

Zittelina.*

Uteria.*

Hiigenmulleria.''

Carpenterella.*

A. Decaisnella.**

B. Larvaria.*

C. Vaginopora.*

D. Karreria.*

E. Polytrypa.**

Influence of Light on the Movements of Desmids.*— According
to Stahl, when Closterium is placed in a vessel which the light reaches
only from one side, the cells attach themselves to the glass in such
a position that the longer axis of the cell coincides with the direction
of the incident light. If the direction of the light is altered, the
position of the cell varies correspondingly with more or less rapidity.
There appears, therefore, to be a certain difference between the two
halves of the cells in respect to their behaviour towards light, one
extremity seeking and the other avoiding it. It is remarkable that
in this respect the properties of the two halves seem to alternate from
time to time, causing a change in the direction of the longer axis to
the extent of 180°. Intense light appears to have a very different eff"ect
on desmids to that of diffused light, the cells then placing themselves
in a position in which the longer axis is at right angles to the direc-
tion of the incident light.

New Diatom, t — A new genus and si>ecies of diatom from the Santa
Monica deposit is described by Mr. Stodder ; the following are given
as the generic and specific characters : —

" Discus (a plate), n. g. It is a simple disk, translucent like

* ' Verb. Pbys.-mod. Gesellsch. Wiirzburg,' xiv. No. 7 ; sue ' Hedwigia,' xviii.
1879, p. 100.

t 'Am. Jouru. Micr.,' iv. (1879) No. 3.

938 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

porcelain, with no clots, puncta, or strife, or other marks common to
diatoms.

" B. porcellaneus, n. s. Characters that of the genus, with a ridge
siibmarginal, giving it the look of a dinner-plate ; other examples
have a curved ridge in some (not constant) part of the disk."

Adulteration of Currant Jelly with Diatoms. * — Professor Ch.
Menier, of Nantes, in examining with the Microscope some so-called
currant " preserves," recognized that the gelatinous consistency was
due to diatoms, as was evidenced by the presence of a very fine Arach-
noidiscus japonicus.

Professor Menier then procured some of the substance (used
for various industrial purposes) known as Chinese or Japanese glue,
and discovered the same diatom. This is not found in France, and
he was thus able to establish the actual composition of the " pre-
serve." The colour he found to be due to cochineal and hollyhock, as
was shown by the presence of large pollen-graius of the Malvacete.
The preserve would not, of course, keep long, being quickly invaded
by cryptogamic productions.

Professor Menier points out that the Japanese glue is " a very easy
and valuable substance for diatomists to explore, and in which dis-
coveries will probably be made." According to him it is manufactured
out of the AlgfB of the Japanese coasts that are capable of being
transformed into jelly — at any rate, the debris of a number of very
different Algfe are found. M. Bornet considers them capable of being
identified.

Palmelline, the Colouring-matter of Palmella cruenta.t — M.
Phipson has subjected to careful examination the colouring matter of
this minute alga, often found as a red stain at the bottom of walls, &c.,
esjiecially in winter. Under the Microscoiie, it is seen to consist of
minute globules, about 4 /x, in diameter, closely resembling globules of
blood, which have a diameter of 5 to 6 /x. They float freely in a
mucous fluid not unlike the serum of blood.

The colouring matter of these globules, to which the author gives
the name palmelline, presents a remarkable resemblance to the haemo-
globin of blood. It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, benzin, bisulphide
of carbon, &c., but dissolves in water ; it is dichro'ic, composed of a
red substance combined with an albuminous substance, and coagulates
with alcohol, heat, and acetic acid. Its spectrum shows one or two
absorption-bands in the yellow, or between the yellow and green.
Like h.Timoglobin, it contains iron, the residue on evaporation pre-
senting distinct indications of lime, chlorine, and iron. Various other
interesting properties of this substance are described by the author in
his original paj)er.

Mycoidea parasitica, a new Parasitic Alga.J — Dr- Cunningham
describes under this name a new genus of parasitic Algfe, very destruc-
tive to the leaves of camellia, rhododendron, and other plants in India.

* 'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' xxvi. (1879) Rev. Bill., p. 66.
t ' Coiujites Rendiis,' Ixxxix. (1879) p. 316.
t 'Traus. Linn. Soc. (Bot.),' li. (1879) p. 301.

INVEUTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 939

The parasite makes its appearance in tbe form of greenish or
bright orange patches on the upper surface of the leaf. On detaching
one of these pustules from the leaf, and examining it under high
powers, it is found to consist of a flattened, subei^idermal disk of
radiating filaments, from which numerous ascending twigs arise, and
these, breaking through the epidermis, develop into the fructifying
filaments. The disk consists of a single layer of dichotomous fila-
ments, and increases continually at the margin. The terminal cell of
a fructifying filament eventually swells up into an oval, spore-like
body ; in this is ultimately formed a roundish orifice, from which
escape a number of reddish orange (by transmitted light) biciliated
zoospores. The sexual reproduction is effected by the fecundation of
oogonia by pollinodia. The resulting oospores retain their vitality
for a considerable time. Ultimately the contents break up into a
number of biciliated zoospores, precisely resembling those produced
non-sexually. They rupture the thin wall of the oospore, and swira
freely in the subepidermal space and over the surface of tlie leaf.

With regard to the systematic position of Mi/coidea, Dr. Cunning-
ham considers that, notwithstanding the difterence in the mode of
reproduction, its vegetative structure indicates a near afiinity with
Coleochcete. An interesting circumstance connected with this alga is
that a number of the primary disks do not give rise to fructifying fila-
ments, but are utilized by fungal filaments, and, in connection with them,
contribute to the development of patches of a heteromerous lichen.

Two new Parasitic Algse.* — An addition is made to the small
number of known parasitic Algas in the description by J. Eeinke of
two species.

The first, a species of Anabcena, was discovered by him several
years ago in the roots of Cycade^e, where it forms bright gi-ecn
streaks visible to the naked eye. It develops in the intercelhdar
spaces, but has no obvious injurious effect on the host. Micro-
scopic examination shows it to consist of strings of globular cells
embedded in jelly, presenting a close resemblance to Nostoc. It has
been observed in the roots of Ceratozamia, Cjcas, Bioon, and Encejjlie-
lartos.

The second species, to which he gives the name Entocladia viridis,
is parasitic on the long unicellular filaments of Derhesia Lamourouxii,
growing, however, not within the cell, but in the cell-wall. It is a
branched, multicellular, filamentous alga, nearly allied to Stigeodonium
and Chlorotylium. Although no reproduction of the alga has been
observed, this no doubt takes place by means of zoospores.

Method of Cultivating Volvox globatoi-.f — This Alga is, accord-
ing to the experience of many, a most difficult one to keep for any
length of time, but Mr. N. E. Brown, of Kew, announces that he has
discovered the way to do so.

For several years his practice was to place the Volvox in large
glass or earthenware jars, small bottles, open dishes, and other
vessels, exposed to full sun, or kept in partial or entire shade,
* *Bot. Zeit ,' xxxvii. (1879) p. 473.
t 'Gardtners' Chronicle,' 1879 (Nov. 8) p. 599.

940 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

supplying it with rain, pond, and spring water, in turn, but always
with the result that after a short time it disappeared. In October,

1878, however, he put a small quantity, probably not more than one
hundred individuals, in a four-ounce bottle, having a mouth three-
quarters of an inch in diameter, and set this on a shelf at the side of
an outhouse, which had no gutter, so that the rain in running off the
roof would drip into the bottle ; here it has remained until November

1879, and instead of the few original specimens, they are now
abundant. The water has never been changed or replenished, only
that which dripped naturally from the roof into the bottle having
been added to the original stock, and during the abundant rains of
this year the bottle often overflowed. Several times a portion of the
water containing the Volvox has been placed in the jars and dishes
standing in various parts of the garden, but these always died in a
short time, whilst those left in the small bottle, treated as above,
remained in perfect health and multiplied. The position in which
the bottle was placed faced the north, so that it only got the sun in
the early morning of the summer months. During the severe weather
of last winter, the water was several times frozen into a solid mass of
ice, but apparently without injuring the Volvox.

MICEOSCOPY, &o.

Soap as an Embedding Substance.* — Some of the chief objections
to the methods of embedding in oleaginous or waxy mixtures seem to
be successfully met by the use of the preparation recommended by
Dr. Kadyi, and its capability of modification according to the different
substances to be embedded is strongly in its favour.

The best materials and proportions are as follows : — 28 grammes
of shavings of stearate of soda soap (that sold as '' weisse Wachs-
kernseife" abroad is best), lOO^rcub. cent, of 96 per cent, alcohol,
and, generally, 5 to 10 cub. cent, distilled water. The two first
ingredients are warmed together on the water bath and to the liquid
mass the water is added gradually, until it coagulates quickly into a
transparent mass when dropped into a watch-glass. The mixture
should be kej)t in a stoppered bottle.

For use, it is melted or boiled and the object at once plunged in.
When cool, sections of it are taken with a razor wetted with strong
alcohol, this liquid being also used, warm or cold, to dissolve out the
soap fx'om the sections.

Thus used, the material is adapted best to delicate objects; it
possesses transparency and elasticity, and penetrates pores and cavities
eflectually.

A tougher preparation, suited to harder, such as chitinous, tissues,
is obtained by increasing the proportion of soap to an almost equal
amount by weight with that of the alcohol.

Logwood Staining Solution.! — Dr. E. A. Cook points out that
in most text-books this is stated to be good in results but uncertain
in action ; and from the numbers of formulte given for its preparation,

* ' Zool. Anzciger,' ii. (1879) p. 47(3.

t ' Jouru. Auat. ami Phys.' (Humphry), xiv. (1879) p. 140.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 941

it is evident that many experimenters have failed to hit upon a com-
bination satisfactory in all points. The chemical nature of the
colouring material of logwood is fairly stable, and affords no reason
for any uncertainty, and it appeared desirable therefore to determine
under what conditions the solution would yield the best results.

The colouring material consists of two substances— hasmatoxylin
and haematein, differing by two equivalents of hydrogen. Hajma-
toxylin (containing the larger amount of hydrogen) is soluble in
alum solution, while hfematein is slightly, if at all so. The latter is
of no use for colouring animal tissues. Haematoxylin forms com-
pounds with various metallic oxides which are soluble in alum
solution also ; and if a tissue be stained with hsematoxylin, or with
haematoxylin and a metallic oxide, and immersed in an aqueous
solution of alum, the colour will be all discharged from the tissue
and taken up by the solution ; and the solution will thus take up
fresh quantities of htematoxylin compound until it roaches a point of
saturation beyond which it will take no more from tissues, but will,
if over-saturated with it, give up the colouring matter freely to
immersed animal material. Such a solution of hfematoxylin, alum,
and metallic oxide has a clear purple colour, becoming red on
addition of acids. If alkaline earths, alumina, or hydrated earthy
phosphates be suspended in it, they will absorb the colour, and the
solution becomes purple. If the solution be treated with a very small
percentage of a chromate, the purple will gradually be replaced by
a yellowish -brown colour ; or if a tissue which has been stained
with alum-logwood solution be immersed in an exceedingly dilute
bichromate solution, the purple will sooner or later be replaced by
the yellow tint. If a section of any abnormal caseous concretion or
abnormal growth be immersed in a neutral solution of alum-logwood,
it will become of a more bluish purple than ordinary tissue, evidently
from the presence in it of more than an ordinary amount of alkaline
earthy matter or phosphate.

When the above facts are taken into consideration, it will appear
unreasonable to exi^ect tissues hardened in chromic solutions of any
kind to colour as readily with an ordinary logwood solution as they
would do if immersed in the fresh state. Sections of chromic-
hardened tissues are exceptionally difficult to free from chromic com-
pounds most probably because part of the chromic acid is in chemical
combination and insoluble, and when freed from the hardening
material the tissues will not be left in the natural neutral state, and
thus less readily will the nuclei take up the colour. But it has been
found that hardened tissues if cut into sections and well washed, may
be as readily stained with logwood as fresh tissues if the solution be
slightly modified.

It has been found that the cheapest and most practical logwood
solution may be made as follows : — Take logwood extract, 6 parts ;
alum, 6 parts; sulphate of copper, 1 part; water, 40 parts. All
ingredients must be free from iron. Grind the alum, logwood
extract, and sulphate of copper in a mortar, and when powdered add
sufficient water to form a thin paste ; leave for one or two days with
occasional stirring and tlieu filter. The heematein contained in the

942 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

logwood extract will bo retained by the filter witb the dirt, and the
solution consists of htcmatoxylin, alum, and sul^jhate of copper, to
which a crystal of thymol may be added to preserve it from mould.
Fresh or alcohol-hardened tissues may be stained with this after
sufficient dilution ; but for chromic-hardened tissues, dilute 8 drops
with 120 drops of water, and add one drop of j\ per cent, solution of
bichromate of potash just prior to use. Wash the stained solutions
in water as usual. A larger proportion of bichromate solution will
produce an ugly yellow ; and if the mixed solution be kept many
hours, some decomposition will go on.

Tissues stained in logwood may be mounted in glycerine or
Farrant's solution or in dammar. In the two former they keep
unchanged for any length of time ; in the latter they are apt to fade
unless care be taken, in preparing them for dammar, that the sections
be thoroughly freed from water by absolute alcohol before being
brought into contact with oil of cloves. If any moisture be left,
fading will soon commence, and the preparation be spoiled.

Modification of Farrant's Medium* — Professor P. Langcrhans
finds the following a very satisfactory modification of Farrant's
medium for microscopical preparations of small animals : — Gummi
arab., 5 ; aquse, 5 — to which after twelve hours add, glycerini, 5 ;
sol. aquosa acid, carbol. (5 p. c), 10.

With living marine animals it is only necessary to use enough to
go under the cover-glass, and to add a little on the following day to
make up for evaporation, and the preparation is then ready. The
shrinking is very slight, and even many colours are preserved.

Staining Fluids for Vegetable Tissues.t~Mr. A. H. Barrett
recommends the following as a simjjle and successful method of
staining one section with two fluids.

The section is first immersed in an aqueous (1 per cent.) solution
of Crawshaw's aniline blue dye. It is then removed into strong acetic
acid, which seems to fix the colour in certain tissues, remove it from
others, and prepare that not stained for the reception of another
colouring fluid. It is then again removed into a weak solution of
magenta ( Judson's dye), also made strong with acetic acid ; then
mounted in glycerine jelly. The process efiectually shows the
" diflerentiation " of parts, both by the difierent colours and the
varying intensity of colour.

The following are the colours with which the tissues of a section
of Burdock are stained : —

Pith Very pale magenta.

Cellular tissue Deep magenta.

Spiral vessels of medullary sheath . . Deep blue.

Pitted vessels Blue.

Cambium Deep blue.

Liber cells Dark magenta.

Laticiferous vessels Deep b hie.

Cuticle parenchyma Pale blue.

Epidermis Deep blue.

Hairs Pale magenta.

* ' Zoo!. Anzeig.; ii. (1879) p. 575.
t ' Science-Gossip,' 1879, p. 255.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 943

Chloride of Cadmium as a Fluid for Homogeneous Immersion.*
— Colonel Woodward expresses his approval of one of the new immer-
sion fluids proposed this year by Professor Abbe,t viz. the chloride
of cadmium dissolved in glycerinej^and sends photographs of Ainplii-
pleura pelludda taken with the Zeiss yV and Tolles' amplifier, both
with cedar oil and with the cadmium solution. The last picture, as he
points out, resembles that taken on the same day with the cedar oil
almost as closely as if the two were prints from the same negative.
The cadmium solution is not only convenient for use with objectives of
considerable focal length (as the L of Zeiss, for example), but is
especially desirable for photography, as it cannot attack the balsam
cement of the front lens of the objective. This he finds the oil of
cedar may do. Slowly as it attacks solid balsam when cold, it appears
to act more energetically when the temperature is somewhat raised, as
happens during micro-photography. In the case of the Zeiss ^
belonging to the Army Medical Museum, the oil of cedar has already
in this way penetrated to the space behind the front lens of the
objective, which he has in consequence been obliged to return to the
maker for repairs. The substitution of the new fluid ajipears therefore
to have advantages for photogra2)hic purposes which are well worthy
of consideration.

Scientific Value of Microscopic Preparations.^— Dr. Pelletan,
of Paris, complains of the small scientific value of the majority of
microscopic objects prepared for sale, though they are often very
beautiful in appearance ; the preparations of diatoms being alone, for
the most part, satisfactory, often excellent, and sometimes marvellous.
Certain preparations of cryptogamic botany are also, he considers, of
value, and dissections, &c., of vegetable anatomy, thin cuttings of
dense substances, animal, vegetable, and mineral, and particularly
sections of wood, but of all other classes it is only by chance one
meets with an interesting slide.

Many of the ordinary preparations, however, if not satisfactory to
savants, interest amateurs, and they teach many things that otherwise
would not have been Imown. "They are also useful in England, where
they are sold in large numbers, because in that country the Micro-
scope is more used for amusement and as an object of luxury than for
working purposes. These slides, that for us have little interest, are
therefore in this point of view of real utility. They give to ordinary
people the taste for natural objects, and they furnish a thousand little
instructions acquired without labour, and are also amusing. We must
not, therefore, too much despise them.

" Histological preparations, whether normal or pathological, are
those of least value. Preparers, with very few exceptions, have not
sufficient knowledge of histology or of the necessary technical methods,
or even the will to adopt them, because they are tedious and delicate,
and, moreover, it is feared that the increased cost of the preparations
would frighten those who might wish to acquire them. There is no
foundation for this last reason, judging from the daily demands for

* See post, p. 988. t See ante, p. 346.

X 'Journ. de Micr.,' iii. (1879) p. 139. Translated in full ia 'Science-Gossip,'
1879, No. 179, p. 250.

944 KECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

preparations made on these principles, oven at an increased cost, when
they are really instructive, and it cannot be doubted when we see the
most common specimens of Pediculiis pubis sold in America for
5 fr. 75 c, in which country it is not rarer than it is in France."

Counting of Blood-corpuscles.* — Professor Abbe has recently
published a paper on this subject, in which he refers in the first place
to an apparatus, the plan of which was suggested by Mr. E. Thoma,
of Heidelberg. It presents no special novelty in design, its value con-
sisting rathci" in the appropriate adaptation of the best means known,
and the careful technical construction by which the faults of the
measuring apparatus are kept within narrow limits, so that they may
be neglected in practice.

The leading features are — (1) the method of mixing the blood so
as to dilute it in a simple known proportion, and (2) the special
apparatus for counting which enables the microscopist to take a
determinate volume of the diluted blood fluid. For the first Ma-
lassez's mixer is used, modified so as to facilitate the purifying and to
keep the consistency constant. The caj)illary tube holds about 6
mgr. of blood ; its volume, which is taken as unity, is made the one-
hundredth part of the volume of the mixing bulb (exact to about 0'5
per cent.). The correct length of the capillary is determined from
data as to the capacity of the tube and mixing bulb, obtained by
weighing, water being used for the latter instead of quicksilver, as on
account of the glass ball used for mixing, a non-adhering fluid would
not properly fill out the space.

For counting, an adaptation is made of Hay em's chamber, which
consists of a slide to which a thin glass plate with a circular hole
is firmly cemented aud ground down parallel to the surface of the
slide, so that a superposed flat plate would enclose a stratum exactly
0*1 mm. deep. For cutting off a definite volume of this stratum,
instead of a micrometer in the eye-piece of the Microscope, Gower's
method is adopted, and divisions are cut on the bottom of the cham-
ber, so that a square millimetre is divided into small squares, the
sides of which are 0 • 05 mm., and the area ^ J ^y square mm. As the
blood-corpuscles in the artificial serum of Malassez sink to the
bottom in a few moments, the contents of a thousandth of a cubic
millimetre in the field of the Microscope may be readily counted,
being the contents of any four of the divisions. When normal blood
is diluted in the proportion of 1 : 100, about fifty blood-corpuscles aro
found in this space, and the number being multiplied by 100, gives
the contents of the thinned blood per thousandth cubic millimetre,
which furnishes figures convenient for comparison.

The divisions on the bottom of the counting apparatus are a great
advantage over the eye-piece micrometer, as they avoid the necessity
of ascertiiiuiug the value of the divisions of the latter, which of course
varies with the objective and Icngtli of the tube ; a fruitful source of
errors is avoided, and complete freedom is obtained in tho choice of
objectives aud magnifying power.

* ' SB. Jen. Gesell. Med. uml Nat.' (1878).

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 945

The apparatus is so delicately constructed that, if carefully mani-
pulated, the errors in measuring will never exceed about 1 per cent.

The mathematical theory by which the probable extent of the error
of counting is determined may be briefly summarized as follows.
If n denote the average number of blood -C()ri:)uscles to a given space,
the relative frequency of other numbers is expressed by the respective
terms of the expansion of e" (where e denotes the base of natural
logarithms) divided by the complete value of e". Thus, the pro-
bability that k corpuscles will appear instead of n is,

S\j, = e-

1.2.3 ... /fe

Making k = n + A, where A expresses the deviation, positive or
negative, from the average number, the above expression becomes
a2)i)roximately

\\ ^ =-—-—— e -in-
si -K fj In

Consequently, the " probable error," that is, the error which in re-
peated observations would be as often exceeded as not reached, may
be expressed as a function of n, or, calling this error w,

w = 0-4769 VT«.

If the ratio of this probable deviation to the average number be

denoted by w we get

0-674
ft) = .

In a large number of observations, if w denote the probable error,
then, according to the laws of probability.

An error less than \ u> occurs once in every 7 cases.

i„ „ „ 4 „

1 „ „ „ 2 „

„ greater than 1 „ „ „ 2 „

„ 2 „ „ „ 5-6 „

3„ „ „ 23 „

4 „ „ „ 160 „

5„ „ „ 1,385 „

6 „ „ „ 20,000 „

and hence may be directly deduced what reliance is to be placed on
the result of a single observation, that is, what approximation to the
correct average value may be safely expected when the value of w
has been computed from the above formula, suited to the conditions
of the particular observation.

The above formula for w shows thut the probable error expressed
as a percentage of the average number decreases in the same pro-
portion as the square root of the average number increases. Thus,
the value of w is reduced to about 5 per cent, if n is made to equal
200, that is, when the counting extends over a volume of four thou-
sandths of a cubic mm. or to sixteen fields of the micrometer, and

VOL. II. 3 R

946 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the result of this would be that an error of 10 jier cent, would have
the probability of one-fifth, w would fall to 2 per cent, if the count-
ing were extended to 1250 or 100 squares, and the probability of an
error of 4 per cent, would be one-fifth. An error of 6 per cent, would
have the small probability of only one-twenty-third, and an error of
10 per cent, might be expected to occur once in 1400 cases, which is
as good as being excluded altogether.

Moreover, the limitation of the probable error to 1 per cent, would
be ensured by extending the number coixnted to a total of about 5000,
which, under the conditions here assumed, would correspond to the
contents of the whole square millimetre. In this case, therefore, the
mean value may safely be assumed as true to within 2 to 3 per cent.,
because an error of 4 per cent, would occur once only in 160 cases.

This method of judging of the exactness of the results is capable
of being applied to various other scientific investigations of the same
kind.

Cheilo-angioscopy.* — This name is applied by Dr. C. Hueter to his
new process for the direct observation of the circulation in the human
subject.

The apparatus consists of a frame, something like that used by
photographers, for supporting the head of the jiorson under observa-
tion, and having attached to it a stand on which a microscope and
lamp are supported. The patient's lower lip is drawn out, and fixed
with clips on the stage of the microscope : a strong liglit is then
concentrated on its inner surface by means of a condenser, and it is
examined by an objective of low power, the superficial vessels which
can be seen even with the naked eye being brought into focus.

The vessels look, at first, as if filled with an opaque red injection ;
but with a little practice and careful focussing, the observer is soon
able to make out the movement of the blood stream, and even to dis-
tinguish the red and the colourless corpuscles. The epithelial cells
of the mucous membrane, and the apertures of the mucous glands,
may also be seen.

By the application of slight pressure to the lip, the phenomena of
venous stasis may be studied : it is also easy to observe the efiect of
cold, by touching the lip with ice, or that of innocuous reagents, such
as glycerine or ammonia. The various pathological conditions of the
circulation, characteristic of certain diseases, are also easily studied
with complete accuracy.

Hueter remarks that the pathological observations he has already
made by means of cheilo-angioscopy, prove conclusively the import-
ance of the new process : a good deal of practice is, however,
necessary, before it can become clinically useful.

Value of the Microscope in Law and Medicine.— Dr. E. H, Ward,
of Troy, N.Y., in his able presidential address t at the opening
meeting of the American Society of Microscopists, held at Buffalo in
August last, deals at some length with the legal uses of the Micro-

* 'Cblt. med. Wiss.,' Nos. 13 and 14 (1879).
t ' Buffalo Daily Courier,' Aug. 20, 1S79.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 947

scope, " a department so largo that it might almost be regarded as a
new science, under the title of ' Microscopical Jurisprudence' " The
determination of hand-writing is more particularly referred to.

The ' Bulletin Scientifique du Departement du Nord ' also contains
an article on the use of the Microscope in medicine, especially patho-
logical histology.*

It is not possible usefully to give an abstract of either paper.

Unit of Micrometry.— In his address mentioned above, Dr. Ward
says with regard to the resolutions of the Indianapolis Congress of
1878, that "as too often happens, their incidental faults attracted
more attention than their really scientific object. The unit proposed
(y^ mm.) was evidently too large for integers, and too short for
fractions, and unlikely to receive a single approval either at home or
abroad ; and the proposal of international action, though its object
was universally approved, was in a form not likely to accomplish that
object."

The new committee appointed by the various Societies (see p. 154)
has not yet made its report

Comparators for Measures of Length.!— Professor W. A. Eogers
has devised a comparator of the design shown in Fig. 1 to remedy
the defects found to exist in the eye-piece and filar micrometer as
well as in the Merz stage micrometer (A a).

The comparator proper consists of a bed-plate, within which is
fitted a slide carried by the precision screw b. The object to be
measured is held in position upon the moving plate by the clips
shown in the figure. Instead of two parallel springs there is a single
cord attached to the centre of the moving slide whicli runs on the
guide pulley d, and is attached to a spring which is fastened to a
pin on the back side of the bed a little to the right of and below h.
The action of the spring, therefore, is wholly in the line of the screw,
and as the direction of the cord falls a little below the motion of the
slide, it has a slight tendency to keep the slide in contact with its
seat without introducing friction. The screw c moves the whole
bed-plate, including the precision screw h. The whole comparator
has a circular movement in the socket / attached to the original
substage e of the Microscope. The filar micrometer is shown at
h, and an eye-piece with a micrometer, having some advantages over
the usual form, is shown at i. Slow motion to the tube is given
through the lever g.

The operation of using the comparator is as follows : —

After the slide containing the graduations to be compared has
been placed in proper position under the objective, with the right
hand, the screw-head b is set at the zero of position ; with the left
hand, line 1 is brought in contact with a single line of the eye-piece
micrometer ; with screw-head b, line 2 is brought in contact with the
fixed line of the eye-piece micrometer, and the number of revolutions
and parts of a revolution are read off. Screw b is then brought back

* Cf. ' Bull. Soc. Bclg. Micr.,' v. p. 243.

t 'Am. Quart. Micr. Journ.,' i. (1879) p. 208.

3 R 2

948

RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

to zero, and tlie setting is made on line 2 by means of tlio screw c.
In moving over the space from line 2 to line 3 with the screw h,
it will be seen that the same part of the screw is used as in going from
line 1 to line 2. Hence the comparison of these two spaces is inde-
pendent of the errors of the comparing screw.

Fig. 1.

The number of spaces whicli can be compared in this way is only
limited by the length of the screw c, and the length of the opening
through the bed-plate.

Again, suppose we measure the spaces 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . 100 by a
continuous forward motion of the screw. Such measures will in-
volve all the errors of the screw itself. But if after the measures are
made we set the screw h back at zero, turn the ruled plate around
180°, and set on line 100 with screw c, the continuous forward motion
of the screw b from line 100 to line 1 will be over the same part of
the screw as from line 1 to line 100. In the first case the screw
measures the accumulated errors of the ruled plate from line 1 to
any point up to line 100, but such measures involve the errors of the
comparing screw. In the second case the accumulated errors are

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 949

measured in the same way from line 100 to line 1. But if we sub-
tract the measures from line 1 to line 100 from the corresponding
measures from line 100 to line 1, the dijference ivill give twice the accu-
mulated errors at any point for strictly periodic errors independent of
the comparing screw. The only exception to this rule is found when
the curve of errors takes a wave form. In a general way this will
be the case when the maximum error falls near line 25, and the mini-
mum near line 75.

As an an illustration of the character of the work which may be
done with a comparator of this form, Professor Eogers gives a Table
of the measures of five standard micrometers ruled at different times.
As these micrometers are somewhat different in form from any with
which he is acquainted he gives a brief description of them.

1. A half-inch is divided into 50 equal parts, the 1st, 25th, and
50th spaces being again subdivided into 10 equal parts. The length
of the lines is about | inch, the 5th and 10th lines being a little
longer.

2, After arranging the position of the ruling carriage, so that the
lines of the second series of graduations should begin near the point
where those of the first end, coincidence is made mechanically with
the first line of the series already ruled. For a short distance the
ruling point goes over the same ground twice. A centimetre is then
subdivided into 10 equal parts. The 1st, 5th, and 10th spaces are
again subdivided into 10 equal parts, and one of the middle sub-
divisions is still further subdivided, giving • 01 mm. Near by is a
band of 21 lines, each space being equal to "001 mm.

The table shows that the individual errors of graduation are
practically insensible.

The errors obtained are, it is to be noted, entirely relative errors.
They give no indication whatever of the absolute value of any of the
spaces measured. If the entire length of the half-inch is e. g. • 001
inch too long, to each of the corrections given in the table must be
applied still further the correction • 00002 inch.

It is therefore necessary to make a careful investigation of the
entire length of the half-inch and of the centimetre.

This is done with a comparator adapted to the comparison of
spaces, ranging from coincidence to an entire yard or an entire metre.
Comparators of this class are usually constructed with two sliding
plates, each carrying its own Microscope. A fundamental objection
to this form is found in the fact that the Microscopes cannot be
brought much nearer together than 3 inches by any direct means.
For want of space and of illustrations. Professor Eogers is able to
give only a general description of the form which he has had con-
structed.

It consists of an iron bed 60 inches long and 14 inches wide.
V-shaped grooves 6 inches apart run the entire length. In the centre
of the bed a fine-toothed rack reaches from end to end. Two sliding
plates are carried along the ways by means of a pinion set in the
centre of the plates and working so loosely in the rack that the
slides are free to follow the law of gravity. A Microscope is

950 EECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

attached to each plate, giving the form usually adopted. Instead of
two Microscopes, however, it is found better to use but one. The
Microscope plate is followed on the other side by plates terminating
in tempered steel tops which are at will either made free or clamped
firmly to the bed of the comparator. If one wishes to compare two
metres the method of proceeding is as follows : —

(a) One stop is set at or near one end of the bed.

(h) The metre with which comparison is to be made is placed in
position under the Microscope so that contact is made between the
end line and the zero line of the eye-piece micrometer.

(c) The microscopic plate is then moved by means of the rack
and pinion till the other end line forms contact with the zero line of
the micrometer

(d) The second stop is then brought up against the other end of
the plate and adjusted so that when contact takes place between the
stops, contact also takes place between the end line and the zero line
of the micrometei'.

(e) Having made the adjustment of the stops perfect, the metre to
be compared is then placed in position. When contact is made with
the first stop by mechanical adjustment the end line is brought in
contact with the zero line of the micrometer. The Microscope plate
is then brought into contact with the second stop. If the other end
line is now in coincidence with the zero line of the micrometer the
two metres have the same length. By noting the number of divisions
which the end line falls short of or passes beyond the zero line of the
micrometer, the difference in the entire length can be found, the only
element yet unknown being the value of one division of the micro-
meter.

After the comparison has been made it is better, as a matter of
precaution, to again compare the standard with the distance between
the stops. Since the stops can be set in actual contact with the
Microscope plate at either end it is obvious that this method admits
of a comparison of short spaces as well as of long ones. The only
criticism which it is imagined will be urged against this form of
construction is that founded on a doubt whether the contact between
the stops always indicates the same measured space. The arm of the
pinion has a head of about 2i inches in diameter. In his own case
the sense of touch has been so far cultivated that he is able to make
100 successive contacts without a single deviation exceeding • 000035
inch, and very few deviations reach -00001 inch. A comparator of
this form possesses one decided advantage over all others, viz. that
after the stops are once set any adjustment of the Microscope mai/ be
made ivilhout interfering ivith the comparison. The only condition
required is that the relation between the stops and the bed shall
remain unchanged during the short time required for the com-
parison. This does not usually take over ten minutes.

In order to compare separate subdivisions of the same standard
we proceed as follows : —

The stops are set e. g. equal to 1 decimetre. After the reading
of the first decimetre has been taken as indicated above, the bar is

INVERTEBKATAj CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 951

tben moved along till the first line of the second docimetro forms a
contact with the zero of tho eye-piece micrometer, wlien at the same
time contact is formed with the first stoj). Moving tho plate to the
second stop the reading for the second decimetre is taken. A com-
parison of the several values obtained with the mean value will
show how much each is in error, provided the entire length is
correct.

Tolles' -V Objective. — Dr. Cutter gives some further particulars
respecting this objective (made in 1873), in the ' Journal de Micro-
graphie.'* It works both dry and immersion, is composed of three
systems, and has 170^ aperture. Its frontal distance is tt^o inch. Tho
correction collar moves only I of a circle. The aperture of the front
lens is -f}:^ inch, and the " diameter of the objective at the other ex-
tremity " i inch, its length being about 2h inch. The field is remark-
ably clear and very flat, the resolution good, and the definition, having
regard to the enormous amplification, excellent.

Eezner's Mechanical Finger.f — This form was designed by Dr.
W. B. Eezner, of Cleveland, Ohio, and is adapted to any Microscope,
whereas the forms heretofore made were only designed for Micro-
scopes having substages.

Fig. 2.

In use, the sleeve, seen in Fig. 2, is passed up over the objective
far enough to have firm bearing, and so that the bristle point will be
in focus when depressed nearly to its limit ; it is clamped in place by
the small thumb-screw. Tho wire in which the bristle is carried is
drilled at the point to receive it, and slides easily, but not loosely,
through a small sleeve, so that the end of the bristle can be brought
into the centre of the field when in focus, and the wire can be revolved
so as to view every side of the object picked up by the bristle. The
wire stands at a greater angle than is shown in the cut, and the
vertical part of the spring is not so long as figured.

When using the finger, the bristle is first raised by means of the
micrometer screw till so far within focus as to be nearly or quite
invisible, then the objective is focussed on the slide and the desired
object sought for and brought to the centre of the field ; the bristle
point is then lowered by the screw till it touches the object, which

* ' Journ. de Micr.,' iii. p. 207.

t ' Am. Journ. Blicr.,' iv. (1S710 p. 05.

952

EECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

usually will adhere to it at once, and may be examined by rotating the
bristle wire by means of its milled head.

Professor H. L, Smith, in a subsequent paper,* gives some hints
which he thinks will greatly facilitate the use of the " finger," and
which, though simple, are the fruit of long experience, will save much
valuable time, and " conduce to general morality."

The " bristle" or " hair" is to be held in the spring forceps, and,
after adjustment, a drop of sealing wax put on the forceps to bind all
tight. To make the " hair," cut a slip of glass, and by a spirit lamp draw
it out into a slender thread ; snip off the thread by a knife, so as to pre-
sent a bevelled edge (Fig. 3, magnified). This thread is so fine as to be
quite flexible, and if dirtied can easily be cleaned. It is not affected

Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

by moisture, applied as described presently,
a very importcmt point. It will often be easy to
pick up a diatom by simply touching the point
to the slide, and then by depressing the tube
of the instrument, causing it to slide forward
on the glass plate till the object is dislodged.
His modification of the " finger " has the
Society screw, and will receive any objective,

though he prefers a f inch. (Fig. 4.) When the screw A is
loosened, the ring B and the hair C can be revolved, and made
to point towards the centre of the field in any required direction,
which will be found convenient for pushing a diatom into place
in arranging. The objective screws in at D, and by raising or
depressing the rod E, the point of the hair can be brought into
focus. It should point downwards at a slight angle. If when it has
been brought into focus, we unscrew the front lens of the objective
slightly, this will throw the point out of focus, and now the objective
may, by the rack, be brought down to give a distinct view of the
material from which the object is to be picked, icithout any danger of
the hair point toucliinrj it. When the object is foimd, then by turning
home the unscrewed front lens, the point will come into focus, and by
slightly racking down the tube, the point can be made to touch the
object, and by racking back to lift it. If dirt is raised a light tap on
the tube will instantly set it free, and leave the hair clean, or it may
be cautiously wiped off with tissue paper. One of the greatest objec-
* ' Am. Journ. Micr.,' iv. (1879) p. 102.

INVERTEBEATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

953

tions to ordinary bristles, &c., is that after lifting a diatom, it is often
impossible to make it let go, on touching the place where one wishes to
deposit it, a difficulty rarely experienced with the glass hair. Although
somewhat brittle, yet with care it may be used a long while, and can
be easily replaced. *

The material from which the selection is to be made is spread
on a piece of thin glass, and heated red hot, if it contains diatoms,
to burn out the organic matter ; this piece of glass is attached
to an ordinary glass slide, a little to the left of the centre ; and
to the right is put on the same slide the clean glass cover to
receive the picked out specimens, and directly under the centre of this
cover, on the under surface of the slide, a small ink dot, which can be
easily recognized though out of focus, when, having secured the object
on the end of the hair, the slide is pushed along to bring the cover
into view. In this way one can readily pass from the crude material
to the cover, without danger of detaching the specimen picked up. If
the specimens are to be mounted in balsam, it is necessary to put a
little thin solution of gelatine on the cover, and dry it.

With regard to the principal part of the manipulation, the method
of taking off the object, just where and when we wish, and of arranging
into lines, circles, &c. ; this process is not his own as to idea ; he has

Fig. 5.

reason to believe it is, substantially, that used by the professional
preparers of these objects, though it has never before been made
known. Fig. 5 shows the Microscope with the finger attached at a,
and the hair just above the slide ; 6 is a glass tube having a bulb, and

954 RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

attached to the stand ; a short bit of tube slides into the end nearest
the stage, and may be drawn out till it nearly touches the slide ; to
the other end is attached a rubber tube c with a mouthpiece. When
the object on the end of the hair is brought directly over where
i\ is desired to bo placed on the cover, the tube is carefully racked
down till the object nearly touches the cover ; now, by gently breathing
through the tube, a film of moisture will form on the cover, in the
most beautiful manner if the tube be pointed right at its lower end,
and will, if we stop breathing, again quickly disappear. Suppose
now, we flood the cover with moisture, and depress the tube, the hair
touching it, the object will be at once taken oif, and by a little manipu-
lation not easily described, but easily performed, and mainly consisting
in so placing the hair by revolving the ring that its point, slipping
forward on the glass, as the tube is depressed, will push the object
here or there, into lines or circles, without danger of its flying ofi', or
being again picked up, if we keep the cover moistened by gently
breathing. It is astonishing how gentle a breath will flood the cover
with moisture, and one must be very careful not to blow through the
tube before the object is dislodged, or it will inevitably be blown away.
When the moisture evaporates, as it will at once, the gelatine will
hold all fast, and then there is no need of any heating of the cover,
which might do harm by possibly charring the gelatine, only one must
be sure it is really dry before placing it on the little drop of balsam
on the slide. The bulb h catches the condensed moisture, and must
be emptied occasionally.

Apparatus for Focussing Dissecting Microscopes.* — Herr Hil-
gendorf, of Berlin, suggests an arrangement to be worked by the leg
for focussing dissecting Microscopes. These, as is known, strain the
eyes, owing mainly to the necessity of using both hands in the dis-
secting process, which makes the constant adjustment of the focus
irksome.

The inventor's apparatus (which can be at once applied to any
instrument without the help of a mechanic) consists of a rather strong
brass wire, 1^ mm. diameter, which at one end is hooked to the knee,
and at the other is twisted round a cork, the latter being hollowed out
in the middle, so that it can be pressed firmly over the adjusting
screw of the Microscope. The wire should be bent at right angles
5 cm. from the screw; and then, by the raising or lowering of the leg,
or side motion of the knee, it can be moved in the desired direction,
and the focus varied. The flexibility and elasticity of the wire ofter
peculiar advantages, and do away with any complicated mechanism
of levers and screws.

Improved Mounting for Camerse Lucidse. f — Professor L. Me-
lassez suggests an imj^rovement to the mounting of the camerje
lucidii3 of Milne-Edwards, Nachet, and others.

These are fixed to the Microscope by means of a ring which
encircles the tube, and on which they are jointed. The oj^ticians

* '8B. (Jcscll. Naturf. Freumle, Berlin,' 187S, p. 187.

t ' Tmvaux Liiborat. Histu). Coll. France,' 1877-S (187S)) p. 117.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

955

always place this joint at the side, so that the draughtsman cannot
avoid knocking (his nose) against it, or else is obliged to give a very-
fatiguing inclination to the head. This inconvenience may be avoided
by placing the joint not at the side, but at the anterior part of the
camera.

In addition to this, the axis of movement is vertical, and when the
camera is removed from the eye-piece, it is difficult to put it exactly
back in the place it occupied, which is, however, very desirable. An
axis with horizontal movement would be much better, and by such an
arrangement the camera would be raised and lowered on the eye-piece
like the cover of a box.

Zeiss' Travelling Microscope. — Fig. 6 represents the " Travelling
Microscope" of Hcrr Zeiss, of Jena, wbich was exhibited at the
November meeting of the Society.

Fig. G.

It consists of the Zeiss stand No. VI., the general construction of
which is sufficiently shown by the woodcut ; and it packs into a case
8| inches high by 4 inches stiuare.

956

RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The tube can be readily replaced by a Brucke lens ; tbe stage is hol-
lowed out beneath, and has a concave diaphragm, shown in the foregoing
figure, specially adaj)ted to it. The four object-glasses are attached to
a revolving " nose-piece," of exceptionally small size, which in packing
can be screwed to the foot of the stand. The space beneath the stage
is also utilized, in j^acking, for the Camera Lucida as well as the
mirror. The latter is provided with universal movement by an
extremely simple and ingenious arrangement. The upper part of the
instrument with the stage can be turned round the optic axis.

Schobl's Dissecting Microscope.* — This instrument, which is
shown in Fig. 7, consists of a heavy brass base-plate (17 cm. by
12 cm.), on which is supported the stage (22 cm. by 12 cm.) by three
ujjrights, the mirror being attached to one of them.

Fig. 7.

At one of the comeis of the stige fuithtst fiom the obsciver is
an upright rod 16 cm high, to which five movable aims of 2^ cm,
diameter are attached, each arm being cajjable of being fixed" by a
screw, as shown in the figure. The lowest carries an aplauatic lens
magnifying 30 times; the next, a similar lens, magnifying 15 times,
the third, an ordinary dissecting Microscope, magnifying up to 150

* ' Arch. JI:kr. Anat.,' xvii. (1879) p. 1G5.

INVERTEBEATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 957

times ; and the fourth and tiftli carry two other lenses of low magni-
fying power (7 and 3 times), the former having a jointed attachment
to allow of the lens being placed in any position.

The arm carrying the Microscope is ordinarily turned away from
the stage to the left of the observer, while the other arms which are
not in actual use are placed forwards so as to be out of the way, but
are at once available when required.

The inventor claims the following as the special advantages of the
instrument : —

(1) The stage is entirely free for work, nothing being in the way
of the observer's hands or head on the side at which he stands.

(2) It allows of a particularly rapid and convenient change of
powers ; and

(3) The preparation need never be moved from its place during
work, and thus a great saving of time is effected.

Ward's Improved Microtome. — At the November meeting of the
Society, an improved form of microtome was exhibited and described
by Mr. F. H. Ward. It is a modification of the one introduced by
Stirling, from which, however, it differs in the indicator. The thick-
ness of the section is indicated by means of a screw having thirty-six
threads to the inch, to which is attached a wheel containing thirty-five
notches upon its circumference ; into these notches a spring catch
falls in rotation as the screw is turned. This S2)ring is attached to a
metal plate through which the screw works, but which is prevented
from turning round with the screw by a brass rod fixed into the base
of the microtome.

The bottom of the well is removable, and is retained in place by
two bayonet catches. When removed from its fitting, the bottom is
separable into two halves so as to release the screw. The continuity
of the thread in the internal screw is maintained in the two halves
when in position by means of two metal pegs on the face of one half
accurately fitting into holes on the face of the other. The object of
this contrivance is, that when the screw has been turned round to its
extreme limit, by a slight backward turn the bottom of the well is
removed, the two halves separated and the screw is set at liberty, thus
avoiding the wear to the thread and the sjiring catch, which must
inevitably result from rapidly turning the screw in the reverse direc-
tion through about two inches of its length.

A thick plate of glass, with an aperture the size of the well,,
covers the upper brass plate, and slides into position by means of a
dovetail on each side.

Matthews' Section-cutting Machine.* — Dr. John Matthews has-
contrived a machine for making sections of such substances as bone,
hard wood, ivory, nut, and other materials which are too hard to be
cut with the section knife, and not of a nature to require the lapidary's
wheel.

The carriage holding the saw runs smoothly yet firmly betweeir
friction rollers, and derives its reciprocating motion from a crank,
* 'M. Jouni. Sci.,' i. (1879) p. 823.

958 BECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES, ETC.

which can be turned either by hand, or, when a higher speed is
required, driven by a treadle and pulley. The saw is provided with
adjustments to secure its parallelism and proper tension ; the section
is regulated by a screw of fifty threads to the inch, reading to thou-
sandths by means of a micrometer head ; the feed is either automatic
by means of a cup, in which a suitable quantity of shot can be placed,
acting by gravitation on a lever ; or, as Dr. Matthews j)refers, is
capable of being regulated by hand. Owing to the steady motion of
the saw when in proper adjustment, sections of suitable tissues can be
cut as thin as the thousandth of an inch ; the surfaces show no trace
of the saw-cut, and are almost jjolished ; very little after-treatment is
needed to remove the few scratches left by the saw, and if required
for mounting in balsam it can be done at once, taking the usual pre-
cautions to prevent penetration, and the consequent obliteration of
structure.

Zeiss' tV Objective. — Colonel Woodward's views on this will be
found at p. 988 of the ' Proceedings.'

Micrometry. — A reference to this subject will be found at p. 988
of the ' Proceedings.'

( 059 )
BIBLIOGRAPHY

OF CUREENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

INVERTEBEATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, &c.
inclHdinrj Embryology and Histology generally.

JOURNALS, TRANSACTIONS, &o., received since the last number, the

CONTENTS OP WHICH ARE INCLUDED IN THE FOLLOWING BIBLIOGRAPHY.*

UNITED KINGDOM.
England.
Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Fifth Series, Vol. IV., Nos. 22-23

(October-November).
Entomologist, Vol. XII., Nos. 197-8 (October-November).
Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, Vol. XVI., Nos. 185-6 (October-
November).
Geological Magazine, N. S., Dec. II., Vol. VI., Nos. 10-11 (October-November).
Hardwicke's Science-Gossip, Nos. 178-9 (October-November).
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology (Humphry), Vol. XIV., Part 1 (October).
Journal of Botany, N. S., Vol. VIII., Nos. 202-3 (October-November).
Journal of Conchology, Vol. II., Nos. 8-9 (August-September).
Journal of Physiology (Foster), Vol. II., No. 3.
Midland Naturalist, Vol. II., Nos. 22-23 (October-November).
Monthly Journal of Science, Third Series, Vol. I., Nos. 70-1 (October-
November).
NaturaUst, Vol. V., Nos. 51-2 (October-November).
Nature, Vol. XX., Nos. 517*-8*, 519-20, 521*-2*, 523, 524*-5* (September

25-November 20).
Popular Science Review, N. S., Vol. III., No. 12* (October).
Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, N.S., Vol. XIX., No. 7G (October).
Zoologist, Third Series, Vol. III., Nos. 31-35 (October-November).
London. Entomological Society— Transactions, 1879, Part 2.

„ Geological Society— Quarterly Journal, Vol. XXXV., Parts 3-4,

Nos. 139-140 (August and November).
„ Linnean Society — Journal (Botany), Vol. XVII., No. 103*.

„ Royal Society— Philosophical Transactions, Vol. CLXVIII. (Extra

Volume) — An account of the Petrological, Botanical, and Zoological
Collections made in Kerguelen's land and Rodriguez during
the Transit of Venus Expeditions carried out by order of H.M.
Government in the years 1874-5. [Quoted infra as "Botany"
— or " Zoology" — " of Kerguelen's Island and Rodriguez."]

Vol. CLXX., Part 1*.
„ Royal Microscopical Society— Journal, Vol. II., Nos. 1-6 (Februar}'-

October).
„ Zoological Society— Proceedings, 1879, Part 3 (October).

Scotland.
Scottish Naturalist, Vol. V., No. 36 (October).

* Those marked (*) do not contain any article, &c., within the scope of the
Bibliography.

960 BIBLIOGEAPHY OF

Ireland.

Dublin. Royal Geological Society of Ireland — Journal, Vol. XV., Part 2*.
„ Royal Irish Academy — Procecdinsjs (Science), Vol. III., Second Series,

No. 3 (July).
„ „ „ Transactions, Vol. XXVI. (Science), Nos.

18-19, 20*-21*.

COLONIES.
Australasia.
Victoria. Microscopical Society — Quarterly Journal, Vol. I., No. 1 (August).

Canada.
Halifax. Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science — Proceedings and Trans-
actions, Vol. v., Part 1.

UNITED STATES,

American Journal of Science and Arts, Third Series, Vol. XVIII., No. lOG*-

107* (October -November).
American Natiiralist, Vol. XIII., Nos. 10 & 11 (October-November).
Cambridge. Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College—

Bulletin, Vol. V., Nos. (11-14).
Cincinnati. Society of Natural History— Journal, Vol. II., No. 1 (April).
PhUadelphia. Academy of Natural Sciences — Proceediugs, 1879, Part 1.
Part 2, pp. 137-184.

GERMANY.
Archiv fiir Mikroskopische Anatomie, Vol. XVII., Parts 1 & 2.
Arcliiv fiir Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und fiir Klinische

Medicin (Virchow), Vol. LXXVII., Part 3*; Vol. LXXVIIL, Part 1.
Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, Vol. 44 (Div. 2), Part 5 (dated 1878, but pub-
lished October 1879).
Archiv fiir die gesammte Physiologic dea Menschen und der Thiere (Pfliiger),

Vol. XX., Parts 1*, (2-3*) (4-5)* (6-7) and (8-9)*.
Botanische Zeitung, Vol. XXXVII., Nos. 35, 36*, 37-38, 39*, 40-1, 42*-43*

(August 29-October 24).
Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift, Vol. XXIII., Part 1.
Flora, Vol. LXII., Nos. 27-31 (September 21-November 1).
Hedwigia, Vol. XVIII., Nos. 9-10* (September-October).
Jahrbiicher fiir Wissenschaftliche Botanik, Vol. XII., Part 1.
Jenaische Zeitschrift fiir Naturwissenschaft, Vol. XIII., Part 3 ; Supplement

Part 1* (Chemical Laboratory).
LinnEea, Vol. XLII., Parts (6 & 7).
Malakozoologische Blatter, N.S., Vol. I., No. 2.
Morphologisches Jahrbuch, Vol. V., Parts 3-4.
Naturforscher, Vol. XII., Nos. 39*, 40, 41*, 42, 43*-44*, 45, & 46* (September

27-November 15).
Zeitschrift fiir die Gesammten Naturwissenschaften, Vol. LII. (July- August).
Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, Vol. XXXIII., Parts (1 & 2).
Zoologischer Anzeiger, Vol. II., Nos. 38-42 (September 22-November 17).
Berlin. K. Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften — Monatsbericht,

1879, June*-July.
Heidelberg. Naturhistorisch-Medicinischer Verein — Verhandlungen, N. S.,

Vol. II., Parts 3-4*.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 9G1

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
Oesterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift, Vol. XXIX., Nos. 10-11 (October-
November).
Vienna. K. Akademie der Wissenschaften— Sitzungsberichte — Vol. LXXIX.
lat Section, Parts (1, 2, & 3) (.January-Marcb).

Sitziingsbericbte, Vol. LXXIX.
.Srd Section, Parts (1 & 2)* and (.3, 4, & 5)* (January-May).
„ Zoologisches Institut der Universitat "Wien und Zoologische
Station in Triest— Arbeiten, Vol. II., Part 2.

HOLLAND.
Tijdschrift voor Entomologie, Vol. XXII., Parts 3-4.
Leiden. Nederlandsche Dierkundige Vereeniging — Tijdsclirift, Vol. IV.,

Parts 1-2.
Nijmegen. Nederlandsche Botanische Vereeniging — Verslagen en Medc-

deelingen (Nederlandsch Kruidkundig Archief), Second Series, Vol. III., Parts

1&2.
Batavia. Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen —

Notulen, Vol. XVI., Nos. (1 & 2)* (3 & 4)*. Tijdschrift voor Indische

Taal- Laud- en Volkenkuude, Vol. XXV., Parts l*-2*.

DENMARK.
Botanisk Tiddskrift, Third Series, Vol. III., Parts (1 & 2).
Copenhagen. K. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab— Oversigt, 1879, No. 2
(aiarch-May). Skrifter, Fifth Series, Vol. XII., No. 4.*

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
Botaniska Notiser, 1879, No. 4 (September 15).
Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne, Vol. XXV., Part 1.

RUSSIA.
Moscow. Societe Impsriale des Naturalistes— Bulletin, Vol. LIV., No. 1.
Odessa. Neurussische Naturforschende Gesellschaft — Deukschriften, Vol.

VI.. Part 1.
St. Petersburg. Academie Imperials des Sciences — Me'moircs — Seventh

Series, Vol. XXVI., Nos. 12-13*.

SWITZERLAND.
Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, Third Series, Vol. II.,

No. 10* (October).
Lausanne. Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles— Bulletin, Secoud

Series, Vol. XVI., No. 82.

FRANCE.
Annales des Sciences Naturelles (Botanique), Sixth Series, Vol. VIII.,

Nos. (3 & 4) and (5 & 6).
Annales des Sciences Naturelles (Zoologie), Sixth Series, Vol. VIII., No. 4.
Journal de I'Anatomie et de la Physiologie (Kobiu), Vol. XV., No. 5

(September-October).
Journal de Conchyliologie, Third Series, Vol. XIX., No. 3.
Journal de Micrographie, Vol. III., No. 6 (June).
Revue Bryologique, Vol. VI., Nos. 5-6.

Revue Internationale des Sciences, Vol. IV., No. 10 (October).
Revue et Magasin de Zoologie pure et appliquee, Third Series, Vol. VI.,

Nos. 8*, 9, & 10.
Revue Mycologique, Vol. I., No. 4 (October).

VOL. XL 3 S

9G2 BIBLIOGBA.PHY OF

Revue des Sciences Naturelles, Vol. VIII., Nos. 1-2.

Paris Academie des Sciences— Comptes Eeudiis, Vol. LXXXIX., Nos. 9-10,

11*; 12-17 (September 1-October 27).
Museum d'Histoire Nattirelle— Nouvellcs Archives, Second Series,

Vol. II., Fasc. 1.*

BELGIUM.
Brussels Academie Royaledes Sciences, &c., de Belgique— Bulletin, Second
Series, Vol. XLVIII., Nos. (9 & 10)*.
„ Societe Beige de Microscopie— Bulletin, Vol. V., Nos. 11*-13*.

„ Societe Entomologique de Belgique— Annales- Vol. XXII., Trim. 3.

Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique— Bulletin, Vol. XVIII.,
Part 1, Fasc. 2*.

ITALY.
Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano, Vol. XI., No. 4 (October).
Genoa. Museo Civico di Storia Naturale — Annali, Vol. XIV*.
Milan. Societa Crittogamologica Italiana— Atti, Second Series, Vol. II.,

Part 1.
Naples. Zoologische Station— Mittheilungen, Vol. I., Part 4.
Pisa. Societa Toscana di Scienze Natural!— Atti, 1879. Proccssl Vcrbali,

pp. i.-cxxxi.
Roma. R. Accademia dei Lincei— Atti, Third Series. Transunti, Vol. III.,

Part 7 (June).

SPAIN.
Madrid. Sociedad Espanola de Historia Natural — Anahs, Vol. VIII..
Part 2.

ZOOLOGY.
A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology
of the Vertebrate.
Agassiz, a. — Letter (No. 3) to C. P. Patkrson, Superintendent U.S. Coast
Survey, Washington, D.C., on the Dredging Operations carried on from
December 1878 to March 10, 1879, by the U.S. Coast Survey Steamer ' Blake.'
2 maps. ^"^'- ^^««- <^""y'- ^o'^^-' ^-^ PP- 289-302.

Arndt Prof. Dr. K.— Observations on the Eed Blood-corpuscles of Vertebrates.
' ' Arch. path. Anat. .|- Phijs. (Virchow), LXXVIII., pp. 1-24.

Balbiani, Prof.— Fecundation of the Vertebrata, V.

Jouni. de Micr., III., pp. 263-70.

Barber Piev. S., F.R.S.— Habits of Animals in relation to the Weather. 1 fig.

' ' M. Jown. ScL, I., pp. 728-31.

Beabnis Prof. H., and Prof. A. Bouchard. — New Elements of Descrijitive

Anatomy and Embryology. 3rd ed. 11.50 pp. 440 figs. (8vo. Paris, 1879.)

Bechajip, J. — On the presence of Alcoliol in Animal Tissues during Life and

after Death in cases of Putrefaction, from a Physiological and Toxicological point

of view. Comptes Bendus, LXXXIX., pp. 573-4.

Bernard Prof. C. — Lectures on the Phenomena of Life common to Animals

and Plants. Vol. II. 564 pp. 3 plates and 5 woodcuts. (8vo. Paris, 1879.)

Born Dr. G. — On attempts to hatch the Eggs of Salamandra macnlata and
Ammis fraailis after removal from tlie body of the mother.

•^ ^ ^ Zoo/. Anzej^.,n., pp. 550-1.

The Nasal Cavities and Lachrymal Ducts of the Amniote
Vertebrata." II. Plates 23-24. 3 figs. Morphol. Jahrhuch, V., pp. 401-29.

Bouchard, Prof. A.— See Beannis, Prof. H.
Brandt Dr. A. — Letters from the Lakes of the Armenian Alps. I.

Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 522-7.
Bratjn, M. — On the Development of the Parrots.

Hev. Internat. Set., IV., pp. 359-61.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 963

Brunn, Dr. A. v.— Further Researches on the Oh"actory Epithelium and its
relation to the Nervus olfactorius. Plate 11.

Arch. Mikr. A><af., XVII., pp. 141-51.
Capus, G. — Guide for the Naturalist in preparing and collecting ....
Aniniiils, Plants, Minerals, and Fossils. 341 pp. 100 figs. (8vo. Paris,
1S79)

Carlet, Prof. G.— Memoir on the Scales of Teleostei. 19 pp. Plate 25.
[(1) Examination by polarized light; (2) after staining with carmine; and
(3) relations with the iiuegunicnts. Ann. 6'ei. Kit, {Zool.), VIII., Art. 8.
Chapman, H. C, M.D. — Plactnta of Mnacus cynomoloqus.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. ' Philacl, 1870, pp. 14G-7.
Edingee, Dr. L. — Note on the Stomach of Tropidonotus natrix.

Arch. Mikr. Amd., XVII. pp. 212.

., Contributions to the Knowledge of the Gland-cells of the

Stomach, especially in Man. Plate 16. Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVII., pp. 193-211.

GiBBEs, H., M.B.— On the Structure of the Vertebrate Spermatozoon. Plate 24.

Quut. .lourn. .\iicr. Sci., XIX., pp. 487-91.

Hamburger, A. — On the Histology of the Pelvis, of the Kidney, and of the

Ureter. Plate 2. Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVII., pp. 14-20.

Hartixg, Dr. P. — Description of the Ovum and Placenta of Hidicore Dugong,

with Observations on the Taxonomic and Phylogenic Vidiie of the Dificreatial

Characters furnished by the Placenta of the Mammalia. Plates 1 and 2.

Tijdschr. Kcderl. Vicrk. Ycreen., IV., pp. 1-29.
HoGGAN, G., M.B,, and F. E. Hoggan.— On the Development and Retro-
gi-ession of the Fat-cell. Plates 13 and 14. Joxirn. E. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 353-80.
KrpFFER, Prof. C. — The Formation of the Allantois and the Gastrula of the
Vertebrates, ZooL Ameig., II., pp. 520-2, 593-7.

Laboulbexe, Prof. J. A. — New El ments of Pathological Anatomy, Descrip-
tive and Histological. 1078 pp. 298 figs. (8vo. Pari.s, 1879.)

M'CoY, Prof. F. — Prodromns of the Palaeontology of Victoria. Dec. VI.
44 pp. 10 plates. (8vo. Melbourne, 1879.)

„ „ Prodromns of the Zoology of Victoria. Dec. II. 32 pp.

10 plates. Dec. III. 50 pp. 10 plates. (8vo. Melbourne, 1879.)

Milne Edwards, A. — Researches on tlie Fcetal Envelopes of the Nine-
banded Armadillo (^Dasypus novcmcinctus). 6 pp. Plates 22-4.

Ann. Sci. Nat. {ZooL), VIII., Art. No. 10.

Morel, Prof. C. and Prof. A. Villemin. — Elementary Treatise on Human

Histology, Normal and Pathological, preceded by an account of the method of

observing with the Microscope. 3rd ed. 418 pp. and 50 figs. Atlas (by

Prof. Villemin) of 76 pp. and 36 plates. (8vo. Paris, 1879.)

Ord, W. jM., M.D., &c. — On some Causes of Browmian ^Movements. 2 figs.

Journ. E. Micr. Soc., II., pp. 656-62.
OSBORN, H. F.—See Scott, W. B.
Pebebieschko, Prof. — On the Division of Animal Cells (contd.). Plate 14.

Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVII.. pp. 168-86.
Ranvier, L. — New Researches on the Mode of Union of Cells of the Mucous
Bodies of Malpighi. Comptes Eendus, LXXXIX., pp. 667-9.

Rauber, Prof. Dr. A.— The Position of the Blastostoma. 2 figs.

Zool. Anzei;/., II., 499-503.
„ „ Formation and Malformation in the Development of

the Vertebrates. Parti. Plates 39-41. Morphol. Jahrb.,Y., i)p. 661-705.

RiBBERT, Dr. H. — On the Development of the Glomeruli. 4 figs.

Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVII., pp. 113-24.

RuMPF, Dr. Th. — On the Histology of the Nerve-fibre and Axis-cylinder.

Preliminary Communication. Vcrh. Nid.-Med. Verein. Hcidclherg, II., pp. 171-6.

Ryder J. A. — Further Notes on the Mechanical Genesis of Tooth-forras.

1 fijr. Eroc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Ehil kI, 1879, pp. 47-51.

St. George v. la Valette. — On the Structure of Adipose Fins. Plate 15.

Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVII., pp. 187-93.
ScHMiDTLEiN, R. — Observations on the Mode of Life of some Marine Animals
in the Aquarium of the Zoological Station (contd.).

[Fishes ; Crustacea ] Mitthcil. Zool. Stat. Neapcl, I., pp. 489-514.

3 s 2

964 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

ScHNEiDEU, A. — Contributions to the Comparative Anatomy and Embryology
of the Vertebrata. 164 pp. 16 plates and 3 fi,^'s. (4to. Berlin, 1879.) .

Scott, W. B., B.A, and H. F. Osborn, B.A. — On some points in the Early
Development of the Common Newt. Plates 20-1.

Quart. Journ. Micr. Set., XIX., pp. 449-75.

Ussow, Dr. M. — On the Structure of the so-called " Eye Spots " of some
Osseous Fishes. Plates 1-4. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, LIV., pp. 79-115.

Valaoritis, Dr. E. — On Oogenesis in the Land Salamander {Salamandra
mac'ilda). Preliminary Communication. Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 597-9.

Valentin, G. — Further Eesearches on the Refractive Relations of Animal
Tissue. Arch. ges. Phys. {Pfluger), XX., pp. 283-314.

ViLLEMiN, Dr. A.— See Mor.l, Prof. C.

VoGT, C. — Compendium of Geology and Palaeontology. 4th ed. 2 vols,
pp. 756 and 925. 32 plates. 2 figs. (8vo. Brunswick, 1879.)

Watson, Prof. M., M.D. — ^The Homology of the Sexual Organs illustrated by
Comparative Anatomy and Pathology. Plates 3-4.

[Embryological!] Journ. Anat. and Plugs. (ILanphry), XIV., pp. 50-80.

B. INVERTEBRATA.

FoRFL, Prof. Dr. F. A. — Materials for the Study of the Deep Fauna of the
Lake of Geneva. 6th series. Preliminary Remarks.

Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., XVI., pp. 313-27.
Lindsay, W. Lauder, M.D., &c. — Mind in the Lower Animals in Health and
Disease. (8vo. London, 1879.)

Pagenstecher, Prof. A. — The Fauna of the Deep Sea.

Rev. Internat. Sci., IV., pp. 289-334.
Ulrich, E. 0. — Descriptions of New Genera and Species of Fossils from the
Lower Silurian about Cincinnati. Plate 7.

[3 n. gen., Lepidolites (incert. sed.), Bopalonaria (Polyzoa), Crateripora

(Porifera ?) ; 28 n. sp.] Journ. Cincinn. Soc. Nat. Hist., II., pp. 8-30.

Verrill, A. E. — Preliminary Check List of the Marine Invertebrata of the

Atlantic Coast from Cape Cod to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. (Prepared for the

U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries.) 32 pp. (Svo. 1879.)

Mollusca.
Angas, G. F., C.M.Z.S , &c.— On the Terrestrial Mollusca collected in Costa
Rica by the late Dr. W. M. Gabb, with descriptions of New Spcies. Plate 40.

[42 sp. 14 n. sp.] Proc. Zool. Soc, 1879, pp. 475-86.

„ „ Description of Ten New Species of Oxincsa

[.5] and Pectunculus [5] in the Collections of Mr. S. Hanley and the late Mr. T.

L. Taylor. Plate 35. Proc. Zool. Soc, 1879, pp. 417-20.

AsHFORD, C. — Land and Freshwater Shells observed in the Neighbourhood of

Rcdcar. Journ. of Conch., II., pp. 236-241.

„ „ Achatina acicula Mull, in the Isle of Wight.

Journ. of Conch., IL, p. 267.
Bergh, Dr. R. — Notes on Pleurophyllidia Lov€ni (concluded).

Malak. Blatter, I., pp. Sl-7.
New Chromodoridse. Plate 3. Malak. Blatter, I., pp. Sl-llG.
„ ,. On the Nudibranchiate Gasteropod Mollusca of the North

Pacific Ocean, with special reference to those of Alaska. Plates 1-8.

Proc Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1879, pp. 71-132.
Binnev, W. G. — On the Land Shells of the Mexican Island of Guadelupe,
collected by Dr. E. Palmer. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1879, p. 16.

Blake, J. F., M.A. — On the Homologies of the Cephalopoda.

Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 303-12.

Beazier, J., C.M.Z.S., &c. —Helix pnlchella and //. cellaria of Miiller found in

Australia; with Notes on their Distribution, Journ. of Conch., pp. 281-2.

Crosse, H. — Catalogue of the Species belonging to the Genus Opisthostomt

Bliinford. [7 sp.] Journ. de Conchy., XIX., pp. 193-8.

„ ,, New Mollusca from Perak. 4 figs, of plate 8 (and 1 of plate 12 to

follow). \_Helix {Geotrochus) Perakensis ; Lagocheilus Townsendi ; Palaina Nevilli ;

Opisthostoma Pauluccice ; Alycceus Perakensis.'] Journ. de Conchy., XIX., pp. 198-208.

INVERTEBBATA, CRYPTOQAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 9(55

Crosse, H. — Description of a New Genus of Fluviatile Mollusca from Nossi-
Be. \_Pyrgophysa Mariei — icvpyos, turris ; (piiffa, follis.']

Joiirn. de Conch;/., XIX., pp. 208-9.
Di'BRUEiL, E. — Catalogue of the Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca of the
He'rault Department (contd.). Rev. Sci. Nat., VIII , pp. 44-55, 238-45.

DuNKER, W. — Mollusca qu£edam nova. 1 fig. of pLite 8 and plate 9.

iPecten pertenuis ; Tivela Hartvvjii.'] Journ. de Cunchj., XIX., pp. 212-17.

Duval, M. — Studies on Spermatogenesis iu Paludina vioipa/\i. Plate 3.

Eev. Sci. Nat., VIII., pp. 211-31.
FiseuER, P. — Note on Xenophora crispa Konig (sp.).

Journ. da Conchy., XIX., pp. 210-12.
„ „ Subdivisions of the Ammonites.

Journ. de Conchy., XIX., pp. 217-60.
FoLiN, Marquis de.— See Microscopy.

FoNTANNES, F.— Noto ou the Discovery of a Layer of Limnacidce-jVIarlstone
at Celleneuve near Montpellicr.

[8 sjj., 3 n. sj)., I 'ertiyo Paladilhei ; Limticea Dubrueili ; L. Eoucillei.']

Eev. Sci. Nat., VIII., pp. 61-75.
Garrett, A. — List of Land Shells inhabiting Rurutu, one of the Austral
Islands, with Remarks on their Synonymy, Geographical Range, and Descrip-
tions of New Species. [23 sp., 8 n. sp.]

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1879, pp. 17-30.
„ „ Description of a New Species of Goniobranchiis.

IG.alhojmnctatas.'] Proa. Ao^id. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1879, p. 31.

Gibbons, J. S., M.B. — Helix hortcnsis var. arenicola.

Jonrn of Conch , II., p. 264.
„ „ Pupa umhilicata Drap., in South Africa.

Journ. of Conch., II., p. 282.
Harpe, Dr. Ph. de la. — The Nummulites of Nice, their Species and Strati-
graphical Distribution. Plate 10. Bull. Soc. VauJ. Sci. Nat., XVI., pp. 201-43.
„ „ Nummulites of the French AIjjs.

Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., XVI., pp. 409-34.

Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., &c. — On the Mollusca procured during the

'Lightning' and 'Porcupine' Expeditious, 1868-70. Part II. Plates 45-46.

[101 sp.] Proc. Zool. Soc, 1879, pp. 553-88.

M.\rk, K. L. — On Early Stages in the Embryology of Limax campestris.

(English.) Zool. Ameig., II., pp. 493-6.

Martens, Dr. E. v. — Summary of the INIollusca collected by W. Peters in

1843-7, in Mozambique. JilB. K. Preuss. Aiad.. 1879, pp. 727-9.

Meneghini, G. — Tithonian Fossils of Lombardy. [14 sp.]

Atti Soc. lose. Sci. Nat., 1879, Proc. Verb., pp. civ.-cix.
Miller, Dr. K. — The Endemic Mollusca of Ecuador (_cinclu led). Plates 4-15.

Mdak. Blatter, I, pp. 117-203.
Nelson, W. — Description of Amphipeplei Pcttcrdi, New Species from New
Guinea. Journ. of Conch., II., p. 267.

„ „ Ancylus fi'iviatilis var. albida at Roundiiay, near Leeds.

Jo'irn. of Conch., II., p. 282.

Nelson, W., and J. W. Taylor. — Contributinns to a better Knowledge of the

Freshwater Shells of Queensland. No. I. Descriptions of Three New Physe.

{In part.) [P. Brisbanica.'] Journ. of Conch., II., p. 288.

Nevill, G., C.M.Z.S. — Description of a New Species of Acme [_FoHniani] and

varieties from the Conglomerate beds at IMenton.

Ann. # Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 311-2.
Rabl, C. — On the Development of Planor'As. Plates 32-38 and 5 figs.

Morph. Jakrbwh, V., pp. 5U2-660.
Sabatier, a. — On the Respiratory Apparatus of the Ampnllariie.

Compies Eendus, LXXXVIIL, pp. 1325-7.
\_Transl. Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 323-5.]
Smith, E. A., F.Z.S. — Notes on the Species of the Genus Scutus. 3 figs.
[Rectification of Nomenchitnre.] Joaryi. of Conch., II., pp. 252-64.

„ „ (Zoology of Kerguelen Island and Rodriguez) Mol-

lusca. Plates 9 and 51 figs. 4-13. Phil. Trans., CLXVIII., pp. 167-92, 473-81.

966 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Stefani, C. de. — Reply to tlie Observations of S. de Bosniaski.

Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., 1879, Proc. Verb., xci.-ii.
Taylor, J. W. — Helix rotundata var. alba near Harrogate.

Journ. of Conch., II., p. 282.
„ „ Zonites excavatus Bean at Newlay.

Journ. of Conch., II., p. 286.
„ „ Description of Helix Pctterdlma, n. sp.

Journ. of Conch., II., pp. 287-8.
„ „ See Nelson, W.

Tenison-Woods, Eev. J. E., F.L.S., &c.— On the Eadula or Lingual Ribbon
of Australian Mollusca. Qiiart, Journ. Micr. Soc. Victoria, I., pp. 21-7.

TiBERi, Dr. N. — Pompeiiin Conchology. 12 pp. f4to. Naples, 1879.)
TuDAUO, — .— On the Organs of Taste of the Heteropoda.

Trans. R. Accad. Lincei, III., pp. 251-3.
TorRNOUER, R.— Conchyliorum finviatilium fossilium, qua? in stratis tertiariia
superioribus Rumanias Dr. Gregorio Stefanesco eollegit, novje species.

[J/e/awM fossariformis ; Paludina prwcursa ; P. Rumana Neumayr ? ;
P. Riimana9 var. scalaris ; Neritina Pilidei ; Unio Stefanescoi : U. Rumanus ;
Cardium Stefanescoi.'] Jonrn. de Conchy.^ XIX., pp. 261-4.

Trinchese. — Studies on the Earliest Periods in the Evolution of Molluscs.

Trans. R. Accad. Lincei, III., p. 230-3.
ViGELius, W. J. — [On the Structure of the Kidney in the Cephalopoda.]

Tijdschr. Nederl. Dierk. Vereen., IV., Verslag., pp. lix.-lxiii.
WiEDERSHEiM, Prof. — On the Biology of Limnoca auriculata.

Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 572-3.

Woodward, H., LL.D., F.R.S. — Further Notes on a Collection of Fossil Shells,

&c., from Sumatra (obtained by M. Verbeek, Director of the Geological Survey of

the West Coast, Sumatra). {In part.) Plates 11-13. Geol. Mag., VI., pp. 441-4,

492-500.

Molluscoida.

Barrande, J. — Local Studies in Brachiopoda. 335 pp. and 7 plates. (8vo.
Prague, 1879.)

Busk, G., F.R.S.— (Zoology of Kerguclen Island) Polyzoa. Plate 10.

Phil. Trans., CLXVIIL, pp. 193-9.
Goldstein, J. R. Y. — On a New Species of Polyzna. 1 fig. of plate 3.

\_Serialaria Wo^ dsii.] Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc. Victoria, I., pp. 19-20.

Maplestone, C. M. — A New Species of Polyzoa. 4 figs, of plate 3.

» [Bicellaria annulata.'] Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc. Victoria, I., p. 19.

Repiachoff, W. — Observations on Cyjyhonautes. Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 517-18.
Vine, G. R. — On Palceocoryne and the Development of Fenestelln. 11 figs.

Sci.-Gossip, Nos. 178-179, pp. 225-9, 247-8.
Waters, A. W., F.G.S.— On the Occurrence of Recent Hcteropora. Plate 15.

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 390-3.

Arthropoda.

Bertkatj, Dr. P. — Report on the Scientific Publications relating to the Arthro-
poda during the years 1877-78. Arch. Naturg., XLIV., Div. 2, pp. 219-562.
a. Insecta.
Bettany, G. T. — The Galleries of the Cutting Ants of Texas. [Notes in
anticipation of H. C. McCook's Memoir.] Nature, XX., p. 583.
„ „ See McCook, Rev. H. 0.
BiLLUPS, T. R.— Calandra Oryzw and its Associates.

Entomol, XII., pp. 267-9.
BoRRE, DE, — . — Note on Bryeria horinensis.

Ann. Soc. Entom. Bclg., XX 11., CR., pp. Ixxvii.-lxxxiii.

„ [Note on the proper position for Placing Insects in Collections.]

2 figs. Ann. Soc. £>,tom. Bclg., XXII., CR., pp. Isxxiii.-vi.

Brandt, Dr. A. — Commentaries on the " Germinal-Vesicle Theory " of the

Ovum. I. The Elements of tlie Blastoderm and the Yolk-spheres of Insects.

Plate 4. Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVIL, pp. 43-57.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMLV, MICROSCOPYj ETC. 967

Brandt, E.— Anatomiral and Morphological Researches on the Nervous
System of Insects. Comptes Rendus, LXXXIX., pp. 475-7.

Brants, A. — Notices regarding the First Stages of Satyrus Stati/inus Hufn.

Tijdschr. EntomoL, XXII., pp. 200-5.
Buckler, W. — Description of the Larva, &c., of Nomujria Sparq/ndi.

EntomoL M. Mag., XVI., pp. 99-101.
„ „ The Natural History of Emmelcsia affinitata.

E/domol. M. Maq., XVI., pp. 102-3.

Chatin, J. — Origin and Morpliological Value of the different Pieces of the

Labium in the Orthoptera. Comptes Bendus, LXXXIX., pp. 652-3.

Chaudoib, Baron de.— Monograph of the Scaritidse (Scaritini). Ist Part.

{In part.) Ann. Soc. Entvm. Belg., XXII., pp. 124-80.

CouRCHET, L. — Note on the Aphides of Pistacia tercbinthus and P. kntiscus.

Rev. Set. Nat., VIIL, pp. 1-14.
Davis, H., F.E.M.S. — Notts on the Pvgidia and Cerci of Insects.

Joum. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 252-5.

Eaton, Eev. A. E., M.A.— (Zoology of Kerguelen Island) Observations on the

Insects collected in Kerguelen Island. Phil. Trans., CLXVIIL, pp. 228-9.

Elisha, G. — A Winter Occupation for Lepidopterists. [Description of Forcing

Apparatus.] Entom., XII., pp. 238-9.

Everts, Dr. E. — Contributions to the Knowledge of the Apiouidse. Plate 5.

and 17 figs. Tijdschr. EntomoL, XXII., pp. 133-85,

FiTzwiLLiAJi, S. — Economic Entomology {concluded). Entom., XII., pp. 242-4.

Goss, H., F.L.S., &c. — Introductory Papers on Fossil Entomology. No. 9.

Cainozoic Time (On the Insects of the Eocene Period and the Animals and Plants

with which they were correlated). EntomoL M. Mag., XVI., pp. 124-8.

Graber, Prof. Dr. V. — The Insects. Part I. Organization, 404 pp., 191 figs.

Part II. Comparative Life-History and Embryology, 604 pp., 213 figs. (8vo.

Munich, 1877-9.)

„ „ On the Unicorneal Eye of the Tracheata, wnth especial

reference to that of the Arachnida and Myriapoda. Plates 5-7 and 1 fig.

Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVII., pp. 58-93.
„ „ Supplement, concerning the Convergence between the

Tracheate and Annelidan Phyla. Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVII., p. 94.

Jacobs, Dr. — Note on the Preservation of Insects.

Ann. Soc. Entom. Behj., XXII., CR., pp. Ixxxvi.-vii.
KoLBE, H. — On the Pupa of Carabus nemoralis. Figs, of a plate to follow.

Deidsche EntomoL Zeitschr.. XXIII., p. 48.
KuNCKEL, J. — Morphological and Zoological Researches on the Nervous System
of Dipterous Insects. Comptes Rendus, LXXXIX., pp. 491-2.

McCooKjRev. H.C. — Cutting or Parasol Ant, Atta fervens Say.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1879, pp. 33-40.
„ „ Note on the Adoption of an Ant-queen.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1879, pp. 137-8.
„ Mode of Depositing Ant-eggs. (Verbal.)

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1879, p. 140.
„ „ Note on the Marriage- flights of Lasius flatus and Myrmica

lohricornis. Proc. Acad. Nat. ScL Philad., 1879, pp. 140-3.
„ „ Note on Mound-making Ants.

Proc. Acad. Nat. ScL Philad., 1879, pp. 154-6.
„ „ Combats and Nidification of the Pavement Ant, Tetra-

moi-ium Ca'spitum.

Proc. Acad. Nat. ScL Philad., 1879, pp. 156-161.
„ See Bettany, G. T.

McCook, Rev. H. C. — The " Parasol" Ants of Texas : How they Cut and Carry
Leaves ; Origin of Castes by Evolution. lAbstr. by U. T. Bettany.]

Nature, XXL, pp. 17-18.

Meade, R. H.— Parasitic Diptera. EntomoL M. Mag., XVI., pp. 121-2.

Melise, — . — [Note on some Observations of M. Girard in his ' Metamorphoses

of Insects.'] Ann. Soc. Entmn. Belg., XXU., CR., pp. xcii.-iv.

MosLEY, S. L. — On some Causes which seem to operate in the production of

Varieties in Lepidoptera. {in part.) Naturalist, V., pp. 53-7.

968 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

MoTT, F. T., F.R.G.S.— A Festival of Gnats. Midi. Nat, II., pp. 247-8.

MuLLEE, Dr. F.— Notes on the Cases of some South Brazilian Trichoptera.

7mns. Entomol. Soc, 1879, pp. 131-44.

Ormerod, E. a., F. M.S.— Observations of the Effects of Low Temperatures on

Larvaj. Trans. Entomol. Soc, 1879, pp. 127-30.

JiHei/, Prof. C. F.— Philosophy of the Pupation of some Butterflies. {Abstr.)

Nature, XX., pp. 594-5.
EiTZEMA Bos, Dr. J. — Two cases of Monstrosity in Insects. Plate 11, fig.
1-5. \_Dtjtiscus margindis, Saperda Curcharias.']

Tijdschr. Entomol., XXII., pp. 206-9.
„ „ „ The Organs of Sound of Ephqypiqera vitium Sew.

Plate 11., pp. 6-10. Tijdschr. Entomol., XXII., pp. 210-16.

ScHNETZLEB, B. — Some Observations on the role of Insects during the Flower-
ing of Arum crinitum Ait. Comptes Eendus, LXXXIX., pp. 508-10.
[Trans;. Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 399-400.]
SiEWERS, C. G. — See Fungi.

Spangberg, J.— Note on the Ravages of Aphides in Barley-fields, and the

means of Prevention. An. Soc. Espan. Hist. Nat., VIII., pp. 339-41.

Taschenberg, Prof. E. — The species of the Genus Xylocopa Ltr. in the Halle

Zoological Museum. Zeitschr. gesammt. Naturwiss., LII., pp. 563-99.

T03IASCHEK, Prof. A. — A Swarm of American Bees — Trigona lineata Lep. —

living in Europe. Zool. Anzei'j., II., pp. 5.^2-7.

Treat, M.— Notes on the Slave-making Ant. Am. Nat., XIII., pp. 707-8.

Vollcnhoven, Dr. S. C. Snellen van. — Life-Histories of Sawflies {continued).

{Traml. by J. W. May.) Entomol, XII., pp. 264-7.

Wagner, N. — On the Stracture of the Cephalic Ganglia of Insects. (Transl.)

Ann. (J- Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 397-8.

Weston, W, P. — The Tortrices of Surrey, Kent, and Sussex (contd.).

Entom., XII., pp. 239-42.
White, F.B., M.D., F.L.S. — The Mountain Lepidoptera of Britain: their
distribution and its causes {co7itd.). Scot. Nat., V., pp. 149-160.

WiLMOTT, C. — The History of Eanatra linearis. 4 figs.

Sci.-Gossip, No. 179, pp. 252-3.
Wood, Mason, J., F.G.S. — Morphological Notes bearing on the Origin of In-
sects. 9 figs. Trans. Entomol. Soc, 1879, pp. 145-67.

y. Myriapoda.
Butler, A. G., F.L.S. — (Zoology of Rodriguez) Myriapoda and Arachnida.
Plate 52. Phil. Trans., CLXVIII., pp. 497-509.

Graber, V. — See Insecta.

Ryder, J. A. — An Account of a New Genus of Minute Pauropod Myrlapods.
1 plate and 2 figs. [_Earypauropus spmos'is.'] Am. Nat., XIII., pp. 603-12.

„ „ Notice of a New Pauropod.

Froc. Acad. Nat. Sd. Philad., 1879, p. 139.

5. Arachnida.
Becker, L. — Araneida collected in Moldavia by A. Montandon.

Ann. Soc Entom. Belg., XXII., OR., pp. Ixxxviii.-ix.
„ „ New Araneida [7] of the Belgian Fauna.

Ann. Soc. Entom. Belg., XXII., CR., pp. Ixxxix.-XC.
„ „ Arachnological Communications. 1 fig.

Ann. Soc. Entom. Belg., XXII., CR., pp. xcv.-cii.
„ „ Catalogue of the Arachnida of Belgium. 4th part.

Ann. Soc. Entom. Belg., XXII., CR., pp. civ.-vii.
„ „ A few words on the Constructions of the Spiders. 2nd Article.

{In part). Ann. Soc. Entom. Belg., XXII., CR., pp. cx.-xii.

Butler, A. G., F.L.S., &c. — Respecting a new Distinction between the Spe-
cies of tiie Genus Phrynus of Authors. Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 313-16.
„ „ „ See Myriapoda.

Cambridge, Rev. 0. P., M.A. — On some New Species of Araneidea. Plate 17.
[From Germany, Neriene rasa ; N. lieyse -lingii : N. iracunda ; Walckenaera con-
genera. From Lisbon, W. nasuta."] Aim. cj- Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 343-9.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 969

Cambridge, Rev. 0. P., M.A. — (Zoology of Kcrguclen Island) Arachnida
Plate 13 and 4 figs.

Phil. Trans., CLXVIIL, pp. 219-27.
„ „ „ The Spiders of Dorset, with an Appendix con-

taining short Descriptions of those British Species nnt yet found in Dorsetshire.
Part 1, pp. 235. 3 plates. [From the Proceedings of the Dorset Natural His-
tory and Antiquarian Field Club.] (8vo. Sherborne, 1879.)

Geokge, C. F. — Notes on a curious Mite {Calyptostoma Hardiji). 5 figs.

Sci.-Gossip, No. 179, pp. 249-50.
„ „ See Michael, A. D.

Graber, V. — See Insecta.

Hasselt, Dr. A. W. M. van. — See Rosenberg, C. B. H. von.
Karsch, Dr. F.— Arachnological Contributions. Plate 7.

(1) Spha robot hria, a new gigantic Avicularid from Costa Rica, pp. 534-G.

(2) The Araneida Genus Trodwnteria, pp. 53C-9.

(3) On the Natural History of tlie Araneida Genus Trechalen, pp. 539-42.

(4) The Arachnid Genera Trechona and Linothole (Theraphrosiuae),
pp. 5-12-tJ.

(5) On the Arachnid Fauna of Ceylon, pp. 547-62.
[2 nov. gen., Pelmopoda and Cecidoims, 9 nov. sp.]

Zeitschr. yesamtnt. Naturwiss., LII., pp. 534-62.
Lebert, H. — Hydrachnida of the Lake of Geneva (' Materials for the Study
of the Deep Fauna,' 6th Series, § XLIX., Plates 10-11 (11-12).

Bull. Soc. Vuud. Set. A\d., XVI., pp. 327-77.
BIcCooK, Rev. H. C. — Pairing of Spiders — Linyphia marginata.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1879, pp. 150-2.
Michael, A. D., F.R.M.S., and F. George, M.R.C.S.E.— A Contribution to the
Knowledge of British Oribatidse. Plates 9-11.

Journ. R. Micr. Soc., II., pp. 225-51.
Para, J. E. — Thomisns Foka (Vinson). Pev. Sci. Nat., VIII., jap. 55-58.

Rosenberg, Cel., C. B. H. von, and Dr. A. W. M. Van Hasselt.— Aranete
exoticss ex insula Celebes (Gorontalo). Plate 12, figs. 1-5.

Tijdsc/ir. EntomoL, XXII., pp. 217-26.
Ryder, J. A. — A probable New Species of PhytopAus or Gall-mite. 1 fig.

Am. Nat, XUI., pp. 704-5.
SniON, E. — Descriptions of New Opiliones.

Awi. Soc. Entom. Bchj., XXII., CR., pp. Ixx.-lxxv.

5. Crustacea.

Blanc, H. — Blind Isopod of the Deep Region of the Lake of Geneva.

Asellus Forellii, sp. n. (' Materials for the Study of the Deep Fauna,' 6th Ser., § L.).

Plate 12 (13). Bidl. Soc. Vaud. ScL Not., XVI., pp. 377-94.

Brady, G. S., M.D., &c.— (Zoology of Kerguelen Island) Entomostraca.

Plate 12. Phd. Tram., CLXVIIL, pp. 215-18.

CLArs, Dr. C. — Systematic Review of tlie Genera and Species of Platyscelidaj.

Arb. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien {Clans), II., pp. 147-98.

Faxon, W. — On some Young Stages in the Development of Hippn, Porcellana

and Pinnixa. Plates 1-5. Bidl. Mus. Comp. Zool., V., pp. 253-68.

Ficker, Dr. G.— On a hitherto unknown Excretory Organ in Sapphirina.

Zool. Anzcig., II., pp. 515-16.

Grobben, Dr. C. — The Embryology of Moinn rectirostris. Together with a

Contribution to the Knowledge of the Anatomv of the Phyllopoda. Plates (1-7)

11-17, and 2 figs. Arb. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien {Claus), II., pp. 203-68.

Herrick, C. L. — Fresh-water Entomostraca. Plates 1-4.

Am. Nat., XIII., pp. 620-8.
Hesse, — . — Description of rare or new Crustacea of the French Coasts.
Art. 29. 34 pp. Plates 19 & 20 (21 to follow).

Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.), VIIL, Art. No. 11.
Horst, Dr. R. — On Two New Parasitic Crustacea. Plate 3.
[Lcrna:t'mcus Gcmpyli and 1 unnamed.]

Tijdschr. Ncderl. Dierk. Vcrcen., IV., pp. 51-5.

U70 BIBLIOGRAPHY OP

Jones, Prof. T. E., F.E.S., &c., and J. W. Kikkby.— Description of the Species
of the Ostracodous Genus Bairdia M'Coy from the Carljonifemus Strata of Great
Britain. Plates 28-32. Qxmrt. Journ. Geol. Soc, XXXY., pp. 565-81.

Ker chner, L. — On the Notodelpliyidffi.
(Transl. from 'Anzeig. Akad. Wiss. Wien.')

Ann. ^ Mug. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 321-2.
KiiiKBY, J. W.—See Jones, Prof. T. R.
Mayer, P. — Carcinologicnl Communications. Plate 17.

[7. A New Parasitic Copepoda, Ive Balanoglossi. 8. On Change of Colour

in the Isojioda.] Mitthcil. Zool. Stat. Neapel, I., pp. 515-22.

MiERs, E. J., F.L.S., &c. — (Zoology of Kerguelen Island and Rodriguez)

Crustacea. Plate 11. Phil. Trans., CLXVIIL, pp. 200-14, 485-96.

Etder, J. A. — Successive Appearance of Chirocephalus ami Streptocephalus in

the same Pond. Am. Nat., XIII., p. 703.

„ „ Description of a New Species of Chirocephalus. 3 figs.

[a Holmanii.'] Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1879, pp. 148-9.

Schmidtlein, R. — See Zoology A.

ScHoBL, Dr. J.— On the Reproduction of the Isopodous Crustacea. Plates

9-10. Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVII., pp. 125-40.

Stebbing, Rev. T. E. E. — On Hgale Lubbockiana (= Allurchestcs imbricatus

Sp. Bate, and Nicea Lubbockiana Sp. Bate). Atm. cf- Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., p. 396.

Thomson, G. M. — Additions to the Araphipodous Crustacea of New Zealand.

Plate 16.

[4 sp. ; 3 nov. sp. = Amphithonotus IcEvis ; Microdeutopns maculatus ;
Cyrtophium cristatuin.'\ Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 329-33.

Ward, J., M.A. — Some Notes on the Physiology of the Nervous System of
the Fresh-water Crayfish {Astacus fiuviatilis).

Journ. of Physiol. (Foster), 11., pp. 214-27.
"Weismann, Prof. Dr. A. — Contributions to the Natural History of the
Daphniadaj. Parts 6 and 7. Plates 8-13.

Zeitschr. iciss. Zool., XXXIII., pp. 55-270.
Woodward, H., LL.D., F.E.S., &c. — Contributions to the Knowledge of
Fossil Crustacea. Plate 26.

[I. On a fossil Squilla from the London Clay of Highgate. II. On Nccroscilla
Wilsmn, a supposed Stomapod Crustacean from the Middle Coal-Meaaures,
Cossall, near Ilkeston. III. On the Discovery of a fossil Squilla in the
Cretaceous Deposits of Hakel in the Lebanon, Syria. IV. On the
Occurrence of a Fossil King-Crab (Limulus syriacus) in the Cretaceous
Formation of the Lebanon.] Quart. Journ. Zool. Soc, XXXV., pp. 549-56.
WRZESNiow.SKr, Prof. A. — Preliminary Communications on some, Ampliipoda.
VI. Contributions to the Anatomy of the Amphipoda (concld.).

Zool. Anzeij., II., pp. 487-91, 511-15, 53G-40, 564-9.

Vermes.

Balbiani, Prof. — Observations on Notommata Werneckii and its Parasitism in
tiie Tubes of Vaucheria. Plate 18. (Transl. from ' Ann. Sci. Nat.')

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 530-44.
Barrels, J. — Embryology of the Nemerteans. (Abstr. by Maurice Girard.)

Rev. et Mag. Zool, VI., pp. 255-60.

BuTSCHLi, Prof. 0. — Remarks on the Excretory Vascular Apparatus of the

Trfniatods. 1 fig. ZooL Anzeig., II., pp. 5S8-9.

Deby, J., F.R.M.S. — Is not the Rotiferous Genus Pedalion of Hudson

synonymous with Ilcxarthra of Ludwig Schmarda ?

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 384-5.
Ehlers, Prof. E. — (Report on the Results of Dredging, under the suiDervision
of Alexander Agassiz, in the Gulf of IMexico, by the U.S. Coast Survey steamer
' Blake.') IV. Preliminary Eeport on the Worms.

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., V., pp. 269-74,
GiAED, Prof. A. — The Orthonectida, New Class of the Vermes. Plates 34-6.
Juurn. Anot. cj- Phys. (Robin), XV., pp. 449-464.
„ „ On the Organization and Classification of the Orthonectida.

Comptcs Rendus, LXXXIX., pp. 545-7.

INVERTEBRA.TA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 971

GiRARD, M. — See Biirrois, J.
Graber, N. — See Insecta.

Graff, Prof. Dr. L. — Geonemertes chalicophora, a New Land-Nemertean.
Plates 25-7. 1 fi^'. 3forph. Jahrbuch, V., pp. 430-49.

Gribe, Prof. E. — (Zoology of Kodriguez) Annelida.

FhiL Tr.ms., CLXVIIL, pp. 554-6.
Gulliver, G., B.A.— (Zoology of Rodriguez) Turbellaria. Plate 55.

FM. Trans., CLXVIII., pp. 557-63.
Halley, p. — On Adaptation and Miccicry in the Turbellaria.

Fcv. Intcrnat. Sci., IV., pp. 362-8.
HiNDE, G. J., F.G.S. — On Annelid Jaws from the Cambro-Silurian, Silurian,
and Devonian Formations in Canada and from the Lower Carboniferous in Scot-
land. Plates 18-20. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, XXXV., pp. 370-89.
HoRST, Dr. H. — The Hypodermis of the Lumbricidse.

TIjdschr. Nederl. Dierk. Vcrcen., IV., pp. 56-7.
Hudson, C. T., LL.D., &c. — On (Ecistes umbella and other Rotifers. Plates
1-2. Journ. F. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 1-8.

„ „ Note on M. Deby's Paper. 2 figs.

Jouni. F. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 386-7.
Lang, Dr. A. — Researches on the Comparative Anatomy and Histology of the
Nervous System of the Platyhelminthes. I. Plates 15 and IG.

Mittheil. Zool. Stat. Xcapel, I., pp. 459-88.
Langekhans, Prof. Dr. P. — The Madeira Worm-Fauna. II. Platus 14-17.

Zeitschr. iciss. Zuol., XXXIII., pp. 271-316.
Lankester, E. Ray, M.A., F.R.S. — (Zoology of Kerguelen Island) Terrestrial
Annelida. 7 figs. Fhil. Trans., CLXVIII , pp. 264-9.

Leidy, Prof. — On Go/dius, and on some Parasites of the Rat.

Froc Acad. Xat. Sci. Fhilad., 1879, pp. 10-11.
„ „ On Bothriocephalus latus.

Froc Acad. Nat. Sci. Fhilad., 1879, p. 40.
Levick, J. — A New Rotifer. Plate 6. [_AnurcEa longispina.']

Midi. Nat., II., pp. 241-3.
M'Intosh, W. C, M.D., &c. — (Zoology of Kerguelen Islan:!) Jlariue Annelida.
Plate 15. Fhil. Trans., CLXVIII., pp. 258-63.

Metschnikoff, Prof. E. — On the Natural History of the Orthonectida.

Zool. Anzei<j., II., pp. 547-9.
Sfengel, Dr. J. W. — On the Organisation of Echinrus FallasH.

Zool. Anzei;]., II., pp. 542-7.

Taschenberg, Dr. E. D. — Didtjmyzoon, a New Genus of Cystic Trematoda.

Plate 6. Zeitschr. gesammt. Naturwiss., LH., pp. 605-17.

Echinodermata.
Bell, F. J., B.A., &c. — Observations on the Characters of the Echinoidea.
II. On the Species of tha Genus Tripneustes, Agassiz. Plate 49.

Froc. Zool. Soc, 1879, pp. 655-62.
„ „ Note on the Number of Anal Plates in Echinocidaris.

Froc. Zool. Soc, 1879, pp. 436-7.
Carpenter, P. H., M.A. — The Chambered Organ of Comatula.
[Dr. W. B. Carpenter and not Prof. R. Greeff first discovered that the
" heart " of Crinoids is composed of five chambers.]

Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 569-71.
LuDWiG, Dr. H. — The Echinoderms of the IMediterranean.

Mittheil. Zool. Stat. Neapel, I., pp. 523-80.
„ ,, Echinodcrm Studies. Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 540-2.

Miller, S. A. — Remarks on the Kaskasia Group, and Descriptions of New
Species of Fossils from Pulaski County, Kentucky. Plate 8, figs. 1-4.

[4 Crinoids.] Journ. Cincinn. Soc. Nat. Hist., II., pp. 31-42.

Selexka, Prof. Dr. E. — Germ-layers and Rudimentary Organs of the Echinida.

Plates 5-7. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., XXXIII., pp. 39-54.

Sladen, W. p., F.G.S., &c. — On Lepidodiscus Lehouri, a New Species of Agela-

crinitidfe from the Carboniferous Series of Northumberland. Plate 37.

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, XXXV., pp. 744-51.

972 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Smith, E. A., F.Z.S. — (Zoology of Kerguelen Island and Eodriguez) Eehino-
dermata. Plates 16, 17 and 51 (tigs. 1 and 3).

Phil. Trans., CLXVIII., pp. 270-81, 564-8.

Wetheeby, Prof. A, G., A.M. — Kemarks on the Genus Pterotocrinus. Plate 8,
figs. 5-12. Jouni. Cinc'tnn. Soc. Nat. Hist., II., pp. 3-8.

Coelenterata.

Allman, Prof. M.D., &c.— (Zoology of Kerguelen Island) Hydroida. Plate 18
and 1 fig. Phil. Trans., CLXVIII., pp. 282-5.

BrOggemann, Dr. F. — (Zoology of Rodriguez) Corals.

Phil. Trans., CLXVIII., pp. 569-79.
Clal'S, Dr. C. — Agahnopsis utricularia, a New Siphonophora of the Mediter-
ranean. Plate (1) 18. Arh. Zool. Inst. Univ. Wien (Claus), II., pp. 199-202.
Eaton, Rev. S. E. — (Zoology of Kerguelen Island) Note on the Aetinozoa.

Phil. Trans., CLXVIII., p. 281.
EiMER, Th. — Experiments on the Artificial Division of Beroe oratus. 2 figs.

Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVIL, pp. 213-40.
Etheridge, R., jun. — See Nicholson, Prof. H. A.

Heii»er, Dr. A. v. — Cerianthus memhranaceus Haime. A Contribution to the
Anatomy of the Actinice. 6 plates and 1 fig.

SB. Akad. Wiss. {Wien), LXXIX., 1st sec., pp. 201-54.
Hertwig, O. and R. — The Actinias investigated Anatomically and Histologi-
cally, with especial reference to the Neuro-muscular System. Plates 17-26.

Jen. Zeitschr. Natunviss., XIIL. pp. 457-517.
Hyatt, A. — Guides for Science Teaching. No. V. Common Hydroids, Corals,
and Echinoderms. 32 pp. (12mo. Boston, 1879.)

Jourdan, E. — On the Zoantharia Malacodermata of the Shores of Mar-
seilles. ( Transl. from ' Comptes Rendus.')

Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 325-6.

Kowalevsky, Prof. A.^On the Embryology of the Alcyoiiidse SijmjKxlium

coralloides, M.-Edw., and Clavularia crassa M.-Edw. Znol. Anzeig., II., pp. 491-3.

Lapworth, C, F.G.S., &c. — On the Geological Distribution of tlie Rhabduphora

(contd.). Ann. .J- Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 333-41.

Lyon, N. W. — Descriptions of Three New Species of Calceolidse from the

Upper Silurian Rocks of Kentucky. [C. comiculun ; C. Coxii ; C. atten'iatics.']

Proc. Acad. Nat. Set. Philad., 1879, pp. 43-6.
Nicholson, Prof. H. A., M.D., &c., and R. Etheridge, jun., F.G.S. — Descrip-
tions of Palaeozoic Corals from Northern Queensland, with Observations on the
Genus Stenopora {concluded). Plate 14 and 3 figs.

Ann. 4- Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 265-85.
Woodward, H.—See Mollusca.

Porifera.

Barnard, F. — Notes on Sponge from Northern Territory. 4 figs, of plate 1.

Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc. Victoria, I., pp. 14-15.

Carter, H. J., F.R.S., &c. — On a New Species of Excavating Sponge

{Alectona Millari), and on a New Species of Rhapkidotheca {R. affinis). Plates 17

and 17a (1-4). Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 493-9.

„ „ .... Spiculation of an Unknown Sponge.

Plate 17a, fig. 12.

Journ. R. Mirr. S^c, 11., p. 502,
„ „ (Zoology of Kerguelen Island) Spongiidse.

Phil Traws.,- CLXVIII., pp. 286-8.
„ ,, On the Nutritive and Reproductive Processes

of Sponges.

Ann. 4- Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 374-86.
Dezso, Dr. B. — Continuation of Researches on Tetliya li/ncuri nn. Plate 12.

Arch. Mikr. Anat., XVIL, pp. 151-64.

ScHCLTZE, F. E. — Researches on the Structure and Development of the

Sponges. Sth Communication. The Genus Hircinia Nardo ,aiid Oligoceras

n. gen. Plates 1-4. Zeitschr. xi-i,s. Zoul., XXXIII., pp. 1-38.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 973

SiNZOw, J. — On Calcareous Spouges of the Saratow Province. 6 plates.
[29 sp., 9 n. sp., 3 n. gen., Lahyrintholites, Folyscyphia, Zittelispongia,']

Denkschr. Neu-Russ. Naturf. Ges., VI. (40 pp.).

SOLLAS, W. J., M.A. — Observations on Dactylocalyx pumiceus (Stutchbury),

with a Description of a new Variet}', Dactylocalyx Stutchburyi. Plates 5-8, and

4 figs. Journ. B. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 122-33.

Protozoa,
Carter, H. J., F.E.S., &c. — On the Structure of Stromatopora. Plate 15.

Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 253-65.
„ „ On a New Genus of Foraminifera {Aphrosina

infonnU) .... Plate 17a (figs. 5-11). Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 500-2.

Davis, J., F.K.M.S.— On a New Species of Cothumia. Plate 20.

[C cor/iiijata.] Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 653-5.

DoDEL-PoRT, Prof. — See Algre.

Everts, Dr. E. — Contributions to the Knowledge of the Opalinm in the
Intestinal (janal of the Batrachia. Plate 4

Tijdschr. Nedel. Dierk. Vereen., TV., pp. 92-6.
Fatigati, S. y. — Influence of the different Colours of the Solar Spectrum on
the Nutrition and Development of Infusoria.

An. Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat., VIII. (Actas), pp. 42-3.
Fullagae, J. — A peculiar Anv.eba. 1 fig. \_Dactylosphcerium vitreum ?]

Sci.-Gossip, No. 179, pp. 245-6.
George, F. J. — Euglena viridis and its bulbed Flagellum.

Sci.-Gossip, No. 179, p. 256.
Gruber, Dr. A. — Preliminary Communication on New Infusoria.

Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 518-9.

Lankester, E. Ray, F.R.S. — The Structure of Haliphysema Tumanowiczii.

Plate 22. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., XIX., pp. 476-83.

„ „ Lithanweha discus, nov. gen. et sp., one of the

Gymnomyxa. Plate 23. Quart. Jonm. Micr. Sci., XIX., pp. 484-7.

Leidy, Prof. — On Rhizopods [40] occurring in Sphagnum.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1879, pp. 162-3.
Levick, J. — A Tube-dwelling Stentor. [S. Barrettii ?]

Midi. Nat., II., pp. 280-1.
Maplestone, C. M. — Infusoria in Australia. Plate II.

Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc. Victoria, I., pp. 15-18.
RoBSON, M. H. — Euglena viridis and its bulbed Flagellum. 1 fig.

Sci.-Gossip, No. 178, p. 231.
ScHMANKEWiTSCH, W. — On the Relation of Certain Colourless Flagellata to
Algse and Fungi. 1 plate. Denkschr. Neu-Russ. Natnrf. Gesell., VI. (71 pp.).

Schneider, A. — Monobia conflnens, a New Moneron. ( Transl.) Plate 18.

Ann. ^-Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 388-91.
Sterki, Dr. V. — Tintinnus semiciliatus, a New Species of Infusoria.
(Transl. from 'Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.') Ann. ^ Mag. Nat. Hist., IV., pp. 290-4.

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including Embryology and Histology
of the Phanerogamia.

Behrens, Dr. W. J, — The Nectaries of Flowers : Anatomical-Physiological
Investigations {concL). Flora, LXII., pp. 433-48, 449-57.

Beknard, Prof. C. — See Zoology A.

Bonnier, G. — The Nectaries. Critical. Anatomical, and Physiological Study
(concluded). Plates 1-8. Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), VIII., pp. 129-212.

Capus, G. — See Zoology A.

Darapskt, — . — The Nucleus of the Embryo-sac and the Endosperm. Plate 7.

Bot. Zeit.. XXXVII., pp. 553-7.

Detmer, W. — The Metastasis of Germination at difi'erent Temperatures.
(Abstr. from ' Forsch. Geb. Agriculturphysik.') Naturf., XII., p. 376.

974 BIBLIOCrRAPHY OF

Emmerling, A. — On the Formation of Albumen in Plants. {Extr. from 'Land-
wirthschaft. Versuclis-Stat.') Naturf., XII.. pp. 418-21.

ExGLEK, A. — Note on the Fertilization of Zostcra mvina and its Growth.

Bot. Zcit, XXXYII., pp. 654-5.
Fremy, E. — The Formation of Coal. (^Abstr. from ' Comptes Eendiis.')

J/. Jown. Sci., I., pp. 677-82.
Gray, Asa, LL.D., &c.— The Botanical Text-Book. Part 1. Structural Botany.
6th ed. 442 pp., 695 figs. (Svo. New York. 1879.)

Hennigek, K. a. — On Hybridization in the Ves^etable Kingdom (contd.).

F/ora, LXII., pp. 424-9, 459-64, 490-5.

HiLDEBKAXD, E. — Comparative Kesearches on the Nectaries of the Cruciferse.

Plate 1. JB. rriss. Botanik, XII., pp. 10-40.

HuETS-EL, Dr. F. R. v. — Contributions to the Knowledge of the Motion of Air

and Sap in the Plant. Plate 3. JB. iciss. Botiuik, XII., pp. 47-131.

Iloppe-Seyler, F.—On the Composition of Chlorophyll. (Abstr. from ' Zeitschr.

Physiol. Chemie.') A'aturf., XII., pp. 391-3.

Klinge, J. — Comparative Histological Research on the Roots of Gramineseand

Cvperacese, particularly in the Fibrovascular Bundles. 70 pp. 3 plates.

Jilem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbitrg, XXVI., No. 12.
LxiNDSTKOM, A. N. — Remarks on Cell-division in Living Material.

Bot. Xotiser, 1879, pp. 113-19,
NAmiN, Ch. — Influence of Atmospheric Elech'icity on the Growtli, Blossom-
ing, and Fructification of Plants. Comptes Bendus, LXXXIX., pp, 535-40,

[Abstr. in Xature, XX., p. 587.]
Pets'GSHEIM, E. — On the function of Chlorophyll in Plants, and Action of Light
upon it. 3JB. A'. P,euss. Akad. 1879, pp. 532-46.

ScHooR, Dr. "\V. K. .1. — Investigation into the Excretion of Acid in the Ger-
mination of Wheat-grain. Ned. Kruidk. Arch., III., pp. 104-7.
SoLLA, R. F.— Contributions to the better Knowledge of the Chemiciil and
Pliysical Constitution of the Intercellular Substance.

Ocsterr. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., pp. 341-53.
Stohk, a. — On the occurrence of Chlorophyll in the Epidermis of the Foliage
Leaves of Phanerogams. 1 plate.

SB. Akad. Wiss. ( Wicn), LXXIX., 1st Sec, pp. 87-118.
Stbasbttbger, Prof. Dr. E. — The Angiosperms and the Gymnosperms. 173 pp.
Plates 1-22. (8vo. Jena, 1879.)

Trelease, "W. — The Fertilization of our Native Species of Clitonia and Centro-
sema. 8 figs. Am. Xat., XIII., pp. 688-92.

Trecb, M. — On the Plurality of Nuclei in certain Plant-cells.

Comptes Bendus, LXXXIX., pp. 494-5.

Verlot, B. — The Guide of the Botanist for Fxcursions, &c. 2nd ed. With an

Introduction by M. Naudin. 734 pp. Frontispiece and 32 figs. (Svo. Paris, 1879.)

Yesque, J. — New Researches on the Development of the Embrvonal Sac of

the Angiosperms. Plates 12-21. Ann. Sci. Xat. iBot.\ YlII.,"pp. 261-392.

Yries. Dr. H. de. — On the Contraction of Plant-cells on taking up Water.

Bot. Zcit., XXXYII.. pp. 649-54.
Warming, E. — On the Vegetable Ovule, and the right honiologits of its sepa-
rate parts. Bot. Tiddsk.,^IU., pp. 32-56.
„ „ Contribution to the Natural History of the CycadesB, Plates
5 and 6, Overs. K. Danske Ted. Sclskah., 1879, pp. 73-88. Besume, pp. 9-14.
Zacharias, F. — On Secretion-reservoirs with Suberized Walls.

Bot. Zeit, XXXYII., pp. 617-28, 633-45.

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Bagxai-L. J. E. — The Ci-j^ptogamic Flora of Warwickshire (contd.).

Midi. Xat., II., pp. 253-6, 278-80.
BOLXMANN, C. — See Zippel, H.
H ACER, Dr. H. — Botanical Instruction in 160 Lessons. 2nded. 739 pp. 931 figs.

[Cryptogamia, pp. 668-710.] (8vo. Berlin, 1880.)
Hooker. J. D., P.R.S.— (Botany of Kerguelen Island) Observations on the
Botany of Kergxielen Island. Phil. Trans., CLXVIIL, pp. 9-16.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 975

Jacobsen, J. p. — List of the Plants found in Laesii and Anholt in 1870.
[Cryptogamia, pp. 88-92.] Bot. Tiddsk., III., pp. 88-96.

Maximowicz, J. C — Ad Florso Asise Orientalis cognitionem melioretn frag-
menta. [Cryptogamia, 12 sp.] Bull. Soc. Imp. I^at, Moscow, LIV., 1-73.

Vines, S. H., M.A., D.Sc, &c.— On Alternation of Generations in the Thal-
lophytes. Jonni. Bot., VIII., pp. .32 1-7.

ZippEL, H., and C. Bollmann. — Eepresentatives of Native Families of Plants.
Lst Part. Cryptogamia, 212 pp., 8vo. Atlas, 12 plates, fol. (Brunswick, 1879.)

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

AjfKEKSMiT, H. J. K. — List of Plants observed near Apeldoorn between 1850
and 1878. [Cryptogamia vase. = pp. 209-10.] A'ed. Kruidk. Arch., III., pp. 175-213.
Baker, J. G., F.Pi.S. — On a Collection of Ferns gathered in the Fiji Islands
by Mr. John Home, F.L.S. [14 n. sp.]

Journ. of Bot, VIII., pp. 292-300.
„ „ „ Four New Ferns from South China.

Journ. of Bot., VIII., pp. 304-5.
Balfour, I. B. — (Botany of Rodriguez) Botany.

\_LycopodiacecE, OphioglossacccB, and Filices, pp. 385-7.]

Phil. Trans., CLXVIII., pp. 302-87.
Ball, Rev. E, N. — On Nova Bcotian Ferns.

Proc. 4- Trans. Nov. Scot. Inst. Nat. Sci., V., pp. 13-15.
Feistmantel, Dr. O. — Notes on the Fossil Flora of Eastern Australia and
Tasmania. [Cryptogamia = Equisetacece, Filices, Lycopodiacem.']

Geo/. Mag., VI , pp. 485-92.

Hooker, J. D., P.R.S. — (Botany of Kerguelen Island) Flowering Plants, Ferns,

Lycopodiacese, and Characese. Phil. Trans., CLXVIII., pp. 17-23.

James, J. F. — Catalogue of the Flowering Plants, Ferns, and Fungi growing in

the vicinity of Cincinnati. Journ. Cincinn. Soc. Nat. Hist., II., pp. 42-68.

JoNKMAX, H. F. — On the Development of Kaulfussia cBscuHfolia Bl.

Ned. Kruidk. Arch., III., pp. 262-3.

Oudemans, C. a. J. A. — The Development of our Knowledge concerning the

Flora of Holland, sketched from the original sources and critically explained

(contd.) [Cryptogamia = Fil. l.J Ned. Kruidk. Arch., III., pp. 1-16.

"Walraven, a. — List of the Phanero- and Crypto-gamic Vascular Plants of

Zeeland.

[Cryptogamia = Equiset. 4 ; Fil. 12.] Ned. Kruidk. Arch., III., pp. 108-141.
WiLLE, N. — Botanical Tour in Hardangervidden, 1877.
[Cryptogamia = Equiset. 3, Fil. 18, Lycopod. 5.]

Nyt Mag. Naturvid., XXV., pp. 27-61.

Muscinese.

Bescherelle, E. — Enumeration of the Mosses collected in Brazil, in the Pro-
vinces of Rio Janeiro and Santo Paulo, by M. E. Hampe.

Eev. Bryol., VI., pp. 86-90.
BoswELL, H. — A New Bryum {B. Origanuni). Naturalist, V., p. 33.

EcK, Yl.—See Midler, O.
Geheeb, a. — Contribution to the Moss-Flora of "Western Siberia.

\_Dicranum atratum, n. sp.] Flora, LXII., pp. 471-80.

„ „ A New Brazilian Species of the Genus Daltonia.

ID. Hampeana.] Rev. Bryol., VI., pp. 66-7.

„ „ A small Collection of Portuguese Mosses. „ „ p. 73.

„ „ Notes on some rare or little-known Mosses. „ „ pp. 81-3.

Giordano, J. C. — Pugillus Muscorum in agro Neapolitano Lectorum.

Atti Soc. Crittog. Ital, II., pp 49-102.
GoTTSCHE and Eabenhorst, — Hepaticse europase, Decas 65 & 66. 3 plates.
(8vo. Dresden, 1879.)

Hasipe, E.— Enumeratio Muscorum hactenus in provinces Brasiliensibus Rio
de Janeiro et Sao Paulo detectorum. (8vo. Copenhagen, 1879.)

Hobkirk, C. p., F.L.S.— Recent Additions to the Moss-Flora of the West
Riding of Yorkshire. {In part.) Journ, i?oi., VIII., pp. 337-41.

976 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Laooste, Dr. 0. M. Van der S. — Summary of the Species of Mosses observed
in the Dutch Provinces, arranged from North to South.

Ned. Kruidk. Arch., III., pp. 1G3-74.
Leidy, Prof.— aScc Protozoa.

Mitten, W., A.L.S. — (Botany of Kerguelen Island and Eodriguez) Musci.
Plates 3 (figs. 1-5), 37 & 38, (figs. A & B).

Phil. Trans., CLXVIII., pp. 24-30, 388-96.
„ „ „ (Botany of Kerguelen Island and Rodriguez) Hepaticse.

Plates 3 (figs. 6-1 1), 38 (figs. C & D), 39 & 40.

Fhil. Trans., CLXVIII., pp. 40-5, 39G-401.
MuLLER, Dr. K. — Musci Fendleriani Venezueleuses {condd.).

Linwiaa, XLIL, pp. 4SI-502,
Mi5LLER, 0., and H. Eck. — Cryptogamia from the Forest. Part 1. Mosses and
Sphagnacese (136 sp.). Part 2. Lichens (136 sp.). Part 3. Liverworts (37 sp.).
(Leipzig, 1879.)

Philibert, — . — On a New Species of Seligcria. [S. erecta.']

Rev. BryoL, VI., pp. 65-6.
„ „ On Two New Mosses discovered in Saone-et-Loire (contd.).

[2. Plagiothechun cuspidaium.'] Rev. BryoL, VI., pp. 67-9.

PuiGGARi, J. — Note on the discovery of various Cryptogams in Brazil.
[Musci 16; Lichenes 5.]

An. Soc. Espan. Hist. Nat., VIII. (Actas), p. 39-41.
Rabenhorst. — See Gottsche.

Ravaud, — . — Guide for Bryologists and Lichenologists to Grenoble and its
Neiglibouihood {contd.). 8th ExciU'sion. Rev. BryoL, VI., pp. 74-7.

Renalld, F. — Additions to the Bryological Flora of tlie Haute-Saone.

Rev. BryoL, VI., pp. 83-5.

„ „ Note on some Mosses of the Pyrenees {continued from Vols. 4

and 5). Rev. BryoL, VI., pp. 60-73.

SoMMERS, Prof. J., M.D., &c. — A Contribution towards the Study of Nova

Scotian Mosses. Froc. ^ Trans. Nov. Scot. List. Nat. Sci., V., pp. 9-13.

Spruce, E. — Hypnum {Brachythecium) salebrosum Hofifm. as a British Moss.

Journ. of Bat., YLIL, pp. 305-7.

Stephani, F. — German J ungermannige. 72 pp., 32 plates. (8vo. Berlin, 1879.)

Waldner, M. — On the History of Development of the Sporogonium of Andrccea

and Sphagnum. Preliminary Communication. Bot. Zeit., XXXVIL, pp. 595-7.

Warnstoff, C. — Collection of German Liverworts (exsicc). Series I.

55 sp.

Characeee.

Hooker, J. D., P.R.S. — See Cryptog. Vase.

Mitten, W., F.L.S. — (Botany of Rodriguez) Characese.

PhU. Trans., CLXVIII., p. 401.

Fungi.

Baebeck, "W. — Microscopical Fungi infesting our Cereals.

Am. Nat., XIIL, pp. 612-20.
Berkeley, Rev. M. J., M.A., F.L.S.— (Botany of Kergueleu Island and
Eodriguez) Fungi. PhiL Trans., CLXVIII., pp. 93-94, 413-14.

Bektoloni, a. — New Oi'rfmm of Cherry-laurel, [f. Passerinii.']

Nuovo Giorn. Bot. ItaL, XL, pp. 389-94.
Brunaud, p. — On the Presence of Glceosporium ampelopUagum Sacc. at
Saintonge. Rev. MycoL, 1, pp. 173-4.

Ellis, J. B. — On the Variability of Spha;ria quercuum Schw.

Proc. Acad. Nat. ScL Philad., 1879, pp. 66-70.
„ „ Fungi Bor. Americani. Cent. I. and II.

Gronland, C. — Iceland Fungi collected in 1876. 2 figs. [24 sp.].

Bot. TiddsL, III., pp. 72-6.
Harz, C. O. — Actinomyces bovis, a new Mould in the Tissues of the Ox. 16 pp.
20 figs. (Sep. imp. from ' Jahresb. Miinch. Central-Thierarzneischule.'j (8vo.
Miiuchen, 1879.)

mVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

977

llowsE, T., F.L.S.— The CryptogiUiiic Flora of Kent. Fungi (contd.).

Journ. of But., VIII., pp. 308-13, 333-G.
James, J. F.—Sce Crypt. Vase

KiRCHNER, O. — The Fungus-Diseases of the Useful Plants of Germany — an
accompaniment to Lectures on Plant Diseases. 14 pp. (4to. Plieaiugen, 1879.)
Klebs, Prof. E. — See Tommasi-Crudeli.

Lenz, H. O. — Useful, Noxious, and Suspicious Fungi. 6tli ed., by O. Wiiusche.
223 pp. 20 plates. (8vo. Gotha, 1879.)

MoEEis, D. — Coffee-leaf Disease of Ceylon and Southern India.

Nnture, XX., pp. S57-9.
OuDEMAMS, C. A. J. A. — Additions to the Mycologioal Flora of Holland from
July 1876 to July 1877, and from July 1877 to 31st December 1878.

A'ed. Kruklk, Arch., III., pp, H2-161, 230-57-
Passerini, Prof. G. — Funghi Parmensi enumerati.
[Sphseropsidese, Lev. Sacc. Septoria Fries. 150 sp,]

Atti. Soc. Crittoij. ltd., II., pp. 20-47.
PiROTTA, R. — On the Appearance of Mildew or false American (Jidium in
Italian Vineyards. Comptes Reiulus, LXXXIX., pp. 697-8.

Planchon, J. E. — The Mildew or false American Oidium in the French Vine-
yards. Comptes Reiulus, LXXXIX., pp. 600-3.
Prillieux, K — On the Colouring and Cause of the Alteration in Pink
Grains of Corn. (_/« part.) Plate 1 1 .

Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.). VIII., pp. 248-56, 257-60.
Rehm, — .— Cladonipe exsiccatse. Fnsc. III. (Eegensburg, 1879.)
KiOBiN, Ch. — Remarks on Bacterian Fermentation.

Journ. Anat. <J- Phys. {Rohin), XV., pp. 46.5-91.
EoiMEGrliRE, C. — Agaricus Haynaldi, n. sp. observed at Bagiieres-de-Luchon.

I fig. of plate 2. Rev. Mycol., I., p. 145.

„ „ Anthracnose observed in Charente-Infe'riem-e by M. P.

Bi-unaud. Rev- Mycol., I , pp. 145-6.

„ „ Rhizomorpha subterranca Pas. and its forms.

Rev. Mycol.. I., pp. 146-7.

,, „ Discovery of Oxygena piligena Fries, in the Department of

Saoae-et-Loire by Dr. X. Gillot. 1 fig. of plate 2. Rev. Mycol., I., pp. 147-8.

„ „ A New Sporidesmiaceae — Cladotrichum Roumegueri Speg. n. sp.

on the branches of Nerium. 1 fig. of plate 2. Rev. Mycol, I., pp. 148-9.

„ „ The Couidia of Chcenocarpus hypotrichoidei Lev., observed at

Paris by M. Bainier. Chcenocarpus observed at Bienville by the Abbe' Barbiche.

Rev. 3lycol., I., pp. 149-50.
„ „ A Boletus new to France, B. fusipes Eabeuh.

Rev. M'lCoL, I., p. 150.

„ „ Schiiophylhnn palmatum of China. Described by M. O.

Debeaux. Rev. Mycol., I., p. 152.

„ „ New Agarics obsei-ved in the Department of Tarn-et-Garonne.

Plates 3 and 4.

r-4. (Tricholoma) Isarnii ; A. (T.) Gaterandi ; A. {Leprota) Prevostii.']

Rev. M-icoL, I., pp. 152-4.
„ „ Fungi Gallic! exsiccati. Centuria VI. Index.

Rev. Mycol., I., pp. 154-5.
„ „ Rnpinin Pyrenaica Ch. Spegazziui and C. Roumeguore (n. sp.).

II figs, of plate 2. Rev. My<:ol., I., pp 171-3.
Saccardo, p. a.— Fungi Italici autographice delineati. Fasc. 13-16. (4to.

Padua, 1879.)

ScHMANKEWiTSCH, W.— iSee Protozoa.

ScHNETZLER, J. B. — Some Observations on Mother-of-Vinegar. &c.

Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., XVI., pp. 441-51.
ScHULZER, S. — Mycological Note.

\Cronartmm Urtirw n. sp.] Oesterr. Bot. Zeit., XXIX., pp. 319-20,

SiEWERS,"C. G.— Mold [mould 1 as an Insect-destroyer.

Am. Nat., XIII., pp. 681-3.
Theorin, P. G. E. — Hymenomycetes Gothoburgenses. {fn part.) [Latin.]

Bot. Notiser, 1879, pp. 119-29.
VOL. II. 3 T

978 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Thumen, F. von.— List of Fungi observed near Bayreuth, in Oberfranken.

Ber. Bot. Vereines Landshut^ VII.
„ „ Symbolse ad Floram Mycologicam Austriacam. III.

[Nos. 56-73.] Oesterr. Bot. Zcitschr., XXIX., pp. 357-60.
„ „ Mycotheca universalis. Cent. XIV.

„ „ See Microscopy.

Tommasi-Crudeli, and Prof. E. Klebs. — On the Nature of the specific Agent
which produces Malarian Fever. Trans. R. Acad. Lincei, III., pp. 216-20.

Voss, Prof. W. — Mycological Notes from Carniola.

10. A Contribution to the Knowledge of the Subterranean Fungi.

11. A little-known Hyphomycete {_b'colicotrichum JJngert].

12. The " Cernaprst " (Mountain).

Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., pp. 313-7.

Wer7iich, A. — Action of Dry Heat and of Sulphurous Acid on the Bacteria

which accompany Putrefaction. (Abstr. from ' Centralblatt f. die medicinischeu

Wissenschaften.') Natwf., XII., pp. 311-12.

Weenich, Dr. A. — The Aromatic Products of Decomposition in their Influence

on the Schizomycetes.

Arch. path. Anat. 8f Phys. (Virchoiv), LXXVIII., pp. 51-83.
White, F. B., M.D., F.L.S.— Preliminary List of Fungi of Perthshire. (Tn
part.) Scott. Nat., V., pp. 173-82.

Wintee, Dr. G. — Mycological Notes.

[30 Alpine Fungi from Wesen, Switzerland. Hedwigia, XYIII., pp. 129-33.
WuNSCHE, O. — See Lenz, H. O.

ZoPF, Dr. W. — Developmental Research on Crenothrix polyapora, the Origin of
the Berlin Water Calamity. 21 pp. 3 plates. (8vo. Berlin, 1879.)

Iiichenes.

Ceombie, Eev. J. IM., F.L.S.— (Botany of Kerguelen Island and Rodriguez)
Lichens. I'hil. Trans., CLXVIIL, pp. 46-52, 402-13.

Johnson, W. — Lichens and a Polluted Atmosphere.

Sci.-Crossip, No. 178, p. 217.
Mi5LLEE, Dr. J. — Lichenes Japonici. [30 sp., 10 n. sp.]

Fhra, LXIT., pp. 481-7.

„ „ Eej^ly to the Observations of M. G. Dutailly on the Nature

of Lichens. Rev. Mycol, I., pp. 158-60.

Miillcr, Prof. J. — Precision in Observing ]\Iicrogonidia — Reply to the Observa-

vations of Prof, de Bary. (Transl. from ' Flora.') Eev. Mycol, I., pp. 155-8.

PuiGGAEi, J.— See Muscineffi.

Eavaud.— See Muscinese.

Eeess, Prof.— Lichens. Rev. Internet. Sci, IV., pp. 335-58.

EouMEGUEEE, C. — Lichcus of New Granada and Ecuador collected by M. E.
Andre. [55 sp.] Rev. Mycol., L, pp. 160-71.

Algae.

BoRz\, A. — Notes on the Morphology and Biology of the Phycochromaceous

Algffi (contd.). Plates 9-12. Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ital., XL, pp. 347-388.

Custracane, Ab. Cte. F. — On the Striae of Diatoms, and on the Value to be

attributed to their Number in the Determination of Species. (Transl. from 'Atti

Accad. Pontif. Nuovi Liucei.' {In part.) Journ. de Micr., III., pp. 283-9.

CoHN, F. — Desmidiaceas Bongoenses. (4to. Halle, 1879.)

Dickie, Prof. G., A.M., &c.— (Botany of Kerguelen Island) Marine Algae

(exclusive of the Diatomacese). Plate 5, fig. 3.

PhU. Trans., CXLVIIL, pp. 53-64.
„ „ „ (Botany of Rodriguez) Algse.

Phil. Trans., CLXVIIL, pp. 415-9.

„ „ „ See Reinsch, P. F.

Dodcl-Port, Prof. — On the Fertilization of Red Seaweeds by Animalcula.

4 figs. (Abstr. from ' Kosmos.') Zool., III., pp. 393-402.

Falkenbebg, p. — On Endogenous Formation of Normal Lateral Shoots in the

Genera Rytiphlcca, Vidalia, and Amansia. (From ' Nachrichten K. Ges. Wiss. Got-

tiugen.') Bot. Zeit., XXXVIL, pp. 603-10.

INVERTEBKATA, CRYPTOGAMTA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 979

Gronlund, C— See Kjellman, F. R.

Grunow, A., Hon. F.R.M.S. — New Species and Varieties of Diatomaceas from
the Caspian Sen. {Transl. with Additional Notes by F. Kitton.) Plate 21.

Jouni. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 677-91.
Hauck, F.— Contributions to the Knowledge of the Adriatic Algas. XIII.
\_PeyssonneUa Duhyi ; P.^Mlymorpha ; Rhodocorton memhranaceum.']

Oesterr. Bot. Zeifschr., XXIX., pp. 312-13.
Kitton, F., Hon. F.R.M.S. — See Grunow, A.

„ „ „ The Thallus of the Diatomacese.

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 38-40.

Kjellman, F. R.— Contribution to the Knowledge of the Marine Algal Flora

of Iceland, and Supplement by C. Gronlund. Bot. Tkldsk., III., pp. 77-80, 81-3.

„ „ On the Alga-regions in East Skager Rack, with Remarks

on the relations of the Bohuslan Sea Algal Vegetation to the Norwegian. 36 pp.

and map. (Stockholm, 1879.)

Klebs, G. — On the Forms of some Genera of East Prussian Desmidiacese.
42 pp. 3 plates. (4to. Konigsberg, 1879.)

Kdntze, Dr. O. — On the Relationship of Algse with Phanerogams {concluded.)

Flora, LXII., pp. 417-23.
Mazzanti, E. F. — New Views on Amphora bullosa.

Atti Soc. Crittoj. Rah, II., pp. 103-4.
OuDEMANS, C. A. J. A. — Contribution to tlie Algological Flora of Holland.

Ned. Kruidk. Arch., HI., p. 258.
Packard, A. S., jun.— The Seaweeds of Salt Lake. Am. Nat., XIII., pp. 701-3.
Rabenhorst, L. — Algse Europsea> exsiccatse. Decas 25G-259. (8vo. Dresden,
1879.)

Reinsch, p. F.— (Botany of Kerguelen Island) Fresh-water Algaj collected
by the Rev. A. E. Eaton (with Notes on Geograiihical Distribution by G. Dickie).
Plates 4 and 5, figs. 1 and 2. [Latin.] Phil. Trans., CXLVIII., pp. 65-92.

Schmankewitsch, W. — Sec Protozoa.
ScHNETZLEB, Prof. J. B.— Remarks on an Aerial Alga, Chroolepus JoUthus Ag.

Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., XVI., pp. 247-8.
Taranek, K. J. — Diatomacese. (8vo. Prag, 1879.)
Turner, W. B.— The Fresh-water Algas of the Leeds District.

Naturalist, V., pp. 38-40.
Ulbich, E. O. — Descriptions of New Genera and Species of Fossils. — See
Zool. A. [_lnocaulis arhuscula, n. sp.]

Wright, Prof. E. P., M.A., &c.— On the Cell-structure of Griffithsia setacea

(Ellis), and on the Development of its Antheridia and Tetraspores. Plates 12 and

13. Trans. R. Irish Acad., XXVI., pp. 491-510.

„ „ „ On the Formation of the so-called "Siphons,"

and on the Development of the Tetraspores in Polysiphonia. Plate 14.

Trans. R. Irish Acad., XXVI., pp. 511-26.

MICEOSCOPY, &c.

Abbe, Prof. E., Hon. F.R.M.S.— On Stephenson's System of Homogeneous Immer-
sion for Microscopic Obje'.-tives. {Transl.) Journ. R. Mficr. Soc, II., pp. 256-65.

Adams, Prof. W. G.", M.A., F.R.S.— Measuring Polaiiscopes. Plate 8.

Phil. Mag., VIII., pp. 275-7.

[American] Postal Microscopical Club. Am. Nat., XIII., pp. 724-5.

American Society of Microscopists. [Report on the Meeting at Buffalo,
Aug. 19-22.] Am. Nat., XIIL, pp. 662-3.

Bachmann, O.— Guide to the Making of Microscopical Permanent Preparations.
196 pp. 87 figs. (8vo. Munich, 1879.)

Barrett, A. H. — Staining Fluids for Vegetable Tissues.

Soi.-Gossip, No. 179, p. 255.

Beale, L. S., F.R.S. , &c. — How to Work with the Microscope. 5th ed.,
520 pp , 99 plates, and 25 figs. (8vo. London & Philadelphia, 1880.)

Burton, C. E. — On recent Researches respecting the Minimum visible in the
Microscope. Proc. R. Irish Acad., III., pp. 248-54.

Cleaning Old Slides. Sci.-Gossip, No. 179, p 256

3 T 2

980 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Cook, E. A., Ph.D., &c. — Note on Logwood Staining Solution.

Journ. A7iat. S( Phijsiol. (^Humphry), XIV., pp. 140-2.
CossA, — . — Chemical-Microsuopical Observations on the Ashes from Etna
■which fell at Eeggio on the 28th May, &c.

Trans. R. Accad. Lincei, III., pp. 248-50.
Crisp, F., LL.B., &o. — On some recent Forms of Camera Lucida. 5 figs.

Joiirn. E. Micr. Soc., II., pp. 21-24.
CuTTEK, Dr. E. — The Tolles -JTy-inch Objective.

Journ. de Micr., III., pp. 297-9
„ „ The Primer of the Clinical Microscope.

Virgmia M. Month., VI., pp. 376, 446.
DoNNADiEU, Prof. A. L. — Organization of the Microscopical Laboratories at
the University of Lyons {concluded). Plate X. Jonrn. de Micr., III., pp. 270-5.
Duval, M. — Employment of Collodion for Microscopic Sections.

Scv. Sci. Nat, VIII., pp. 58-63.
Edmunds, J., M.D., &c. — Note on a Revolver Immersion Prism for Sub-stage
Illumination. Joiir?i. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 32-5.

FoLiN, Marquis de. — Method of Collecting small Molluscs.

Bidl. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, LIV., pp. 202-5.
Feipp, Dr. H. E., Ex.-ofif. F.R.M.S.— On the Theory of Illuminating Appa-
ratus employed with the Microscope. Part I. 9 figs.

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 503-29.
HowiTT, A. W., F.G.S. — Notes on the Examination of thin Slices of Rocks under
the Microscope by means of Polarized Light. 4 figs, of Plate 1.

Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc. Victoria, I., pp. 8-14.
Keith, Prof. R. — Note on Diagrams (Plate XII.) exldbiting the Path of a Ray
through Tolles' ^ Immersion Objective

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., p. 269.
„ „ Note on Mr. Wenham's Paper " On the Measurement of

the Angle of Aperture of Objectives." Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., p. 270.

Lang, F, H. — How to Restore Micro-Photographs.

Sci.-Gossip, No. 179, pp. 255-6.
Langerhans, Prof. P. — Modification of Farrant's Medium.

Zool. Anzeig., II., p. 575.
M., H. — How to Remove Air-Bubbles. Sci.-Gossip, No. 179, p. 255.

Mayall, J., Jun., F.R.M.S. — Immersion Illuminators.

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 27-31.

„ „ „ The Aperture Question. „ ,, „ pp. 134-6.

Morel, Prof. C. — Method of Observing with the Microscope. See Zoology A.

Parker, T. J., B.Sc, &c. — On some Aiiplicatious of Osmic Acid to Microscopic

Purposes. Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 381 -3.

Pelletan, Dr. J.— On the Scientific Value of Microscopic Preparations.

(Transl. from 'Journal de Micrographie.') Sci.-Gossip, No. 179, pp. 250-1.

Phin, J. — Practical Hints in the Selection and Use of the Microscope.

Abridged for the Use of Beginners. 125 pp. 48 figs. (8vo. New York, 1879.)

Ralph, T. S., M.R.C.S. — Annual Address as the President of the Victoria
Microscopical Society. Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc. Victoria, I., pp. 3-8.

Reichenau, W. v.— Protection of Zoological Museums against Insects.

[Petroleum and Naphthalin combined.] Zool. Anzeig., II., pp. 573-4.

Kenard, a. — On the Microliths of Crystalline Schists.

Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr., V., pp. ccxii.-xvii.

RoYSTON-PiGOTT, Dr., M. A., F.R.S., &c.— A Further Inquiry into the Limits of

Microscopic Vision and the delusive Application of Fraunhofer's Optical Law of

Vision. No. II. Plate 3. Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp 9-20.

Russell, J. C, M.D. — Description of a New Form of Camera Lucitla. 2 figs.

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 25-6.
ScHOBL, Dr. J. — A new Dissecting IMicroscope. Plate 13.

Arch. Mikr. Anjt., XVIL, 165-7.
Slack, H. J., F.G.S.— The President's Address.

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 113-21.
Sommers, Prof. J., M.D., &c. — Experimental Microscopy.

Proc 4- Trans. N'ov. Scot. Inst. Nat. Sci., V., pp. 81-5.

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 981

Stephenson, J. W., F.R.A.S., &c. — A Catoptric Immersion Illuminator.
1 fig. Joiirn. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 36-7.

„ „ „ The Vertical Illuminator and Homo-

geneous-Immersion Objectives. Joitrii. B. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 266-8.

TntJMEN, F. YON. — iVIycological [Microscopical] Preparations of Dr. O. E. R.
Zimmerman. Uesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., XXIX., pp. 380-1.

ToLLES, R. B. — An Illuminating Traverse-Lens. 1 fig.

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 388-9.
Treub, Dr. M.— Something about the Staining of Cell-nuclei.

iVVJ. KrniJA. Arch., III., pp. 264-7.
Wenham, F. H., F.R.M.S.— Reply to the Note of Prof. Keith.

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., p. 271.
„ „ „ Note on Homogeneous Immersion Object-glasses.

Journ. R. Micr. Soc, II., p. 394.

WooDAVARD, J. J., Hon. F.R.M.S., &c. — Observations suggested by the Study of

Amphipleura pellucida mounted in Canada Balsam by Lamplight and Sunlight

with various Objectives. Joum. R. Micr. Soc, II., pp. 663-74.

„ „ Note on Abbe's Experiment on Plcurosigma angulatum.

• Journ. R, Micr. Soc, II., pp. 675- 6.

( 982 )

PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting of 8th October, 1879, at King's College, Strand, W.C.
The President (De. Beale, F.R.S.) in the Chair.

The Minutes of the meeting of 11th June last were read and con-
firmed, and were signed by the President.

The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges) received since the
last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given to
the donors.

From
Ardissone, Prof. F.— Gli Uffici delle Piante Crittogame. 24 pp.

8vo. Milano, 1873 The Author.

Castracane, Conte Ab. F. — Se e qual valore sia da attribuere
nella determiuazione delle specie al numero delle strie nelle
diatomee. 19 pp. 4to. Roma, 1879. (Extracted from
' Atti deir Accademia Pontificia de' Nuovi Lincei ') . . . . Ditto.

Coues, E.— Birds of the Colorado Valley. Part I. 807 pp., I ^'surwfofThl
70 woodcuts. 8vo. Washington, 1878 j Territories.

Coues, E., and J. A. Allen. — Material for a Bibliography of

North American Mammals. 4to. Washington, 1877 .. Ditto.

Cunningham, D. D., M.B. — On certain effects of Starvation on
Vegetable and Animal Tissues. 47 pp., 11 figs. 4to. Cal-
cutta, 1879 The Author.

Lanzi, Dr. C. M. — I Funghi della Provincia di Eoma. (Ex-
tracted from 'Atti dell" Accademia Pontificia de' Nuovi
Lincei.') 32 pp., 1 plate. 4to. Eoma, 1879 Ditto.

Lewis, T. R. M. B. — The Microscopic Organisms found in the
Blood of Man and Animals, and their relation to Disease.
91 pp., 3 plates, and 27 figs. 4to. Calcutta, 1879 •• •• -C*«o.

Lyngbye, H.C. — Tentamen HydrophytologisE Danicaj. 248 pp.,

70 plates. 4to. Hafnise, 1819 _ .. Dr. Millar.

Eeuss, J. D. — Eepertorium Comraentationum a Societatibus
Litterariis Editarum. 2 vols. 574 pp. and 604 pp. 4to.
Gottingse, 1801-2 Mr. Crisp.

Schwann, Th., Manifestation en I'Honneur de M. le Professeiu-,
— Lie'ge, 23 Juin, 1878. Liber Memorialis. Publie' par
la Commission Organisatrice. 236 pp., and photograph.
8vo. Dusseldorf, 1879 The Commission.

Smithsonian Institution.— Annual Report of the Board of

Eegents for 1877. 8vo. Washington, 1878 The Institute.

University College. — Catalogue of Books in the General Library
and in the South Library. 545 pp. and 536 pp. Vols. I.
and II. A-c, D-N. 8vo. London, 1879 The College.

Beck's Eevolving Microscope Table and Lamp Mr. J. Badcock.

Slide of Scales of a species of the genus Mormo Mr. J. Beck.

{Representatives
C Brooke
F.R.S.
Photograph of Dr. A. Farre, F.E.S. (a Past President of the

Society) Dr.Farre, F.R.S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. yHo

From

Clock for the Library Dr. Gray.

Shdn o{ Peridinium comutuin Mr. J. Levick.

Diiitoamceous Earth from the original find at Sauta Mouica* ..1 jr. «■ q TT^„hg
Zircon Sand with Gold /

Photograph (on Porcelain) of Prof. E. Abbe I V " "^^' '

2 Slides of Eucampia striata n. sp. et var. maxima Dr. Stolterfoth.

{Major Water-
house, Repre-
sentative of
the late J.
Waterhouse,
F.E.S.

13 Photographs (described at p. G72 of the Journal) ] "ivard

On tlie motion of the President, special votes of thanks were

accorded to Mr. Badcock, the representatives of the late Mr. Chas.

Brooke, Dr. Gray, and the representatives of the late Mr. J.
Waterhouse, for their respective donations.

Mr. Crisp mentioned that during his absence abroad the paper at
p. 653 of the October number of the Journal had been printed from
the author's original MSS. instead of from the revised MSS., for
which it had been held over. The corrected pages would be sup-
plied with the next number.

The following Note from Mr. Wenham was taken as read : —

As statements have been made to the effect that I altogether deny
the possibility of obtaining an angle on a balsam-mounted object
beyond 82^, the following references will show that, excepting under
certain conditions, I have not made such an assertion, which, as it
appears recorded with my name attached in the ' Proceedings ' of the
Society, calls for a notice that it would not otherwise have received
from me.

I must therefore state positively, that I never held, and do not
hold, any such opinion. The discussion has been long and not very
definite, and sufficient attention may not have been given to par-
ticulars by some attributing this error to me — to be excused for this
reason.

In ' Quart. Journ. Micr. Science,' vol. iii. (1855) p. 303, for
the purpose of remedying the loss of aperture on an object in balsam
from a dry object-glass, I describe the adaptation of an additional
lens in front connected with the cover by a refractive intermedium,
thus securing the full eflFcct of aperture.

In 'Monthly Microscopical Joui-nal,' vol. v. (1871) p. 17, I
state that " An angle of 82'' cannot be exceeded in a dry objective,

* The bottle in which this was sent was broken in transit tlu'ough the post,
and the contents had disappeared.

984 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

nor can it be greater on the immersion system, wliere an interchange
of front adapts it to both conditions."

In vol. V. J). 118 the following sentence has been referred to : —
" I challenge anyone to get through the object- -lass with the immer-
sion front a greater angle, or any portion of the extraneous rays that
would in the other case be totally reflected, as no object-glass can
collect image-forming rays beyond this limit." At the top of this
same page I show distinctly that this remark applies to a dry lens,
and the whole article bears reference to a former one (vol. v., page 23),
with diagrams used for objectives used on dry objects, or such as those
generally in use at that time.

Mr. Tolles having claimed 100° or more of aperture for an im-
mersion lens, in vol. vi. (1871) p. 85 I point out the cause arising
from an error in the means of measurement. On the next page I
give a series of measurements of the angles of objectives immersed in
water, all of which wore within the corresponding balsam limit of
82 \ Again this referred to the then usual form of objectives that
could hi used dry.

In vol. vii. (1872) p. 272 I say, " Mr. Tolles has accepted the
only condition under which the full aperture can be brought to bear
on a balsam-mounted object, viz. that of the tiny hemispheres. I am
glad of his announcement that he has succeeded in this, and should
like to see the same thing done in this country, particularly with
large aperture glasses, say higher than Jth."

In vol. ix. (1873) p. 268 Colonel Woodward having measured
the Tolles -^\ referred to in the i:)revious controversy, finds the balsam
angle only 76°. On p. 270 he continues, " I subsequently extended
the measurements to the immersion J^ and -^\ by Mr. Tolles belong-
ing to the Museum, and found that the maximum balsam angle was
less than 80°. These results, it will be seen, fell within the limits laid
down as j)ossible by Mr. Wenham."

In vol. ix. (1873) p. 273 there is a memorandum by Professor
Keith, in which he says, " Mr. Wenham's experiments alluded to in
his article in the 'Monthly ' for January, indicate an explanation, and
it seems singular that they did not suggest to him long ago a method
of obtaining what Mr. Tolles has obtained — an objective of large
angle for objects covered in balsam." Professor Keith's accompanying
diagram exactly explains the jjrinciple, and is just the same in effect
as that of my additional front lens, described and illustrated in 1855,
showing that he had not found leisure to look into former points of
the question. My diagram is illustrative of Mr. Tolles' subsequent
4-system immersion objectives, the focus being nearly in the centre
of the radius of the front lens in both cases.

In vol. X. (1873) p. 12 I say, "I trust that Colonel Woodward
having aflBrmed ' that the position taken by me is certainly true, for
objectives as ordinarily constructed,' will allow that this additional
lens embodies a deviation from the original question, which was to
the effect that there would be no loss of angle aperture of ordinary
objectives by the immersion of the front surface in fluids."

As regards the latter pliase of the discussion, relative to false

PKOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 985

or trite apertures, and the best form of apertometer or means of
measurement, that is a dilierent branch of the qiaestion not as yet
concluded.

It will save much confusion if we take Colonel "Woodward's recent
suggestion* for the nomenclature of the angle of immersion lenses,
and instead of water, glycerine, oil, or balsam angles to take the
degrees of the primary angle, or that imtliin the body of the front
lens, of immersion object-glasses, and call it " interior angle." The
varied exterior angles in the above fluids will then follow and be
known by their relative refractive indices. The stumbling-block of
180° (which may mean 82° only in the front lens) will then be en-
tirely cleared away.

Mr. J. Beck read a paper, " Note on the Structure of the Scales of
a species of Mormo" slides of which were exhibited under the Micro-
scope (see p. 810).

Mr. Crisp expressed a hope that the Fellows would look at the
scales at the close of the meeting, as they seemed to furnish a con-
vincing proof of the truth of Mr. Beck's theory.

Dr. Edmunds said that some time ago he had given attention to
the Podura scale, and found that he could not determine on which
side of it the minute plumules seemed to grow, the scale being so
extremely thin and so transparent. He could not, however, help
thinking that if they w^atched the scale very carefully with some
kinds of dark-ground illumination, dry, and with the cover hard down
upon the scale, they would get appearances which were wholly
irreconcilable with the theory put forward by Mr. Beck. In this
way they got the " featherlets " projected out of the membrane, giving
a beautiful brush-like appearance. Then, if they had the scale
mounted in balsam and illuminated by highly oblique light, they
would get an appearance almost identical with that which was seen in
the former instance ; they lost all the hyaline appearance of the scale
itself, and saw these featherlets becoming an independent source of
light, standing up illuminated from the surface of the scale.

Mr, Beck said he based the statements in his paper entirely in-
dependently of what anyone could see, because they might see any-
thing according to tlie way they looked at it. They must rather
reason according to the nature of the structure they were viewing.
In this case they were looking at two membranes united together,
but which could be taken apart. They could run moisture i;p and
down on the lower external surface, but could not do so on the upper
surface, which was thus shown to be almost smooth. They therefore
had a complex substance to deal with, and it was necessary to reason
as to what that structure was comjiosed of. Now, considering
the whole class of these scales from those of Lepidocijrtus down to
those of Lepisma and others, if they could satisfactorily connect the
one with the other, and could show that the appearances could be pro-
duced by regular corrugations, then it was much more consistent to

* 'Am. Quart. Micr. Journ.,' i. (1879) p. 277; this Journal, ante, p. 783.

986 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

say tliat they were all modifications of the same structure, and that
nature had provided a number of corrugations for the purpose of
strengthening the scale, rather than plumules which would be of no
use whatever so far as they could see.

The President inquired if Mr. Beck had observed all the markings
on the scales of Lepidoptera to be on the under surface of the scale ?

Mr. Beck said he could not say that they were, but certainly they
were so in the Thysanurae. He had not tried the Lepidoptera, but
his impression was that they would be found the same.*

The President suggested that the object of this structure might
be to prevent the scales from adhering together, since, looking at it
from an engineering point of view, there seemed to be far more of
these corrugations than were required for the purpose of strengthening
the scales.

Mr. W. H. Gilburt read a paper " On the Morphology of Vegetable
Tissues," the subject being illustrated by drawings, some of which
were enlarged upon the blackboard (see p. 801).

Mr. Stewart said he had listened to the paper with very great
interest, as it teemed with original and striking observations, and he
was sure that all present would agree that it dealt in a masterly
manner with a very important subject, that of how structure was
gradually built up. As Mr. Gilburt's views differed so much from
those hitherto held on the subject, he thought it would be very
desirable that some one should go over the ground again, so as to
verify the observations, in which case he would suggest that the cell
substance should be taken into consideration as well as the cell
outline.

Dr. Stolterfoth's paper "On a new Species of the Genus Eu-
campia " was read by Mr. Stewart (see p. 835).

Mr. Crisp reminded the Fellows that Mr. Bolton's living organ-
isms were always available at the Wednesday Evening Meetings, and
had recently been of the greatest interest, including the discoveries
that had been made during the vacation by Mr. Levick, Mr. Bolton,
and other members of the Birmingham Natural History and Micro-
scopical Society, consisting of Leptodora hyalina and Hyalodaphnia
Kahlbergensis (see p. 877), Aniircea longispina (see p. 879), and the
new genus of Khizopods — Litliamoeba discus, Lankester (see p. 900).

The visit to this country of an illustrious Ex-officio Fellow of the
Society, Professor Haeckel, of Jena, was also referred to, which having
unfortunately been made during the recess, had rendered it impossible
to welcome him.

Sec Note to the paper on p. 810.

TROCEEDINGS OP THE SOCIETY. 987

The following Objects, Apparatus, &c., were exhibited : -

Mr. Beck : — Slides of Morrno to illustrate Lis paper.

Mr. Bolton : — Lcptodora Jnjalina and Hyalodaphnia Kahlhergensis.

Mr. Crisp : — (1) Nachet's Portable Demonstrating Microscope
{ante, p. 766). (2) Professor A. do Lasaulx's Miueralogical Micro-
scope (see 'Bull. Soc. Belg. Micr.,' iv. (1878). (3) Fletcher's
Microtome {ante, p. 466). (5) Koy's Microtome {ante, p. 768).
(6) Beck's Volute Turntable. (7) Sidle's Congress Turntable. (8)
Diego's Turntable. (9) Bulloch's Cox's Turntable. (10) Eezner's
Mechanical Finger {ante, p. 951).

Mr. Gilburt : — Sections through Cambium and Procambium, to
illustrate his paper.

Mr. Guimaraens: — Slides of Zoological and Botanical subjects,
prepared by Dr. Marsh, of St. Helens.

Dr. Stolterfoth : — Two slides of Eucamjna striata.

Mr. F.^H. Ward: — ^Section of wood (" Bois nepbritique").

Col. Woodward : — Thirteen photograjjhs of AmpMiAeura pellucida
{ante, p. 672).

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows : —
Professor P. Martin Duncan, M.B. (Lond.), F.E.S., &c., and Messrs.
D. B. Cazaux, T. G. Lyon, and A. C. Mercer.

Meeting of 12th November, 1879, at King's College, Strand, W.C.
The President (Dr. Beale, F.R.S.) in the Chair.

The Minutes of the meeting of 8th October last were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges) received since tho
last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given to
the donors, viz. : —

Nachet's Binocular Microscope (older form) ^fr. Crisp.

Graham Compressoriuni, for use with the Paraboloid .. .. Mr. W. Graham.

Twelve Slides of the Diatomaceous Earth from Santa Monica,
which was sent by Mr. Hanks, mounted by Dr. Gray from
the scrapings of tho broken pieces of the bottle, and the
paper in which it was wrapped (see p. 983) Dr. Gray.*

* Dr. Gray writes that Fellows interested in the matter can have a mounted
slide of the Santa Monica deposit by applying and sending a postal box to the
Assistant Secretary. Dr. Gray will only be able, however, to comply with a
moderate demand, and will not mount any until he knows how many will be
required.

988 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Mr. F. H. Ward briefly described a microtome designed by him
and exhibited to the meeting (see p. 957). Some sections of wood
cut with this apparatus were shown under one of the Microscopes on
the table.

Mr. Crisp, in exhibiting Zeiss's travelling Microscope, called atten-
tion more particularly to the very light quadrtiple nose-piece and the
ingenious arrangement for giving universal movements to the mirror
(see p. 955).

Mr. Beck remarked that the weight of English quadruple nose-
pieces was not so much in the nose-piece itself as in the objectives it
had to carry.

Mr. Gilburt made a short communication supplementary to his
paper read at the last meeting, the substance of which will be found
appended to the paper in a foot note at p. 806.

Colonel "Woodward's " Note on certain Amplifiers of Zeiss as
compared with those of Tolles," was read by Mr. Crisp, and the
jAotographs of Amphiplcura pellucida taken by both were laid on the
table. The note also contained some remarks on the use of chloride
of cadmium as an immersion fluid, especially for micro-photographic
purposes, which will be found at p. 943. With regard to Zeiss's y^g-,
Colonel Woodward said, " I must add my testimony in favour of the
exceedingly satisfactory performance of the new J^ by lamplight,
not merely on lined test-objects, which it displays in a more striking
manner than even the yV, but especially on such objects as white
blood-corpuscles, and similar living tissue elements, bacteria, and the
like, for the study of which it appears to me especially suited."

Dr. R. H. Ward's letter as to the matters to be brought before the
National (American) Committee on Micrometry, was read,

Mr. Beck said it seemed to him that the important practical
question which they wanted to determine was whether the scales
which they did use were correct. If they had one from Paris, and
another from Holland, they would find both of them to be incorrect.
Some means was therefore desired by which they could be tested as
to correctness.

Mr. Crisp referred to the paper by Professor Eogers on " Com-
parators for Measures of Length," which will be found at p. 947.

Mr. A. D. Michael pointed out that it seemed doubtful if there
was in existence a really true standard metre.

Mr. Beck said he was not speaking of such minute variations as
those which came into considerations of that kind, but of tests as they
concerned the practical Microscopist. The question of the absolute
length of a metre dealt, he thought, with matters of far greater
minuteness than there was any real necessity to take notice of.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 989

Mr. Teesdale referred to tlie instrument designed by Professor
Suringar, of Holland, for testing the accuracy of micrometers, which
was exhibited at the loan collection of scientific instruments at South
Kensington.

Mr. Forrest's paper "On the Anatomy of Leptodora hyalina," was
read by Mr. Crisp, the figures in illustration being enlarged upon the
blackboard by Mr. Stewart (see p. 825).

Mr. J. Fullagar's Note on a curious fresh-water organism, which
he had discovered, was read by Mr. Crisp, together with a letter from
Mr. Saville Kent, who said that as far as he could judge it was closely
allied to the marine Freia ampulla of Claparede and Lachmann, the
tubes in one specimen having been apparently deserted by the Infusor
and occupied by Eotifer, and promising to give a more precise deter-
mination on the receipt of living specimens.

Mr. Stephenson's paper "On a Table of Numerical-Apertures,
showing the Equivalent Angles of Aperture of Dry, Water Immer-
sion, and Homogeneous Immersion Objectives, &c.," was taken as read
(see p. 839).

Mr. Mayall's paper " On an Immersion Stage Illuminator," was
read by Mr. Crisp, and the apparatus which it described exhibited
(see p. 837). Another paper, " Aperture Measurements of Immersion
Objectives expressed as ' Numerical- Aperture,' " was taken as read
(see p. 842).

Mr. Crisp read various letters and other communications received
from provincial and foreign societies in connection with the Ex-officio
Fellowship.

The President announced that the first Scientific Evening of the
session would be held on December 3rd, in the Library of King's
College.

The following Objects, Apparatus, &c., were exhibited:—

Mr. Badcock : — Abnormal forms of Acinetce.

Mr. Bolton: — Ophri/dium versatile, and Limuias ceratojjlnjlU.

Mr. Crisp : — (1) Zeiss's travelling Microscope (see p. 955). (2)
Improved apparatus for counting blood-corpuscles (see p. 944).

Mr. Forrest : — Two slides of Leptodora hyalina.

Mr. Graham : — New compressorium.

Mr. Mayall, jun. : — Stage immersion illuminator.

Mr. Ward : — (1) Improved microtome (see p. 957). (2) Sections
of wood of Antiaris toxicaria (upas tree of Java) ; double stained.

990 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Felloios : —
Professor F. Jeffrey Bell, B.A. ; Dr. C. F. Fischer ; Rev. J. E. Vize,
M.A., and Messrs. A. G. H. Gibbs, W. H. Gilburt, T. S. Goodall, W.
Graham, W. Joshua, G. Williams, and S. King Wilson, M.R.I.

Honorary Fellows : — A. Agassiz, Cambridge (Mass.), U.S. ; G.
Balbiaui, Paris ; O. Biitschli, Heidelberg ; L. Cienkowski, Kharkoff;
P. T. Cleve, Upsala ; M. Cornu, Paris ; A. Dodel-Port, Zurich ; Th.
W. Eugelmann, Utrecht ; H. Frey, Zurich ; E. Metschnikoff, Odessa ;
W. Nylander, Paris ; C. A. J. A. Oudemans, Amsterdam ; G. O. Sars,
Christiania ; F. E. Schultze, Graz ; J. J. S. Steenstrup, Copeuhagen ;
E. Strasburger, Jena ; F. de Thiimen, Klosterneuburg (Austria) ;
Ph. van Tieghem, Paris ; E. Warming, Copenhagen; A. Weismann,
Freiburg, i. Br. ; and K. A. Zittel, Munich.

Supplementary No., containing List of Fellows, Index, &c.

\^ BI-MONTHLY. 'c^jg N^

<" Vol. II. No. 7a.] DECEMBER, 1879. [ ^§0! "7.*^

Journal

OF THE

Royal
Microscopical Society;

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

AND A RECORD OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

INVERTEBRATA, CRYPTOGAMIA,
MICROSCOPY, &c.

J^dited, imder the direction of the Publication Committee^ by

FRANK CRISP, LL.B., B.A., F.L.S.,

Oiie of the Secretaries of the Society,

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

T. JEFFERY PARKER, B.Sc, I A. W. BENNETT, M.A., B.Sc,

Lecturer on Biology at Bedford College, London, \ Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital,

AND

F. JEFFREY BELL, B.A.,

Professor 0/ Comparative Anatomy in King's College,

FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.

WILLIAMS & NORGATE,

LONDON AND EDINBURGH. ^^17

-3^

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS,] [STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS,

JOUENAL

OF THE

KOYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

VOL. II. No. 7a.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Contents .. .. .. •• .. •• •• •• v

List of Plates .. .. .. .. •• .. .. xxiv

List of Woodcuts .. .. .. .. .. .. •• xxv

Memorandum as to the Bibliogbaphy and List of Journals .. xxvii

List op Fellows .. ., .. .. .. .. .. xxxv

Index .. .. .. .. .. .. .. •• •• 991

( ^-'91 )

INDEX TO VOLUME II.

A.

<;, E., on new Methods for Improv-
ing Spherical Correction, applied to
the Construction of AVide- angled
Object-glasses, 812.

on Stephenson's System of Homo-
geneous Immersion for Microscope
Objectives, 256.

Abbe's Experiment on Pleurosigma
angulatum. Note on, 675.

Abnormal Sexual Organs in the Horse-
Leech, 156.

Abortion of the Hairs on tlie Legs of
certain Caddis-flies, &c., 412.

Absorption, Cutaneous, of Helix poma-
tia, 856.

, Decrease of Power of, in Branches

dipped in Water, 913.

of Kain and Dew by the green

parts nf Plants, 913.

of Water by the Lamina of Leaves,

750.

Acari, British (Orihatidaj), 76.

, Genera of, 71 '2.

Acarina found parasitic in the CelUdar
Tissues and Air-sacs of Birds, 415.

, New, 295.

, on some Genera of, 417.

Accounts, Treasurer's, for 1878, 218.

Accuracy, Limits of, in Measurements
with the JMicroscope, 473.

Acephala, Blo^d-cells of, 398.

Achromatic Condenser, Improved, 328.

Lenses, 173.

Acid. Osmic, on some Applications of,
to Micrdscopic Purposes, 3S1.

Acids, Chromic and Osmic, Em|iloymi nt
of IMixtures of, for Histological Pur-
poses, 144.

Acinetffi and VorticclL'e, 438.

, lleseiircl.es on, 438.

Actinozoa, Classification and Phylogeny
of, 5S1.

Adams' Measuring Polariscope, 774.

Address, the President's, 113.

Adoi)tion of an Ant-queen, 868.

AdulteratioBi of Currant Jelly with
Diatoms, 938.

Adventitious Buds in Ferns, 597.

Aerating Apparatus of Sea -water
Aquaria, Improvement in, 326.

VOL. n.

Affinities of the Polyzoa, 553.

Agaricus melleus, Polymorphism of,
455.

Air-bubbles, means of avoiding, in
Preparation of Diatoms, 616.

Air, Eemoval of, from Microscopic
Specimens, 150.

Air-sacs and Celhdar Tissue of Birds,
Acarina found parasitic in, 415.

Albuminoids, Di£;e8ti(m of, by Inverte-
brata, 274.

Alciopid, New, 886.

Alcoholic Fennentation, 82, 187, 453.

Alcyonaria, Skeleton of, 279.

Alder, Root of. Excrescences on, 929.

Alectona Millari, New Species of Ex-
cavating Sponge, 493.

Algse. See Contents, xix.

American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, Microscopy at, 95.

ffidogoniacese, 935.

Amoeboid Epithelia, 852.

Amphineura, Neomenia and the other,
404.

Amphion and Polychcles, 563.

Amphiplenra pellucida, Observations
suggested by the Study of. Mounted
in Canada Balsam, by Lamplight
and Sunlight, with various Objec-
tives, 663.

Amphipoda, Observations on, 715.

Amiilification of Optical Instruments,
Mtasurenient oi, 184.

Ampull iria, Kespiratory Apparatus of,
706, 857.

Amylaceous Substance in Fungi,
supposed, 757.

Anal Glands and Poison Apparatus of
Ants, 142.

Plates of Echinocidaris, 890.

Angiosperms and Gymnosperms, 905.

, Division of PoUen-gr.iin in, 746.

, Embryo-sac of, Development of,

903.

Angle of Aperture of Objectives,
Note on Mr. Wen ham's Paper on the
Measurement of, 270.

of Aperture of Objectives, Mr.

Wenliam on, 983.

of the Optic Axes of Crystals,

Apparatus for Determining, with tlie
Microscope, 1I>1.

3 u

992

Angles, Solid, of Microscopic Crystals,
Process for Measuriiio^, 323.

Animals and Plants, Influence of the
different Colours of the Spectrum on,
138.

■ , Influence of the different Colours

of the Spectrum on, 273.

Annelid Jaws from Scotch and Cana-
dian Palffiozoic Rocks, 884.

Annelides, Arrangement of Nerve-
cords in, 5G9.

, Development of, 563.

, New, from the Philippines, 571.

, Pelagic, from the Canary Islands,

883.

• , Sedentary, Body-cavity of, and

Segmental Organs, 731.

Anodon, Organ of Bojanus in, 551.

Anomalies in the Development of the
Lowest Organisms, 446.

Anomaly, Strange, among the Hydro-
medusse, 278.

Ant-eggs, Mode of Depositing, 967.

Antheridia and Tetraspores of Grif-
fithsia setacea. Development of, 934.

Anthers of Bulbocodium vernum.
Opening and Closing of. Influence of
Light, Warmtli, and Moisture on,
915.

Anthocerotete, Nostoc-colonies in, 187.

Anthozoa, Muscle-epithelium in, 279.

, New, 87.

Anthracnose of the Vine. 758.

Anthrax and its Cause, 760.

Antiilote to Bacteria -poisoning in
Frogs, 928.

Antipatharia, Phylogeny of, 279.

Ant-queen, Adoption of, 868.

Ants, Mode of Eecognition among, 555.

■ , Poison Apparatus and Anal

Glands of, 142.

, Toilet Habits of, 556.

Anuria longispina, a new Eotifer, 157,
648, 879.

Apertometer and the Oil-Immersion
Objectives, Colonel Woodward on,
140.

, Universal, Hamilton Smith's,

775.

, Woodward's, 781.

Aperture, Angle of, of Objectives, Note
on Mr. Wenham's Paper on the Mea-
surement of, 270.

, Angle of, of Objectives, Mr.

Wenham on, 983.

Measurements of Immersion Ob-
jectives, 842.

, Measuring, 781.

Question, 134.

Apertures, Numerical, Table of, 839,
842,

Aphides, Gall-making, 407.

Aphrosina informis, new Genus of
Foraminilera, 500.

Aplysinidae, Structure of, 434.

Ai^ogamous Ferns and Phenomenon of
Apogamy in general, 317.

Apogamy in Isoetes, 319.

, Phenomenon of, in general, and

Apogamous Ferns, 317.

Appearances, Deceptive, produced by
Reagents, 191.

Appendages in Insects, Post-embryonic
Formation of, 55.

of the Plirouimida, Glands found

in, 719.

Aquaria, Sea-water, Aerating Ap-
paratus of. Improvement in, 326.

Aquatic Animals, Microscopic Prepara-
tion of, 180.

Arachnida. See Contents, xi.

Armadillo, Gestation of, 844.

Arms, Coiled, Extension of, in Ehyn-
chonella, 302.

Arterioles, Visceral, in MoUusca, Ter-
mination of, 164.

Artliropoda. See Contents, x.

Artificial Crystals of Gold, 193.

Ascaris of tlie Orang-Outang, 729.

parasitic in the Lion, 729.

Ascent and Circulation of the Sap, 147.

Aschotricha, 758.

Ascomycetes, Sexuality of, 454.

Asellus cavaticus, 721.

Aspidura, 581, 738.

Assimilation of Soda by Plants, 443.

Asteriadse, Skeleton of, 428.

Asterina gibbosa, Genital Organs of,
579.

Asteriscus verruculatus, Embryogeny
of, 428.

Atlantic Stalk-eyed Crustaceans, 873.

Atlas of Histology, Klein and Smith's,
700.

Attachment, Organs of, of Stentors, 83.

Auditory Organs of the Heteropoda,
401.

Sense-organs, New, in Insects,

45.

Australian Corals, 282.

Axes, Optic, of Crystals, Apparatus for
Determining the Angle of, with the
Microscope, 191.

Axine and Microcotyle, 574.

B.

Bacillus, Formation of Conidia by,
602.

Organisms, Lichens, Bacteria, and

the Lowest Forms of Life, 69.

Bacteria, &c.. Another Method of Pre-
serving, 464.

, Development of, 927.

993

Bacteria, Injection of, into the Bloixl

without any Toxic Eifects, 7tJ0.

in the Poison of Serpents, 189.

, Lichens, Bacillus Organisms,

and the Lowest Forms of Life, 69.

, Luminous, in Meat, 310.

Poisoning in Frogs, Antidote to,

928.
Balbiani, Professor, Notommata "Wer-

neckii and its Parasitism in the

Tubes of Vauclieria, 530.
Batruchia, Anourous, Haptophrya

gigantea, a new Opalinid from

Intestine of, 588.
Batracliobdella Latasti, 0. Vig., 885.
Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.'s new

A Objective, 107.
Beck, J., Note on the Structure of the

Scale of a Species of the Genus

Mormo, 810.
Beck's Micrometer, 108.
Beech Disease, Phy tophthora Fagi, 923.
Bees, Parthenogenesis in, 88, 143, 297.
Beetle, Blister, Metamorphoses of, 708.
Berggrenia, New Genus of Discomy-

cetes, 923.
Berlin, Trichina- phobia at, 159.
• Water, Creuothris pnlyspora, tlie

Cause of the Uuwholesomeness of

tiie, 925.
Bibliography, 97, 196, 210*, 335, 474,

625, 787, 959.
Bihiteraluess of Prothallia, 917.
Birds, Cellular Tissue and Air-sacs

of, Acarina found parasitic in, 415.
Black-ground lUununation, 623.
Blasia, Nostoc-colonies in, Origin of

Tubes in, 598.
Blastoderm and Germ-layers in Insects,

Formation of, 554.
Blastology of the Corals, 892.
Blepharisma lateritia, 588.
Blister Beetle, Metamorphoses of, 708.
Blood-cells of the Acephala, 398.

corpuscles. Counting of, 944.

, Nucleus in, 545.

of Triton, Nuclei of, 272.

, Red, Preparation of, 191.

, very small Red (Microcy tes),

in the Blood, 847.
, Injection of Bacteria into, without

any Toxic Eltects, 760.
, Microcytes (very small Red

Blood-corpuscles) in, 847.
. , Microphytes in, and their Rela-
tion to Disease, 924.

of the Lobster, 715.

of the Octopus, Haimocyauin, a

new Substance in, 164.

, Photographs of, 489.

, Rats', Flagellated Organisms in,

190.

Blood-vessels, Structure of, 82.
Body-cavity of the Sedentary Annelids

and their Segmental Organs, 731.
Bojanus, Organ of, in Anodon, 551.
Bonellia viiidis, 290.
Bopyridae, Life-history of, 563.
Bormgs of a Sponge in Marble, 82.
Brachiopod, Spines of, Barbed Hooklets

on, 553.
Brain, Insect's, Dissected Model of,

uew Method of preparing from

Microscopic Sections, 84.

of Invertebrates, 142.

of the Cockroach, 864.

Branches dipped in Water, decrease

of Power of Absorption in, 913.
Branchiopoda, New, of the French

Coasts, 424.
Brisinga, Anatomy of, 579.
British Acari — Oribatidte, 76.

Entomostraca, New, 877.

Oribatidse, a Contribution to the

Knowledge of, 225.
Briisicke's Staining Method, 764.
Browuian Movements, some Causes of,

656.
Brussels Academy, Natural Science

Prizes of, 397.
Bryum, New, 919.
Buds, Adventitious, in Ferns, 597.
Bulbocodium veinum. Opening and

Closing of Anthers of, Influence of

Light, Warmth, and Moisture on,

915.
Bundles, Connective-Tissue, of the

Skin, Method of Isolating, 323.
Butterflies, Proboscis of, 41.

with Dissimilar Sexes, 867.

Buzzing of Insects, 408.
Bye-laws, Amendment of, 212, 350.

Cabbage, Fungi parasitic on, 315.
Caddis-ilie>i, 6ic., Abortion of the Hairs

on the Legs of, 412.
Cadmium, Chloride of, as Fluid for

Homogeneous Immersion, 943.
Calcium Phosphate in the living Cells

of Plants, 916.
(/alifornian and Mexican Islands, Land

Shells of, 861.
Camera Luclda, Description of a new

Form of, 25.

■ , Improved Mounting for, 954.

, some recent Forms of, 21.

, Support for the Head in

Drawing with, 187.
Canary Islands, Pelagic Annelids from,

883.
Capitellidse, Lateral and other Goblet-
shaped Organs of, 734.

3 u 2

994

Capitellidse, Segmental Organs of, 733.

Caprellidae, Contributions to the Natural
History of, 715.

of the Mediterranean, 716.

Capsule of Mosses, Organogenic Re-
searches on, i^'c, 159.

Carbo-hydrate, New, 'J16.

"Cardiac Poisons," Influence of, on
Helix pomatia, 857.

Carniola, Caves of. Nematodes in, 878.

" Carolo bianco," and " Carolo vero " of
tlie Rice, 600.

Carter, H. J., New Genus of Foramini-
fera (Apbrosina iuformis), and Spicu-
lation of an unknown Sponge, 500.

, New Species of Excavating

Sponge (Alectona Millari) and New
Species of Ehaphidotheca (R. affiuis),
493.

Cartilage Cell, Living, Observations on,
847.

Cells, Division of, 273, 546.

, Meckel's, Final Changes in, 546.

Cases, Larval, of Phryganeidse, 408.

Caspian Sea, New Species and Varieties
of DiatomacesB from, 677.

Caterpillars, Venomous. 411.

Catoptric Immersion Illuminator, 36.

Cell-division in Animals, 692.

Cell, Fat, Development and Retrogres-
sion of, 353.

, Living Cartilage, Observations

on, 847.

Cell -nuclei, Micro-chemical Researches
on, 847.

, Picro-carmine for, 138.

Cell-nucleus, Various Forms of, 909.

"Cell-Soul and Cellular Psychology,"
53.

Cell-structure of Griffithsia setacea,
934.

Cells and Nuclei, 397.

and their Vital Phenomena, 137.

, Arrangement and Growth of, 908.

, Cartilage, Division of, 273, 546.

, Ganglion, and Optic Nerve Fibres

of the Mammalian Retina, Isolation
of, 614.

in the flat Prothallia of Ferns,

Arrangement of, 317.

, Living, of Larva of Newt, Method

of Examining, 705.

, Odoriferous, in Lepidoptera, 298.

of Plants, Living, Calcium Phos-
phate in, 916.

, Prehensive, in the Ctenophora,

282.

, Spiral, in the Root of Nuphar

advcnum, 752.

, Vegetable, Tannin in, 595.

" Cellular Psychology and Cell-Soul,"
53.

Cellular Tissue and Air-sacs of Birds,

Acarina found parasitic in, 415.
" Cellules en boucle," 758.
Cellulose, Fermentation of, 602.
Centipedes, Poison Glands of, 57.
Cephalic Ganglia of the Insects, 864.
Cephalodia, Development of, on

Lichens, 78.
Cephalopoda, Cbromatophores of, 701.

, Eye of, 705.

, Generative Organs of, 549.

, Shells of, in relation to the Body

of their Constructor, 703.
Cephalopodous Mollusca, Liver and

Digestion of, 405.
Cerci and Pygidia of Insects, 252.
Cerebellum of Petromyzon fluviatilis,

Histology of, 850.
Cerebrum and Retina in Arthropoda,

Structure of, 554.
Chaetomium, Structure of, 919.
Cbsetopoda, Development of, 291.
' Challenger,' Echini of, 889.

Expedition, Comatulte of, 739.

Change in Form of Etiolated Plants,

Causes of, 749.
Changes, Final, in Meckel's Cartilage,

546.
Characese. See Contents, xvii.
Charybdea marsupialis, 583.
Cheilo-angioscopy, 946.
Cheliferidse, New Genus of, 295.
Chemical Composition and Function of

Leaves, 442.
Researches on the Formation of

Coal, 915.
Chick, Primitive Stripe in, 395.
Chirocephalus, New Species of, 874.
Chiton, Anatomy of, 404.
Chlorophyll, 161, 306.
, Function of, in the green Pla-

narisB, 161.

Grains, Origin of, 592.

Chromatic Function in the Octopus, 165.
Cbromatophores of the Cephalopoda,

701.
Chromic and OsmicAcids, Employment

of Mixtures of, for Histological Pur-
poses, 144.
Ciiroolepidse, New Genus of, 936.
Chroolepus, Conjugation of Swarm-
spores of 601.
ChyletidiB, Parasitic, 418.
CidaridjB, New Organs of, 888.
Circulation and Ascent of the Sap, 147.
Cladocera, Limicolous, 153.
Classification and Phylogeny of Acti-

nozoa, 581.

, Natural, of the Spiders, 293.

, New, of Thallophytes, 166.

, New, of the Vegetable Kingdom,

90.

995

Classification of Monogenetic Tretoa-
toda, 728.

of the OrthonectUa, S8G.

Clijis, Eotating, for Cheap Microscopes,

623.
Cluster-cups, Propagation of, 920.
Coal, Formation of, Chemical Re-
searches on, 915.
Cochineal for Staining, 43.
Cochineals of the Elm, New Geuus of,

709.
Cockroach, Brain of, 864.
Coelenterata. See Contents, xiv.

Cold, Power of Algse to resist, 761.

Collodion, Wet, Employment of, for
Microi-copic Sections, 460.

Colorific Properties of Lie 1. ens, 930.

Colour, Change of, in the Spores of
Fungi, 315.

Colouring-matter of Palmella crueuta,
Palmelline, 938.

Colours, ditferent, of the Solar Spec-
trum, Influence of, on Infusoria, 900.

, difi'eient, of the Spectrum, In-
fluence of, on Animals, 273.

, diflercnt, of the Spectrum, In-
fluence on Animals and Plants, 138.

Comatula3 of the ' Challenger ' Expedi-
tion, 739.

" Comet-forms " of Starfishes, 576.

Comparators for Measures of Length,
947.

Conchology, Pompeian, 861.

Condenser, Improved Achromatic, 328.

Conducting Tissue for the passage of
Pollen-tubes, 910.

Cones, Crystalline, in the Arthropod
Eye, Form of, 56.

Conidia, Formation of, by a Bacillus,
602.

of Fistulina hepatica, 456.

of Polyporus sulfureus, and their

Development, 85.

Conidial Fructification in Mucorini,
922.

of Fumago, 316.

Conifers, Gymnospermy of, 907.

Conium maculatum, Fruit of, 752.

Conjugation of Ectocarpus, 935.

of S warmspores of Chroolepus, 601 .

Connective Tissue, 694.

Bundles of the Skin, Method

of Isolating, 323.

Contraction, Muscular, in the Crayfish,
Form of, 562.

, Microscopical Phenomena

of, 547.

Conversazione, Royal Society, 473.

Convoluta Schulzii, Histology of, 725.

Copepoda, Formation of Ovisacs in, 85.

, non - parasitic, Reproductive \

Organs of, 875. i

the

Coral, Parasitism of, on a Sponge, 96.
Corals, Australian, 282.

, Blastology of, 892.

, New Genera and Species of, 741.

Cornea, Terminal Nerve-plexus in,

848.
Corpus Luteum and Ovary, 698.
Correction, Spherical, New Methods

for Imjjroving, 812.
Corrosion as a Histological Method,

610.
Cothurnia, new Species of, 653.
Council, Report of, presented to

Annual Meeting, 216.
Counting of Blood-corpuscles, 944.
Covering-glass, Measure for, 65.
Crayfish, Actiou of Heart of, 292.

and Lobster, Heart of, 423.

, Central Nervous System of, 422.

, Fresh- water. Kidney of, 291.

, Influence of Heat on the Nervous

Centres of, 714.
, Muscular Contraction in. Form

of, 562.
, Nervous System of. Physiology

of, 713.
, Pincer of, Action of Electric

Currents on, 873.
Crenothrix polyspora, the Cause of the

Unwhole^omeness of the Berliu

Water, 925.
Crisp, Frank, on some recent Forms of

Camera Lucida, 21.
Crustacea. See Contents, xi.
Cryptogamia. See Contents, xvii.

Vascularia. See Contents, xvii.

Cryptogamic Botany, Luerssen's Hand-
book of, 445.

Journals, New, 154.

Crystalline Cones in the Arthropod

Eye, Form of, 56.
Crystalloids, Protein, 306.
Cry&tals, Apparatus for Determining

the Angle of the Optic Axes of, with

the Microscope, I'Jl.
, Microscopic, Solid Angh

Process for Mea^iUring, 323.

of Gold, Artificial, 193.

Ctenophora of the Gulf of Naples,

, Phylogeny of the, 890.

, Prehensive Cells in, 282.

Culex, Larva of. Respiratory Organs

of, 299.
Cultivating Volvoxglohator, Method of,

939.
Currant Jelly, Adulteration of, with

Diatoms, 938.
Cutaneous Absorption of Helix pomatia,

856.
Cutleria, Reproduction of, 934.
Cutleriacese, Structure and Mode of

Reproduction of, 605.

of.

742.

998

Cycadere, Reproductive Organs of, 908.
Cymothoida, some new, 874.
Cyplionautes, 8G3.

D.

Dactylocalyx puniiceus (Stutchburj),

Observations on, &c., 1:!2.
— - Stutchburyi, New "Variety, De-
scription of, &c., 122.
Danish Academy, Natural Science

Prizes, 699.
Davis, H., Notes on the Pygidia and

Cerci of In.-ects, 252.
J., New Species of Cothurnia,

653.
Deby, J., Is not the Eotiferous Genus

Pedaiion of Hudson synonymous

with Hexarthra of Schmarda? 384.
, Note on his Paper (on Pedaiion)

by C. T. Hudson, 386.
Deeapodous Crustacea, Functions of

the Ganglionic Chidn in, 419.

. , Male Organs of, 420.

, Structure of tlie Central

Nervous Systt-m of, 419, 872.
DiCfptive Appearances produced by

Reagents, 191.
Deep Sea, (Gigantic Isopod of, 152.
Deep-sea Siphonophora, 278, 432.
Deep-water Fauna of the Lake of

Geneva, 700.
Definition, High -power, Microscopical

Researclies in, 784.
Degeneration of the Visual Organs in

Arachnida, 146.
Delicate and Perishable Animal

Tissues, Method of Preserving, 461.
Depazeacete, Structure of, 601.
Desmidieaj, Subalpine, 607.
Desmids, Movenients of, Influence of

Light on, 937.
Development, Experiments on, 844.
Developmental History of the Spiders,

294.
Dew and Rain, Absorption of, by the

green paits of Plant.-;, 913.
Diagrams exliibiting the Path of a Ray

through ToUes' ^ Immersion Ob-
jective, Note on, 269.
Diatomacere, Life-history of, 181.
, New Species and Varieties from

the Caspian Sea, 677.

, Thallus of, 38, 608.

Diatoms, Adulteration of Currant Jelly

■with, 938.
and Oscillatoriese, Movements of,

182.
as Test Objects, Use and Abuse

of, 183.

, &c., Dry Preparations of, 83.

, New, 762, 937.

Diatoms, Preparation of, in situ : means
of avoiding Air-bubbles, 616.

, Sexual Process in, 93.

, Terrestrial, 762.

Diftraotion Experiments with Pleuro-
sigma angulatum, 141.

Digestion and Liver of the Cephalo-
podous MolluscH, 405.

of Albuminoids by Invertebrata,

274.

Digestive Ferments of the Invertebrata,

548.
Organs of the Fresh-water Tur-

bellarians, 287.
of the Myriapoda, Anatomy

and Pliysiology of, 710.
"Digger" Mollusc and its Parasites,

303.
Dimorphism, Seasonal, in Lepidoptera,

29?.
Dioon edule, Male Inflorescence of,

Disengagement of Heat which

accompanie.s the Expansion of, 752.
Diplera, Nerves of Proboscis of, 865.
DLsoomycetes, new Genus, Berggrenia,

923.
Discosporangiura, a new Genus of

Phseosporese, 186.
Disease, Beech, PhytophtLora Fagi,

923.
, Fungus, in Lettuces (Peronospora

gangliiformis), 316.
, Relation of Microphytes in the

Blootl to, 924.
Diseases, Fungoid, of Plants, 167.-
, New, of Hot-house Rubiacese,

572.
Dissected Model of an Insect's Brain,

New Method of preparing from

Microscopic Sections, 84.
Dissecting Microscope, Schobl's, 956.

Microscopes, Apparatus for

Focussing, 954.

Division, Formation, and Fructification

of tlie Animal Ovum, 274.
of Cartilage Cells, 273, 546.

of the Polkn-grain in Angio-

sperms, 746.

Dog, Eur of, Pentastoma tsenioides in,

712.
Doridse of the Northern Seas, 859.
Drawing with the Camera Lucida,

Sup[)ort for the Head in, 187.
Dry Preparations of Diatoms, &c., 83.
Duck, Harderian Gland of, 848.
Dytiscus, Sucking Plate of, 300.

E.

Ear of a Dog, Pentastoma tsenioides in,

712.
Early Development of Equisetaceaj, 157«

997

Enrtli-worra, Spermatopliores of, 730.
Echini of tlie ' Challen-jer,' 889.

, Spines of, 171.

Ecbinocidaris, Aual Plates of, 890.
Ecliiuocleimuta. See Contents, xiii.
Eehinorh.\ncliiis, Female Organs of, 572.
Ectocarpus, Conjugation of, 935.
Edmunds, Dr. J., Note on a Revolver

Immersion Prism for Sub-stage

Illumination, 32.
Egg, Sliell of, Fuugi found within,

315.
Eggs, Ant, Mode of Depositing, 868.

put to incubate in warm Water,

Evolution of Embryo in, 696.

Electric Currents, Action of, on the

Pincer of the Crayfish, 873.
Electrical Mounting Table, 469.
Electricity, Influence of, on Vegetation,

912.
, Peculiarities in the power of

living parts of Plants to conduct, 912.
Elm, Cochineals of, New Gt-nus of, 709.
Embedding Substance, Soap as, 910.
Embryo, Evolution of, in Eggs put to

incubate in warm Water, 6[)6.
of Phanerogams, Development of,

902.

of some Polypodiaceffi, Organo-
genic Researches on, &c., 159.

Embryo-sac, Nucleus of, 907.
of Angiosperms, Development

of, 903.
Embryogeny and Anatomy of the

Tajniadaj, 285.

of Asteriscus verruculatus, 428.

Embryology, Comparative, of the In-

secta, 413.
of Phanerogamia. See Contents,

XV.

of Tendra zostericola, 707.

of Vascular Cryptogams, 596.

of Vertebrata. " See Contents, vii.

Embryonal Sac, Development of, 305.
Embryos of Fishes, Preparing, 325.
Endophytic Fungi in Pollen-grains,

598.
Entomostraca, New British, 877.
Entophytic and Entuzoic (parasitic)

Species of Cryptogams, 448.
Entozoa, Prizes for Life-histories of,

878.
Eutozoic and Entophytic (parasitic)

Species of Cryptogams, 448.
Eosiu, Hfematoxylic, and its Employ-
ment in Histology, 763.
Eozoon Canadense, 275, 744, 902.
Epithelia, Amoeboid, 852.
Equisetacese, Early Development of,

157.
Equisetum palustre, Production of

first vegetative Shoot of, 597.

Erie, Lake, Species of Marine Crustacea

in, 152.
Etiolated Plants, Causes of the change

of Form in, 749.
Eucampia, New Species of, 835.
Euglena viridis, Flagellum of, 441 .
Evolution of the Embryo in Eggs put

to incubate in warm Water, 696.
of the Infusoria from the Lower

Protozoa, 438.
of the IMale and Female Genital

Glands of Mammalia, 397.
Excrescences on the Root of the Alder,

929.
Excretory Apparatus of Solenophorus

megalocephalus, 284.
E.xhibition, Paris, Microscopy at, 72.
Ex-officio Fellows, Election of, 212,

350, 351, 650.
Experiments on Development, 844.
Extension of the Coiled Arms in

Rhynchonella, 302.
Eye, Arthropod, Crystalline Cones in.

Form of, 56.

of the Cephalopoda, 705.

of the Lamellibranchiata, 303.

Eye-pieces, Construction of, 59.
"Eve-spots" of some Osseous Fishes,

849.

Farrant's Medium, Blodification of, 942.
Fat-ctll, Development and Retrogres-
sion of, 353.
Fecundation of Zostera marina, True

Mode of, 908.
Female Microscopical Society, 472.

Organs of Echinorhynchus, 572.

Fermentation. Alcoholic, 82, 187, 453.

. in the Tissues of Plants, 442.

of Cellulose, 602.

Ferments, Digestive, of the Inverte-

brata, 548.

, Starch-transforming, 505.

Fern-spores, Germination of, 916.
Ferns, Adventitious Buds in, 597.
, Apogamous, and Phenomemm of

Apogamy in general, 317.
, Flat Prothallia of, Arrangement

of Cells in, 317.
Fertilization of Red Algae by the

Agency of Infusoria, 932.
Fever, Marsh, Poison of, 926.
Fibrillaj of Filifera, 49.
Filaria Otarise, 729.
Filarian Worm, Pneumonia produced

by, 425.
Filifera, Fibrillfe of, 49.
Finger, Mechanical, Rezner's, 951.
Fishes, Embryos of, Preparing, 325.

, Osseous, " Eye-spots " of, 849.

Fistulina hepatica, Couidia of, 456.

998

INDEX.

Flagellated Organisms iu Ivals' Bloud,
190.

Flagellura of Euglena vii-idis, 441.

Fletcher's Microtome, 4G6.

Flight, Aerouautic, of Spiders, 561.

Fluids, New, for Homogeneous Immer-
sion, 332.

, Staining, 612.

Focus.-iiiig Dissecting Microscopes, Ap-
paratus for, 954.

, Novel IMethod for. 767.

Foot of Lamcllibranchiata, Glands in,
859.

of the Unionidcie, 303.

Foraminifera, New Genus of (Aphrosina
inforrais), 500.

Forrest, H. E., On the Anatomy of
Leptodora hyalina, 825.

Fossil Alga3 belonging to the Verticil-
late Siphonese, 936.

Fraunhot'er's Optical Law of Vision,
delusive Application of, &c., 9.

Freia, supposed new Fresh-water Spe-
cies of, 900.

French Coasts, New Branchiopoda of,
424.

Fripp, Dr. H. E., Theory of Illuminating
Apparatus, employed with the Micro-
scope, 503.

Frogs, Bacteria-poisoning in, Antidote
to, 928.

Fructification, Conidial, in Mucorini,
922.

• , of Fumago, 316.

, Formation, and Division of the

Animal Ovum, 274.

Fruit of Conium maculatum, 752.

Fumago, Conidial Fructification of,
316.

Fungi. See Contents, xviii.

Fur on the Tongue, Nature of, 756.

Gall-making Aphides, 407.
Garaasidc-c, Difterences between Young

and Adult Forms of, 8/0.
Ganglia, Cephalic, of the Insects,

864.
, Spinal, and Dorsal Medulla of

Petromyzon, 851.
Ganglion-cells and Optic Nerve .Fibres

of Mammalian Ketiua, Isolation of,

614.
Ganglionic Chain, Functions of, in the

Decapodous Crustacea, 419.
Gas, Generation of, in the Protoplasm

of Living Protozoa, 72.
Gasteropoda, Nephropncustous, Her-
maphroditism in, and the Spermato-

phorcs of, 304.
, Terrestrial, Locomotion of, 399.

Gasteropodous IMolliiacs, Action of

Strychnine on, 705.
Generative Organs of the Cephalopoda,

549.
Genesis, Mechanical, of Tooth Forms,

696.
Geneva, Lake of, Deep-water Fauna of,

700.
Genital Glands, Male and Female, of

Mammalia, Evolution of, 397.

Organs of Asterina gibbosa, 579.

Geology, Modern Applications of the

Microscope to, 773.
George, C. F., a Contribution to the

Knowledge of British Oribatidse, 225.
Gepliyrea, Studies on, 879.
Germination of Fern-spores, 916.
of Fungus-spores and Growth of

Mycelium, Eate of, 599.
. of the Schiza3acea3, 451.

of the Spores of Volvox dioicus,

95.

Germ-layers and Blastoderm in Insects,
Formation of, 554.

Germs, Resistance of, to Temperature of
100° C, 602.

Germ Theory, Contribntion to, 754.

Gestation of the Armadillo, 844.

Gigantic Isopod of the Deep Sea, 152.

Gilburt, W. H., Morphology of Vege-
table Tissues, 801.

Gills of Serpula, 570.

Gland, Harderian, of the Duck, 848.

Glands, Anal, and Poison Apparatus of
Ants, 142.

found in the Appendages of the

Phronimida, 719.

, Genital, Male and Female, Evolu-
tion of, in Mammalia, 397.

in Foot of Lamellibranehiata, 859.

, Poison, of the Centipedes, 57.

, Spinning, of the Silkworm, 297.

Gloidium, a new Genus of Protista,
179.

Glomeris, Tracheal System of, 414.

Gold, Artificial Crystals of, 193.

Gorgonia verrucosa, 281,

Granular bodies found in the Ovum,
845.

Green parts of Plants, Absorption of
Rain and Dew by the, 913.

Griffithsia setacea, Cell-structure of, and
Development of its Antheridia and
Tetraspores, 934.

Growth of Mycelium, Rate of, 599.

of the Root of Phanerogams,

149.

Grunow, A., New Species and Varieties
of Diatomaceoe from tiie Caspian Sea,
677.

Gum, Sugar-refining, Leuconostoo me-
senteroides, 928.

INDEX.

999

Gymnodinium and Peridiiiium, 745.
(rymnobperms and Aiigiosperms, 905.

, Seminal Integuments of, 911.

Gymnospermy of Conifers, 907.

H

Habits and Intelligence of Vcspa ma-
culata, 559.

of tlie Octopus, 854.

Hfematoxylic Eosin, and its Employ-
ment in Histology, 703.

Hr-craocyanin, a new Substance in the
Blood of the Octopus, 164.

Hairs, Abortion of, on the Legs of
certain Caddis-flies, &c., 412.

Haliphysema Tumanowiczii, 898.

Halistemma teryestinum, 584.

Halosphrera, a new Genus of Uuicel-
lular Alga;, 458.

Haptophrya gigantea, a new Opalinid
from the Intestine of the Anourous
Batrachia, 588.

HardiTian Ghmd of the Duck, 848.

Head, Support for, in Drawing with the
Camera Lucida, 187.

Heart of the Crayfish, Action of, 292.

of the Craytish and Lobster, 423.

Heat and Light, Action of, on Swarm-
spores (Zoospores), 307.

, Disengagement of, which accom-
panies the Expansion of the Male
luflorescence of Dioon edule, 752.

, Influence of, on the Nervous

Centres of the Crayfish, 714.

Heliostat, Prazmowski's, 44.

Heliotropism of Plants, 593.

Helix aspersa. Segmentation of Ovum
in, 40.^, 854.

pomatia, Cutaneous Absorption

of, 856.

, Influence of " Cardiac

Poisons" on, 857.

Helminthological Studies, 729.

Helminthology, 283.

Hermaphroditism in, and the Spcrma-
topliores of the Nephropueustous
Gasteropoda, 304.

in Perlida;, 144.

of the Isopoda, 720.

Heteropoda, Auditory Organs of, 401.

Heteropora, Recent, Occurrence of, 390.

, recent Species of, 862.

Hexarthra, Is it not synonymous with
Pedalion ? 384, 386.

High-power Definition, Microscopical
Kesearclies in, 784.

Hippopotamus, Young, Trichinosis in,
571.

Histological Prepar.itions, Size of, 329.

Histology, Atlas of, Klein and Smith's,
700.

Histology of Phanerogamia. See Con-
tents, XV.

of Vertebrata. See Contents, vii.

Hoggau, G. and F. E., On the Develop-
ment and Retrogression of the Fat-
cell, 353.

Holding Objects beneath tlie Stage,
Contrivance for, 466, 624.

Homogeneous Immersion, 774.

, Fluid for, Chloride of Cad-
mium as, 943.

, New Fluids for, 332.

Object-glasses, Note on, 394,

489, 490.

Objectives and the Vertical

Illuminator, 266.

Objectives, Mixture of Oils

for, 332.

, Stephenson's System of, for

Microscope Objectives, 256.

Homology of the " Nucule " of Chara-
cpa3, 317.

Hooker, Sir Joseph, on Ihe IModern
Development of Micro-botany, 67.

Hooklets, Barbed, on Spines of a
Brachiopod, 553.

Horny Sponges, Development of, 897.

Horse -Leech, Abnormal Sexual Organs
in, 156.

" House " of the Phronimida, 719.

Hudson, C. T., Note on M. Deby's
Paper (on Pedalion), 386.

, On fficistes unibella and other

Rotifers, 1.

Hydrachnida, Structure of, 415.

Hydroid inhabiting Sponges, Spongi-
cola fistularis, 431.

Hydroids, Sexual Products in, Origin
of, 66.

Hydromedusaj, Strange Anomaly
among, 278.

Hydrozoa, Researches into the, 480.

Hygrocrocis arsenicus, Breb., Organi-
zation of, 169.

Hymenomycetes, Spores on the upper
side of the Pileus in, 314.

I.

Illuminating Apparatus employed with

the Microscope, Theory of, 503.

■ Traverse-lens, 388.

Illumination, Black-ground, 623.

, Oblique, 473.

, Sub-stage, Revolver Immersion

Prism for, 32.
Illuminator, A Catoptric Immersion,

36.
, Formation of the Paraboloid as,

for the Microscope, 620.

, Immersion Stage, 837.

, Vertical, 194.

1000

Illuminator,Vertical, and Homogeneous
Immersion Objectives, 20(3.

, Woodward's Oblique, 769.

lUumiuators, Immersion, 27, 151.

Iiumersiou, Homogeneous, 774.

, Fluid for, Chloride of Cad-
mium as, 943.

, New Fluids for, 332.

, on Stephenson's System of,

for Microscope Objectives, 256.

Illuminator, Catoptric, 36.

Illuminators, 27, 151.

Object-glasses, Homogeneous, Note

on, 394, 489, 490.

■ Objective, ToUes' }, Note on Pia-
gi-ams exhibiting the Path of a Eay
through, 269.

■ Objectives, Aperture Measure-
ments of, 842.

, Homogeneous, and tlie Ver-
tical Illuminator, 266.

, Homogeneous, Mixture of

Oils for, 332.

, Oil, 331.

, Oil, and the Apertometer,

Col. Woodward on, 140.

Prism, Kevolver, for Sub-stage

Illumination, 32.

Stage Illuminator, 837.

Induced Currents, Effects of, on the
Nervous System, 853.

Inflorescence, Male, of Dioon edule,
Disengagement of Heat which ac-
companies the Expansion of, 752.

' lufusiousthiere,' Stein's, 590.

Infusor, New, Tintinnus semicUiatus,
587.

Infusoria, Evolution of, from the Lower
Protozoa, 438.

, Fertilization of Red Algse by the

Agency of, 932.

, Influence of the different Colours
of the Solar Spectrum on, 900.

. , &c., Method of Preserving, 331,

763.

, New, Observations on, 899.

, Parasitism amongst, 94.

Injection, Microscopical, of Molluscs,
94.

Innervation of the Respiratory Organs,
697.

Insecta. See Contents, s.

Instruments, Optical, Measurement of
the Amplification of, 184.

Integuments, Seminal, of Gymno-
sperms, 911.

Intelligence and Habits of Vespa
maculata, 559.

Intercellular Spaces, Relationship of,
to Vessels, 912.

Invertebrata. See Contents, viii.

Isis, New Species of, 281.

Isoetes, Apogamy in, 319.

Isolating the Connective-tissue Bundles

of the Skin, Method of, 323.
Isolation of the Optic Nerve Fibres and

Ganglion-cells of the Mammalian

Retina, 614.
Isopod, Gigantic, of the Deep Sea, 152.
Isiipoda, Hermaphroditism of, 720.
Italian Algse, 607.

Jaws, Annelid, from Scotch and Cana-
dian Palaeozoic Rocks, 884.

Jensen's Turbellarian Worms of Nor-
way, 573.

Journals, New Cryptogamic, 154.

K.

Keith, Prof. R., Note on Diagrams
exhibiting the Path of a Ray through
Tulles' ^ Immersion Objective, 269.

, Note on Mr. Wenham's Paper

" On tlie Measurement of the Angle
of Aperture of Objectives," 270.

, Reply of Mr. Wenham to his

Note, 271.

Kerguelen's Land, Fauna of, 700.

, Invertebrates of, 398.

Kidney of Fresh-water Crayfish, 291.

Kitton, F., New Species of Diatomacese
from the Caspian Sea, 677.

, Thallus of the Diatomacese, 38.

Klein and Smith's Atlas of Histology,
700.

L.

Laboratory for Microscopic Work, 52.

Lagenidium Rabenhorstii, a new Phy-
cumycete, 921.

Lake Erie, Species of Marine Crus-
tacea in, 152.

Nyassa, Algge from, 608.

of Geneva, Deej)-water Fauna of,

700.

Lamellibranchiata, Eye of, 303.

, Glands in Foot of, 859.

, Parasites of, 285.

Large Micro-photographs, 619.

Larval Cases of PlirygancidsB, 408.

Larva of Culex, Respiratory Organs of,
299.

of Newt, Method of Examiuino'

Living Cells of, 765.

Law and Medicine, Value of Microscope
in, 946.

of Vision, Fraunhofer's Optical,

delusive Application of, &c., 9.

Leaves, Absorption of Water by the
Lamina of, 750.

1001

Leaves, Aerial, Effects of Submersion on,
and of Water on Floating Leaves, 750.

and Petals, Growing, Movements

of, 751.

, Cliemical Composition and Func-
tion of, 442.

Leech, Horse, Abnormal Sexual
Organs ill, 156.

Leighton's Lichen-Flora, 604.

Length, Measures of, Comparators for,
947.

Lenses, Achromatic, 173.

Lepidoptera, Odoriferous Cells in, 298.

, Scales of, 866.

, Seasonal Dimorphism in, 298.

Leptodora hyalina, Anatomy of, 825.

Leptothrix, Experimental Researches
on a, 454, 928.

Lettuces, Fungus Disease in, Perono-
spora gangliiformis, 316.

Leuconostoc mesentei'oides, Sugar-
refining Gum, 928.

Lichenes. See Contents, xix.

Lichenological Review, 761.

Life-histories of Entozoa, Prizes for,
878.

Life-history of the Diatomacefe, 181.

Light and Heat, Action of, on Swarm-
spores (Zoospores), 307.

, Effect of, on Pelomyxa, 591.

, Influence of, on Fungi, 314,

, Influence of, on the Movements of

Desmids, 937.

, Influence of, on the Movements

of Mobile Spores, 447.

, Warmth, and Moisture, Influence

of, on the Opening and Closing of
the Anthers of Bulbocodium veruum,
9 Li.

Limax, Mucous Threads of, 304.

Limicolous CLtdocera, 153.

Limits of Accuracy in Measurements
with the Microscope, 473.

of Microscopic Vision, Further

Inquiry into, &c., 9.

Limuli and Trilobites, 874.

Lion, Ascaris parasitic in, 729.

Lithamceba discus, a new Rhizopod,
900.

Littorina, Peculiarity in, 401.

Liver and Digestion of the Cephalo-
podous Mollusca, 405.

" Liver " of tlie Invertebrata, 701.

Lobster and Crayfish, Heart of, 423.

, Blood of, 715.

, Muscle and Nerve in. Physiology

of, 872.

, Phosphorescence of the Flesh of,

151.

Locomotion of the Terrestrial Gastero-
poda, 399.

, Power of, in the Tunicata, 302.

Locomotor System of Medusae, 171.
Logwood Staining Solution, 940.
Lower Organisms, Preparation and

Preservation of, 462.

Plants, " Plastids " of, 170.

Lowest Forms of Life, Bacteria, Lichens,

and Bacillus Organisms, 69.

Organisms, Anomalies in the

Development of, 446.

Loxosoma, 553.
I Luerssen's Handbook of Cryptogamic
j Botany, 445.

I Luminous Bacteria in Meat, 310.
j Lytta vesicatoria, the Blister Beetle,
[ Metamorphoses of, 708.

I M.

I Magelona, Anatomy of, 567.

j Male Organs of the Decapodous Cnis-

I tacea, 420.

j Malformation in an Insect, 558.

Malpighian Vessels of Insects, 60.

Mammalia, Male and Female Genital
Glands of, Evolution of, 397.

Mammalian Retina, Optic Nerve
Fibres and Ganglion-cells of. Isola-
tion of, 614.

Man and other Mammalia, Develop-
ment of the Ova and Structure of
the Ovary in, 845.

Marble, Borings of a Sponge in, 82.

Marseilles, Coasts of, Zoantharia
malacodermata of, 892.

Marsh and Water Plants, Re.spiration
of, 915.

Fever, Poison of, 926.

Matthews' Micro-Megascope, IGO.

Section -cutting Machine, 957.

Mayall, J., jun., Aperture Measm-ementa
of Immersion Objectives, 842.

, Immersion Illuminators, 27.

, Immersion Stage Illumi-
nator, 837.

I , the Aperture Question, 134.

, Measure for Covering-glass, 65.
I Measurement of the Amplification of
Optical Instruments, 184.

of the Angle of Aperture of

Objectives, Note on Mr. Wenh:im's
Paper on, 270.

Measurements, Aperture, of Immersion
Objectives, 842.

with the ]\Iicroscope, Limits of

Accuracy in, 473.

Measures of Length, Comparators for,

947.
Measuring Aperture, 781.

the Solid Angles of Microscopic

Crystals, Process for, 323.

Meat, Luminous Bacteria in, 310.
Mechanical Finger, Rezner's, 951.

1002

IMecbanical Microtome, Seller's, 3"28. '

Turntables, (JIG. I

Meckel's Cartilage, Final Changes in, ]

546. I

Medicine and Law, "Value of Micro- ^

scope in, 946.
Mediterranean, Caiirellidse of the, 716. |
Medulla, Dorsal, and Spinal Ganglia '

of Petromyzon, 851. j

Medusae, Locomotor System of, 171.

, New Paludicolous, 5S2. i

Megascope, the Micro-, KjO.
Metamorphoses and Develoj^ment of '

Tffinise, 162, 878.

of the Blister Beetle, 708. j

Mexican and Californian Islands, Land

Shells of, 861. I

Michael, A. D., a Contribution to the :

Knowledge of British Oribatidse, 225.
Mierobia, 58.
Micro-botany, Sir J. Hooker on the [

Modern Development of, 67.
Micro-chemical Eesearches on Cell-
nuclei, 847. j
Microcotyle and Axine, 574. j
Microcytes (very small Red Blood- j

corpuscles) in the Blood, 847.
Microgonidia, 603, 931.
Micro-Megascope, 160.
Micrometer, a new, 52.

, Beck's, 108.

IMicrometers, Standard, 332.
Micrometry, Unit of, 154, 221, 332, 488,

620, 947", 958.
Micro-pliotographs, Large, 619.
Micro-pliotography, Improvements in,

62, 772.
Microphytes in the Blood, and their

relation to Disease, 924.
Microscope, Dissecting, Schobl's, 956.
, English, for Students of Miner-
alogy and Petrology, 470.
in Law and Medicine, Value of,

946.
, Modern Applications of, to

Geology, 773.
■ , Nouveau Grand Modele Eenverse,

Nachet's, 765.
, Portable Demonstration,

Nachet's, 766.

, Zeiss' Travelling, 955.

Microscopes, Dissecting, Apparatus for '

Focussing, 954.

with Swinging Tailpiece, 320. |

, Undescribed, 765.

Microscopical Research under Diffi-
culties, 145.
" Microscopical " Societies and ' Micro- I

scopy," 329. [

, Female, 472. <

Microscopic Sections, Employment of t

Wet Collodion for, 460. I

Microscopic Sections, Method of repre-
senting an Object from, 71.

, New Method of Preparing a

Dissected Model of an Insect's Brain
from, 84.

Vision, Further Inquiry into the

Limits of, &c., 9.

Microscopy. See Contents, xx.

" Microscopy " and " Microscopical "
Societies, 329.

Micro-spectroscope, Mr. Sorby's New,
81.

, Ward's Improved, 106.

Microtome, Fletcher's, 466.

, Roy, 768.

, Seller's Mechanical, 328.

, Ward's Improved, 957.

MiLlew, Black, of Walls, 459.

MilleporidsB, New Genus of, 283,

Mineralogy and Petrology, English
Microscope for Students of, 470.

Minerals, Optical Cliaracters of, Fur-
ther Improvements in Studying, 326.

Minute MoUusca, Method of obtaining,
861.

Model, Dissected, of an Insect's Brain,
new Method of Preparing from
Microscopic Sections, 84.

Modifications which Starch undergoes
from a Physical Point of View, 752.

Moisture, Light, and Warmth, Influence
of, on the Opening and Closing of the
Anthers of Bulbocodium vernum, 915.

Molluoca. See Contents, viii.

Molluscoida. See Contents, ix.

Moneron, New, 901.

Mormo, Structure of Scale of a Species
of, 810.

Morphology of Vegetable Tissues, 801.

Mosses. See Contents, xvii.

Mounting, Improved, for Camerae
Lucidse, 954.

Noctiluca miliaris, 464.

Table, Electrical, 469.

Movements, Brownian, some Causes
of, 656.

of Desmids, Influence of Light

on, 937.

of Diatoms and OscillatoriesB, 182.

of Growing Leaves and Petals,

751.

of Mobile Spores, Influence of

Light on, 447.

Mozambique, Crustacea of, 425.
Mucoriiii, Conidial Fructification in,

922.
Mucous Tlireads of Limax, 304.
Muscinete. See Contents, xvii.
Muscle and Nerve in the Lobster,

Physiology of, 872.
Muscle-cells of the Nematoids, 729.
Muscle-epithelium in Anthozoa, 279.

1003

Muscular Contraction in the Crayfish,
Form of, 5G2.

, Microscopical Phenomena

of, 547.

Mussels, Fresh-water, Later Stages iu

the Devehipmeut of, 399.
Mycelium, Rate of Growtl: of, 599.
Mycoderma vini ami Oidium albicans,

Relationship of, 453.
Mycoidea parasitica, new parasitic

Alga, 938.
Myriapoda. See Contents, xi.
Myriothela, Histological Characters

and Development of, 432.

N.

Nachet's Microscope Nouvtau Grand
Module Renverse', 765.

Portable Demonstration Micro-
scope, 766.

Naples, Gulf of, Ctenophora of, 742.

, Marine Algije of, 762.

Nebaliad Crustacea as Types of a new
Order, 713.

Nectaries, Anatomical and Pliysio-
logical Study of, 748.

Nematodes in the Caves of Carniola,
878.

Nematoids, Muscle-cells of, 729.

Nemertinea, Studies on, 723.

Neomenia and the other Amphineura,
404, 706.

Neovossia, a new Genus of Ustila-
ginese, 760.

Nephropneustous Gasteropoda, Her-
maphroditism iu, and the Sperma-
tophores of, 304.

Nerve and Muscle in the Lobster,
Physiology of. 872.

Nerve-cords, Arrangement of, in
Anuelides, 569.

Nerve-fibre, Histology of, 546.

Nerve Fibres, Optic, and Ganglion-cells
of the Mammalian Retina, Isolation
of, 614.

Nerve, Olfactory, and Olfactory Organ
of Vertebrates, Development of, 547.

Nerve-plexus, Terminal, iu the Cornea,
848.

Nerves in the Invertebrata, Structure
of, 76.

of the Proboscis of Diptera, 865.

Nervous Centres of the Crayfish, In-
fluence of Heat on, 714.

System. Central, of Decapodous

Crustacea, Structure of, 419, 872.

, Central, of the Crayfish,

422.
, Effects of Induced Currents

on, 853.
of Insects, 863.

Nervous System of the Crayfish, Phy-
siology of, 713.
Newt, Larva of. Method of Examining

Living Cells of, 765.
Nicols in Polarizing Apparatus, the

exact Orientation of the principal

Section of, 74.
Noctiluca miliaris. Mounting, 464.

, Reproduction of, 195, 440.

Northern Seas, Doridae of, 859.
Norway, Jensen's TurbcUarian Worms

of, 573.
Nostoc-colonies in Anthocerotea?, 187.
in Blasia, Origin of Tubes

in, 598.
Notes and Memoranda, 41, 137, 272,

395, (545), (692).
Notodelphyidaj, 877.
Notommata, Parasitism of, on Vau-

cheria, 291.
Werneckii, and its Parasitism iu

the Tubes of Vaucheria, 530.
Nuclei and Cells, 397.
, Cell, Micro-chendcal Researches

on, 847.

, Picro-carmiue for, 138.

of tlie Blood-corpuscles of the

Triton, 272.
Nucleus, Cell, various Forms of, 909.

iu Blood-corpu?cles, 545.

of the Embryo-sac, 907.

"Nucule" of Characese, Homology of,

317.
Numerical Apertures, Table of, 839,

842.
Nuphar advenum, Spiral Cells in the

Root of, 752.
Nutrition of Phanerogamic Parasites,

444.
Nyassa, Lake, Algje from, 608.

Obituary, 333.

Object-glasses, Homogeneous - Immer-
sion, Note on, 394, 489, 490.

, Improvements in, 75.

, Wide - angled. Improving

Spherical Correction in, 812.

Objective, Bausch and Lonib Ojitical
Co.'s new i, 107.

, Tolles' i Immersion, Note on

Diagrams exhibiting the Path of a
Ray through, 269.

, Tolles' ^V. 951.

, Zeiss's yV, 958.

Objectives, Iloiiiogeneous -Immersion,
and the Vertical Illuminator, 266.

, Homogeneous-Immersion, Mix-
ture of Oils for, 332.

, Immersion, Aperture Measure-
ments of, 842.

1004

INDEX.

Objectives, Measurement of Angle of
Aperture of, Note on Mr. Wenham's
Paper on, 270.)

, Microscope, on Stephenson's

System of Homogeneous Immersion
for, 256.

, Oil-Immersion, 331.

, Oil-Immersion, and the Aper-

tometer, 140.

, Wide-angled, "Penetration" of,

322.

Objects, Contrivance for Holding be-
neath the Stuge, 466, 624.

Oblique Illumination, 473.

Illuminator, Woodward's, 769.

Octopus, Blood of, Hgemoc3'anin in, 164.

, Chromatic Function in, 165.

, Habits of, 854.

, Structure and Physiology of, 402.

Odoriferous Cells in Lepidoptera, 298.

fficistes umbella, and other Rotifers, 1.

Qidogouiacese, American, 935.

Oidium albicans and Mycoderma vini.
Relationship of, 453.

Oil-Immersion Objectives, 331.

Objectives and the Aperto-

meter, 140.

Oils for Homngeueous-Immersion Ob-
jectives, Mixture of, 332.

Olfactory Nerve and Olfactory Organ
of Vertebrates, Development of, 547.

01igocha3ta, Further Studies on, 729.

Onion-smut, Urocystis Cepulaa, 921.

Opaliuid, New, from Intestine of Anou-
rous Batrachia, Haptophrya gi-
gantea, 588.

Ophiurida, Anatomy of, 737.

Optical Characters of Minerals, Further
Improvements in Studying, 326.

Instruments, Measurement of the

Amplificatiou of, 184.

Optic Axes of Crystals, Apparatus for
Determining the Angle of, with the
Microscope, 191.

Nerve Fibres and Ganglion-cells

of the Mammalian Retina, Isolation
of, 614.

Orang-Outang, Ascaris of, 729.

Orchi'lla as a Staining Material, 59.

Ord, W. M., on some Causes of
Brownian Movements, 656.

Organogenic Researches on the Cap-
sule of Mosses, &c., 159.

Oribatulse, British Acari, 76.

, a Contribution to the Know-
ledge of, 225.

Orientation, Exact, of Nicols in Polariz-
ing Apparatus, 74.

Orthonectida, Organization and Classi-
fication of, 886.

Oscillatorieaa and Diatoms, Movements
of, 182.

Osmic Aciil, on some Applications of,
to Micnscupic Purposes, 381.

and Chromic Acid.s, Employment

of Mixtures of, for Histological Pur-
poses, 144.

Ova, Development of, in Man and other
Mammalia, 845.

Ovary and Corpus Luteum, 698.

, Structure of, in Man and other

Mammalia, 845.

Ovisacs, Formation of, in Copepoda, 85.

Ovule, Axial or Foliar Structure ? 594.

, the, 49.

Ovum, Animal, Formation, Fructiiica-
tion, and Division of, 274.

, Granular Bodies found in, 845.

, Segmentation of, in Helix aspersa,

40.5, 854.

Oxytrichina, Morphology of the, 91.

Oxyurids, Oiganization and Develop-
ment of. 289.

Pairing of Spiders, 870.

Palmella cruenta, Palmelline, the

Colouring-matter of, 938.
Palmelline, the Colouring-matter of

Palmella cruenta, 938.
Paraboloid as an Illuminator for tlie

Microscope, Formation of, 620.
Parasites, " Digger " Mollusc and its,

303.

of the Lamellibranchiata, 285.

, Phanerogamic, Nutrition of, 444.

, Vine, two new, 601.

Parasitic Acarina found in the Cellular

Tissues and Air-sacs of Birds, 415.

AlgiB, New, 606, 938, 939.

Ascaris in the Lion, 729.

in the Orang-Outang, 729.

Chylfti.la}, 418.

Crustacea, 61.

, Fungi, on Fungi, 926.

, on the Cabbage, 315.

Insects, 558.

Phycomycete, New, 599.

Species of Cryptogams, Entophytic

and Entozoic, 448.
Parasitism amongst Infusoria, 94.

of a Coral on a Sponge, 96.

of Lichens on Mosses, 930.

of Notommata on Vaucberia, 291.

of Notommata Werneckii in the

Tubes of Vaucheria, 530.
Paris Exhibition, Microscojiy at, 72.
Parker, T. J., on some Applications of

Osmic Acid to Microscopic Purposes,

381.
Parthenogenesis in Bees, 88, 143, 297.
, the Relation to it of Polyem-

bryony, true and false, 444.

1005

Pauropod, New. 8G9.

Fedaliou, Is it not synonymous with
Hexarthra ? 384, 38U.

Pellicle Precipitates, Permeability of,
592.

Pelomyxa, Effect of Light on, 591.

Peltidia, New, 722.

Penseiis Caramote, some young Stages
of, 720.

" Penetration " of Wide-angled Ob-
jectives, 322.

Peniophora, Proposed new Genus of
Fungi, 920.

Pentastoma t£enioides in the Ear of a
Dog, 712.

Peridinium and Gymnodinium, 745.

Peripatus, Observations on, 559.

Perishable and Delicate Animal
Tissues, Method of Preserving, 461.

Perlidoe, Hermaphroditism in, 144.

Permeability of Pellicle Precipitates,
592.

Perouospora gangliiformis, Fungus
Disease in Lettuces, 316.

Petals and Growing Leaves, Move-
ments ofj 751.

Petrology and Mineralogy, English
Microscope for Students of, 470.

Petromyzon fluviatilis, Histology of
Cerebellum, of, 850.

, Spinal Ganglia and Dorsal Me-
dulla of, 851.

Phseosporese, a new Genus of Disco-
sporangium, 186,

Phanerogamia, Embryology and His-
tology of. See Contents, xv.

Phanerogamic Parasites, Nutrition of,
444.

Philippines, New Annelides from, 571.

PJiosphoresceuce of the Flesh of Lob-
sters, 151.

Photographs of Blood, 489.

Photography, Micro-, Improvements in,
62.

Phronimida, Glands found in the
Appendages of, 719.

, " House " of, 719.

, Organization of, 717.

Phryganese, Notes on, 558.

Phryganeiilse, Larval Cases of, 408.

, Notes on, 710.

Phycochromacea3, Morphology and
Biology of, 456.

' Phycological Studies,' Thuret and
Bornet's, 311.

Phycomycete, New, Lagenidium Ea-
benliorstii, 921.

, New parasitic, 599.

Phylogeny and Classification of Acti-
nozoa, 581.

of the Antipatharia, 279.

of the Ctenophora, 890.

Phytophthora Fagi, Beech Disease, 923.

Picro-carmine for Cell-nuclei, 138.

Pileus, Spores on the upper side of, in
Hymenomycetes, 314.

Planaria Limuli, 727.

Planariie, Green, Function of Chloro-
phyll in, 161.

Planarians, Laud, 288.

, Marine, 288.

Plants and Animals, Influence of the
different Colours of the Spectrum on,
138.

Plastids of the Lower Plants, 170.

Pleurosigma angulatum, Note on
Abbe's Experiment on, 675.

, Diflraction Experiments

with, 141.

Pneumonia produced by a Filarian
Worm, 425.

Podurclla, Development of, 299.

Poison Ajiparatus and Anal Glands of
Ants, 142.

Glamls of the Centipedes, 57.

of Marsh Fever, 926.

of Serpents, Bacteria in, 189.

Poisoning, Bacteria, in Frogs, Antidote
to, 928.

Poisons. Cardiac, Influence of, on Helix
pomatia, 857.

Polariscope, Adams' Measuring, 774.

Polarizer for the Microscope, 87.

Polarizing Apparatus, Exact Orienta-
tion of the Principal Section of
Nicols in, 74.

Pollen-grain, Division of, in Angio-
sperms, 746.

Pollen-grains, Endophytic Fungi in,
598.

Pollen-tubes, Conducting Tissue for the
passage of, 910.

Polycheks and Amphion, 563.

Polyera bryony, true and false, and its
relation to Parthenogenesis, 444.

Polymorphism of Agarieus melleus, 455.

Polypodiacese, Embryo of some, Or-
ganogenic Researches on, 159.

Polyporus sulfureus, Conidia of, and
their Development, 85.

Polj'siphonia, Formation of Siphons
and Tetraspores in, 932.

Polyxenus lagurus, 296.

Polyzoa, Affinities of, 553.

, Development of, 300.

, Eudoproct, Segmental Organ in,

301.

, New Genus of, 707.

Pompeian Conchology, 861.

Porifera. See Contents, xiv.

Postal Microscopical Society, 180.

Post-embryonic Formation of Appen-
dages in Insects, 55.

Prazmowski's Heliostat, 44.

1006

Precipitates, Pellicle, PeriiK ability "f,

592.
Prehensive Cells in the Ctenophora,

282.
Preparations, Histological, Size of, 329.
Preservation and Preparation of the

Lower Organisms, 462.
Preserving Bacteria, &c., Another

Method of, 464.

Infusoria, &c.. Method of, 331,763.

the more Delicate and Perishable

Animal Tissues, Method of, 461.
President's Address, 113.
Primitive Stripe in the Chick, 395.
Prism, Revolver Immersion, for Sub-
stage Illumination, 32.
Prizes for Life-histories of Entozoa,

878.
, Natural Science, Brussels

Academy, 397.
• , Natural Science, Danish

Academy, 699.
Proboscis of Butterflies, 41.

■ of Diptera, Nerves of, 865.

Proceedings of the Society, 105, 109,

211, 219, 344, 350, 488, 645, 650,

651, 982, 987.
Protein-crystalloids, 306.
Prothallia, Biluteralness of, 917.
, flat, of Ferns, Arrangement of

Cells in, 317.
Prothallium of Salvinia, Development

of, 918.

of Salvinia natans, 753.

Protista,anewGenusof (Gloidium), 179.
Protomyces graminicola, 922.
Protoplasm of Living Protozoa, Gene-
ration of Gas in, 72.
Protozoa. See Contents, xv.
Pteropodii, Two Collections of, 706.
Pulmonates and Worms, Segmentation

in, 877.
Pycnogonida, New and other, 562.

, Observations on, 870.

Pygidia and Cerci of Insects, 252.

R.

Rain and Dew, Absorption of, by the
green parts of Plants, 913.

Rain of Sap, 753.

Rate of Germination of Fungus-spores
and Growth of Mycelium, 599.

Rats' Blood, Flagellated Organisms in,
190.

Ray, Path of. Note on Diagrams
exhibiting the, through Tolles' i- Im-
mersion Objective, 269.

Reagents, Deceptive Appearances pro-
duced by, 191.

Recognition, Mode of, among Ants,
555.

Record of Current Researches relating
to In vertebra ta, Cryptogamia, Micro-
scopy, &c., (41), (137), (272), (395),
545, 692.

Refractive Powers of Animal Tissues,
697.

Removal of Air from Microscopic Spe-
cimens, 150.

Report of the Council presented to the
Annual Meeting, 216.

Representing an Object from Micro-
scopic Sections, Method of, 71.

Reproduction of Cutleriacea;, 605, 934.

ofNoctiluca, 195.

of Ulvaceaj, 186.

Reproductive Organs of Non-parasitic
Copepoda, 875.

of Cycadese, 90S.

of the Marine Ectopara-

sitic Trematoda, 573.

Research, Microscopical, under Diffi-
culties, 145.

Resistance of Germs to a Temperature
of 100° C, 602.

Respiration of Marsh and "Water Plants,
915.

of Plants, 914.

Respiratory Apjjaratus of Ampullaria,
I 706, 857.

Organs, Innervation of, 697.

I of tlie Larva of Culex. 299.

Resting Condition of Vaucberia ge-
minata, 607.

Reticularian Rliizopoda, 276, 897.

Retina and Cerebrum in Arthropoda,
Structure of, 554.

, Mammalian, Isolation of Optic

Nerve Fibres and Ganglion-cells of,
614.

Retrogression and Development of the
Fat-cell, 353.

Review, Lichenological, 761.

Revolver Immersion Prism for Sub-
stage Illumination, 32.

Rezner's Mechanical Finger, 951.

Rhabdopleura, Relations of, 84.

Rhaphiilotheca, On a New Species of
(R. aifiuis), 493.

Rhizopnd, New, Litliamoeba discus, 900.

Rhizopoda, Reticularian, 276.

Rhynchonella, Extension of the Coiled
Arms in, 302.

Ribs and the Transverse Processes,
Development of, 693.

Rice, " Carolo vero " and " Carolo
bianco " of, 600.

Root of Alder, Excrescences on, 929.

of Nuphar advenura, Spiral Cells

in, 752.

of Phanerogams, Growth of, 149.

Rotating Clips for Cheap Microscopes,
623.

INDEX.

1007

Rotifer, a new, Anuraa longisnina,

157
Eotiferous Genus, Peflalion, Is it not

synonymous with Hexarthra? 384,

386.
Rotifers. CEcistes umbella and other, 1.
Royal Society Conversazione, 473.
Roy Microtome, 7t)8.
Roystoii-Pigott, Dr., Further Inquiry

into the Limits of Microscopic Vision,

&c., 9.
Rubin cese, Hot-house, New Diseases of,

572.
Russell, J. C., Description of a new

Form of Cnmera Lucida, 2.t
Russia, Northern, Protozoa of, 276.
Rutiey's Petrological Microscope, 470.

Sac, Embryonal, Development of, 305.
Sagitella (Wagner), 425.
Salpidffl, Development of, 551.
Salvinia natans, Prothallium of, 753.
— — , Development of the Prothallium

of, 918.
8ap, Ascent and Circulation of, 147.

, Rain of, 753.

Scale of a Species of the Genus Mormo,

Structure of, 810.
Scales of the Lepidoptera, 866.
Schizseaceaj, Germination of, 451.
Schobl's Dissecting Microscope, 956.
Schwendenerian hypothesis and Vitri-

cole Lichens, 929.
Sclerotia, Development of, 758.
Sclerotiiim Oryzaj, 600.
Scolopendra, New, 712.
Screw, Society, and Slides, Size of, 163.
Scum, Floating Algae forming, on the

Surface of Water, 310.
Searching for Trichinas, 465.
Sea^^onal Dimorphism in Lepidoptera,

298.
Sea-water Aquaria, Aerating Appa-
ratus of, Improvement in, 326.
Section - cutting Machine, Matthews',

957.
Sections, Microscopic, Employment of

Wet Collodion for, 460.
■ , Method of representing an

Object from, 71.
, New Method of preparing a

Dissected Model of an Insect's Brain,

from, 84.
Segmental Organ in the Endoproct

P.dyzoa, 301.
Organs and Borly-eavity of the

Sedentary Annelids, 731.

of the Capitfllidaj, 733.

Segmentation in "Worms and Pulmo-

natcs, 877.

Segmentation of Ovum in Helix aspersa,

405, 854.
Seller's IMeclianical Microtome, 328.

Staining Processes. 613.

Seminal Integuments of Gymnosperms,

911.
Sense-organs of Insects, 865.

, New (Auditory), in Insects,

45.
Serpents, Poison of, Bacteria in,

189.
Serpula, Gills of, 570.
Sexes, Dissimilar, Butterflies with,,867.
Sexuality of the Ascomycctes, 454?
Sexual Organs, Abnormal, in the Horse-
Leech, 156.

of Teleostei, 6;)4.

Process in Diatoms, 93.

Products in Hydroids, Origin of,

66.
Sliell of the Egg, Fungi found within,

315.
Shells, Land, of Californian and Mexi-
can Islands, 861.

of the Cephalopoda in relation to

the Body of their Constructor, 703.
Shoot, first vegetative, of Equisetum

{laliistre. Production of, 597.
Shrew, Tape-worm of. Life-history of,

575.
Silkworm, Development of, 409.

, Spinning Glands of, 297.

Siphoneaj, Verticillate, Fossil Algae be-
longing to, 936.
Siphoiiocladaceaj, a new Group of green

AlgjB, 606.
Siphonophora, Deep-sea, 278, 432.
Siphons and Tetiaspores in Polysi-

phonin, Formation of, 932.
Size of Histological Preparations, 329.

of Society Screw and of Slides,

163.
Skeleton of the Alcyonaria, 279.

of the Asteriada;, 428.

Skin, Connective-Tissue Bundles of,

Method of Isolating, 323.
Slack, H. J., the President's Address,

113.
Slides, Microscopical, of Lichens, 604.

, Size of Society Screw and, 163.

Slide, Weber, 55.

Smith's (Hamilton) " Universal Aper-

tometer," 775.
Snare of Basilica Spider, 559.
Soap as an EmbLdding Substance, 940.
Societies, " Microscopical," and " Mi-
croscopy," 329.
Society, Female Microscopical, 472.

, Postal Microscopical, 180.

Soda, Assimilation of. by Plants, 443.
Solenophorus megalocephalus, Excre-
tory Apparatus of, 284.

3 X

1008

Solenopus, Organization of, 550, 706.

SoUas, W. J., Observations on Dactj'-
localyx pumiceus (Stutchbury), &c.,
122.

Sorby, Dr., at Cambridge, 619.

Sorby's New Micro-spectroscope, 81.

Spaces, Intercellular, Relationship of,
to Vessels, 912.

Spectrum, different Colours of, Influ-
ence of, on Animals and Plants, 138.

, diflerent Colours of. Influence of,

on Animals, 273.

, Soliir, different Colours of. Influ-
ence on Infusoria, 900.

Spermatophores of and Hermaphrodit-
ism in the Nephropneustous Gastero-
poda, 304.

of the Earth-worm, 730.

Spermatozoa of the Trout, Vitality of,
84i.

Sperm-formation in Spongilla, 73.

Sphseria, Subgenus of, Sporormia, 600.

Sphfcriacese, New Genus of, 759.

Spherical Correction, New Methods for
Improving, 812.

Spiculation of an unknown Sponge,
500.

Spicules, Sponge, 177.

Spider, Basilica, and her Snare, 559.

Spiders, Aeronautic Flight of, 561.

■ , Developmental History of, 294.

, Natural Classification of, 293.

, Pairing of, 870.

Spinal Ganglia and Dorsal Medulla of
Petromyzon, 851.

Spines of a Braeliiopod, Barbed Hook-
lets on, 553.

of Echini, 171.

Spinning Glands of the Silkworm,
297.

Spiral Cells in the Root of Nuphar ad-
venum, 752.

Sponge, Borings of, in Marble, 82.

, Excavating (Alectona Millari),

493.

, Parasitism of a Coral on, 96.

Spicules, 177.

, unknown, Spiculation of, 500.

Spongelia, Structure of, 436.

Sponges, a Hydro id inhabiting (Spongi-
cola fistularis), 431.

■ , Horny, Development of, 897.

Spongicola fistularis, a Hydroid inhabi-
ting Sponges, 431.

Spongilla, Morphology and Systematic
Position of, 177.

Spongilla, Sperm-formation in, 73.

fluviatilis. Development of, 174.

Spongiological Studies, 894.

Spores, Fern, Germination of, 916.

, Mobile, Influence of Light on the

Movements of, 447.

Spores of Fungi, Change of Colour in,
315.

of Volvox dioicus, Germination of,

95.

on the upper side of the Pileus

in Hymenomycetes, 314.
Sporormia, a Subgenus of Sphseria,

600.
Stage, Contrivance for Holding Objects
beneath, 466, 624.

Illuminator, Immersion, 837.

, Thin, 465.

Staining, another Method of, 163.

, Cochineal for, 43.

Fluids for Vegetable Tissues, 942.

for Fungi, 170.

Material, Orchella as, 59.

Method, Brosicke's, 764.

Processes, Seller's, 613.

Solution, Logwood, 940.

Staining-fluids, 612.
Stalactites, Fungi of, 316.
Standard Micrometers, 332, 349.
Starch, Modifications which it under-
goes from a Physical Point of View,
752.
Starch-transforming Ferments, 595.

, New Genus of, 283.

Starfishes, " Comet-forms " of, 576.
Stein's ' Organismus der Infusions-

thiere,' 590.
Stentors, Organs of Attachment of, 83.
Stephenson, J. W., A Catoptric Im-
mersion Illuminator, 36.
, Note on Homogeneous-Immer-
sion Object-glasses, 490.

, Table of Numerical Apertures,

839.

, the Vertical Illuminator and

Homogeneous-Immersion Objectives,
266.
! Stephenson's System of Homogeneous
j Immersion for Microscope Objectives,
i 256.

i Stolterfoth, H., on a new Species of
j the Genus Eucampia, 835.
; Stripe, Primitive, in the Chick, 395.
' Strychnine, Action of, on Gastero-
podous Molluscs, 705.
Subalpine Desmiciie£e, 607.
Submersion, Effects of, on Aerial
Leaves, and of Water on Floating
Leaves, 750.
Sub-stage Illumination, Revolver Im-
mersion Prism for, 32.
Sucking Plate of Dytiscus, 300.
j Sugar - refining Gum, Leuconostoc

mesenteroides, 928.
I Support for the Head in Drawing with
the Camera Lucida, 187.
Swarmspores of Chroolepus, Conjuga-
tion of, 601.

1009

Swarmspores (Zoospores), Action of

Light aud Heat on, 307.
Swinging Tailpiece, Microscopes with,

320.
Symbiosis, 594.

Table, Electrical Mounting, 469.

of Numerical Apertures, 839.

Tseniadae, Anatomy and Embryogeny
of, 285.

Tsenise, Development and Metamor-
phoses of, 162, 878.

Ta;nia, New Species of, 722.

Tailpiece, Microscopes with Swinging,
320.

Tannin in Vegetable Cells, 595.

Tape-worm of the Shrew, Life-history
of, 575.

Tarantulida, New Division of, 869.

Teleostei, Sexual Organs of, 694.

Temperature of 100° C, Resistance of
Germs to, 602.

Tendra zostericola, Embryology of, 707.

Termination of the Visceral Arterioles
in Mollusca, 164.

Terrestrial Diatoms. 762.

Test Objects, Use and Abuse of
Diatoms as, 183.

Tetrapteron volitans, 172.

Tetraspores and Antheridia of Griffith-
sia setacea, Development of, 934.

and Siphons in Polysiphonia,

Formation of, 932. *

Thallophytes, New Classification of,
166.

Thallus of the Diatomacese, 38, 608.

Thin Stages, 465.

Tlireads, Mucous, of Limax, 304.

Thuret and Bornet's ' Phycological
Studies,' 311.

Tintinnus semiciliatus, a new Infusor,
587.

Tissue, Conducting, for tlie passage of
Pollen-tubes, 910.

, Connective, 694.

Tissues, Animal, Delicate and Perish-
able, Method of Preserving, 461.

, Refractive Powers of, 697.

, Cellular, and Air-sacs of Birds,

Acarina found parasitic in, 415.

of Plants, Fermentation in, 442.

, Vegetable, Morphology of, 801.

, Staining Fluids for, 942.

Toilet Habits of Ants, 556.

ToUes, R. B., an Illuminating Traverse-
lens, 388.

Tolles' i Immersion Objective, Note on
Diagrams exhibiting the Path of a
Ray tlirough, 269.

^i_ Objective, 951.

Tomopteridse, the, 155.

Tongue, Nature of the Fur on, 756.

Tooth Forms, Mechanical Genesis of,

696.
Toxic Effects, Injection of Bacteria into

tiie Blood without, 760.
Tracheal System of Glomeris, 414.
Transverse Processes and Ribs,

Development of, 693.
Travelling Microscope, Zeiss's, 955.
Traverse-lens, an Illuminating, 388.
Treasurer's Accounts for 1878, 218.
Trematod, Marine Ectoparasitic, Re-
productive Organs of, 573.
Trematoda, Monogenetic, Classification

of, 728.
Trematodes, Entoparasitic Marine, 728.
Trichina3, 159.

, Searching for, 465.

Trichina-phobia at Berlin, 159.
Trichinosis in a Young Hippopotamus,

571.
Trilobites and Limuli, 874.
Triton, Nuclei of the Blood-corpuscles

of, 272.
Trout, Vitality of the Spermatozoa of,

844.
Tubes in the Nostoc-colonies iu Blasia,

Origin of, 598.
Tubuiaria mesembryanthemum, 585.
Tunicata, New, 407.

, Power of Locomotion in, 302.

Turbellaria, Notes on, 723.
Turbellarian, New, 286.

Worms of Norway, Jensen's, 573.

Turbcllarians, Fresh-water, Digestive

Organs of, 287.
Turntables, Improved, 617.
, Mechanical, 616.

U.

Ulvacese, Reproduction of, 186.

Unionida^, Foot of, 303.

Unit of Micrometry, 154, 221, 332, 488,

620, 947.
" Universal Apertometer," Hamilton

Smith's, 775.
Uredinese, Specific Differences among,

759.
Urocystis Cepulse, Onion-smut, 921.
Ustilaginea;, Neovossia, a new Genus

of, 760.

V.

Value, Scientific, of Microscopic Pre-
parations, 943.

Vascular Cryptogams. See Contents,
xvii.

Vaucheria geminata. Resting Condition
of, 607.

, Parasitism of Notommata on, 291.

3x2

1010

Vauclieria, Tubes of, Parasitism of
Notomiuata Werneckii in, 530.

Vegetable Cells, Tannin in, 595.

Kingdom, new Classification of,

90.

IMatter, Structure of, Method of

Studying, 465.

■ Tissues, Staining Fluids for, 942.

, Morphology of, 801.

Vegetation, Influence of Electricity on,
912.

Venomous Caterpillars, 411.

Vermes. See Contents, xii.

Vertebrata, Embryology and Histology
of. See Contents, vii.

Vertical lUnniinator, 194.

and Homogeneous-Immer-
sion Objectives, 266.

Vespa maculata, Habits and Intelli-
gence of, 559.

Vessels, Functions of, 596.

, Malpighian, of Insects, 60

Relationship of Intercellular
to, 912.

Vine, Anthracnose of, 758.

Fungi, 920.

Parasites, two new, 601.

Visceral Arterioles in Mollusca, Ter-
mination of, 164.

Vision, Fraunhofer's Ojitical Law of,
delusive Application of, &c., 9.

, Microscopic, Further Inquiry into

the Limits of, &c., 9.

Visual Organs in Arachnida, Degene-
ration of, 146.

Vital Phenomena, Cells and their, 137.

Vitality of the Spermatozoa of the
Trout, 844.

Vitricole Lichens and the Schwen-
derian hypothesis, 929.

Voluta musica, Animal of, 706.

Volvocinea3, Systematic Position of,
609.

Volvox dioicus. Germination of the
Spores of, 95.

globator. Method of Cultivating,

939.

VorticellaB and Acinetae, 438.

W.

Walls, Black Mildew of, 459.

Ward's Improved Microtome, 957.

Micro-spectroscope, 106.

Warmth, Light, and Moisture, Influ-
ence of, on the Opening and Closing of
the Anthers of Bulbocodium vernum,
915.

Warm Water, Eggs put to incubate in,
Evolution of Embryo in, 696.

Water, Absorption of, by the Lamina of

Leaves, 750.
and Marsh Plants, Respiration

of, 915.
, Berlin, Crenothrix polyspora, the

cause of the Unwholesomeness of,

925.
, Branches dipped in, Decrease of

Power of Absorption in, 913.
, Effects of, on Floating Leaves, and

of Submersion on Aerial Leaves, 750.
, Surface of. Floating Algse form-
ing Scum on, 310.
Water-pores, 913.
Waters, A. W., on the Occurrence of

recent Heteropora, 390.
Weber Slide. 55.
Wenham, Mr., Note on his Paper " On

the Measurement of the Angle of

Aperture of Objectives," 270.
Wenham, F. H. Reply to Professor

Keith's Note, 271.
, Note on Angle of Aperture of

Objectives, 983.
, Note on Homogen* ous-Immer-

sion Object-glasses, 394, 489.
Wet Collodion, Employment of, for

Microscopic Sections, 460.
White Sea, Algje of, 173.
Wiiie-angled Object-glasses, Improving

Splierical Correction in, 812.

Objectives, "Penetration" of, 322.

Woodward, J. J., Note on Abbe's Ex-
periment on Pleurosigma angulatum,

675.
, Observations suggested by the

Study of Amphipleura pellucida,

mounted in Canada Balsam, by

Lamplight and Sunlight, with

various Objectives, 663.
, on tlie Oil-Immersion Objectives

and theApertometer, 140.
Woodward's Apertometer, 781.

Oblique Illuminator, 769.

Worm, Filarian, Pneumonia produced

by, 425.
Worms and Pulmonates, Segmentation
in, 877.

, Jensen's Turbellarian, of Norway,

573.

Zeiss's j\ Objective, 958.

Travelling Microscope, 955.

Zoantharia malacodermata of the
Coasts of Marseilles, 892.

Zoospores, Action of Light and Heat
on, 307.

Zostera marina. True Mode of Fecun-
dation of, 908.

LONDON: I'KIKTED BT WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFOKI) STREET AND CUAKING CEOSS.

DIEECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

(1) Pages 653-6, signature 2 a;*, are in substitution for the same page,

signature 2 x, and the last are to be cancelled, where not already
done.

(2) Pages 210* and 210§§ are to be placed after page 210.

THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

(Founded in 1839. Incorporated by Eoyal Charter in 1866.)

The Society was established for the communication and discussion
of observations and discoveries (1) tending to improvements in the con-
struction and mode of application of the Microscope, or (2) relating to
Biological or other subjects of Microscopical Research.

It consists of Ordinary, Honorary, and Ex-officio Fellows.

Ordinary Fellows are elected on a Certificate of Recommendation
signed by three Fellows, stating the names, residence, description, &c., of
the Candidate, of whom one of the proposers must have personal know-
ledge. The Certificate is read at a Monthly Meeting, and the Candidate
balloted for at the succeeding Meeting.

The Annual Subscription is 2Z. 2s., payable in advance on election,
and subsequently on 1st January annually, with an Entrance lee of 2Z, 2s.
Future payments of the former may be compounded for at any time for
311. 10s. Fellows elected in October, November, or December are not
called upon for a subscription during the succeeding year, and Fellows
absent from the United Kingdom for a year, or permanently residing
abroad, are exempt from one-half the subscription during absence.

Honorary Fellows (limited to 50), consisting of persons eminent
in Biological or Microscopical Science, are elected on the recommendation
of three Fellows and the approval of the Council.

Ex-officio Fellows (limited to 100) consist of the Presidents for
the time being of such Societies at home and abroad as the Council may
recommend and a Monthly Meeting approve. They are entitled to receive
the Society's Publications, and to exercise all other privileges of Fellows,
except voting, but are not required to pay any Entrance Fee or Annual
Subscription.

The Council, by whom the affairs of the Society are managed, is
elected annually, and is composed of the President, four Vice-Presidents,
Treasurer, two Secretaries, and twelve other Fellows.

The Meetings are held on the second Wednesday in each month,
from October to June, in the Society's Library at King's Collej^e, Strand,
W.C. (commencing at 8 p.m.). Visitors are admitted by the introduction of
Fellows.

In each Session two additional evenings ("Scientific Evenings") are
devoted to the exhibition of Apparatus and Objects of novelty or interest
relating to the Microscope or the subjects of Microscopical Research.

The Journal, containing the Transactions and Proceedings of the
Society, with a Record of Current Researches relating to In^ jrtebrata,
Cryptogamia, Microscopy, &c., is published bi-monthly, and is forwarded
gratis to all Fellows residing in countries within the Postal Union.

The Liibrary, with the Instruments, Apparatus, and Cabinet of
Objects, is open for the use of Fellows on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thur-^days,
and Fridays, from 11 a.m. to 4 p.m., and on Wednesdays from 7 to 10 p.m.
It is closed during August.

Forms of proposal for Fellowship, and any further information, may he obtained by
application to the Secretaries, or Assistant-Secretary, at the Library of the Society, King's
College, Strand, W.C.

3 5185 00266 7838

r, .^x

nM'M^*^'!

■^^. vc.,j-^^ :■...*:

-":*:^/i-t

^-^ .-i ^

.' •»!>

•At--:,.

♦ ^^'#-^^^-^^^-

■> ■^-:' . ^^

■^•^ :^:^*l

rv^: . - '

■il

M._^.M-..h

*-»•>?>*•

*i.- »^ «^ -^ *^ v' i_ '^*'

*:■*■■*:*■;*'■'>

**t*

*^ir:jii: «

**.^

■.*»*»' ^ a

»>.'■■

»»»^»:.»: *i^^^^ ^

I;- 1^

'^^:-- ,-..'--^^ . ._,- „

■ ■i.A

*^'!J:«»>-

t-;:i^.^^:»

*-.^*:§

• .91 % #: '